Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
University of Nigeria Research Publications
CHIDOBI, Roseline Unoma A
utho
r
PG /Ph.D/96/23240
Title
The Relationship Between Time Management And Administrative Stress in Enugu State Secondary
Schools
Facu
lty
Education
Dep
artm
ent
Education
Dat
e
July, 2004
Sign
atur
e
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME h4ANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATIVE STRESS IN ENUGU STATE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
CHIDOBI, ROSELINE UNOh4A REG. No: PG/Ph.D/96/23240
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
JULY 2004
d
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME VANAGEMENT
AND ADMINISTRATIVE STRESS IN ENUGU STATE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE I
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PH.D) (EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING)
CHIDOBi 30SELINE UNOiWA
REG. NO: PG/Ph.D /96/23240
JULY 2004.
11.
APPROVAL PAGE
THIS THESIS HAS BEEN APPROVED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, UNIVERSTY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA.
EXTERNAL EXAMINER HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
CERTIFICATION -
Chidobi Roseline U., a postgraduate doctoral student in the
Department of Educational Foundations with registration number
PG/'Ph.D/96/23240 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Administration and
Planning. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been
submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree or other
university.
Candida tc Rev. Fr. Prof. A. U. Akubue (Supervisor)
DEDICATION
This work i s dedicated to my hushand Rasil; and my,
children: Chiorna, Somtochukwu, Chulwunwikem and
Chinelo.
To the glory of the Almighty God, the researcher wishes to express
her sincere gratitude to her supervisor Prof', Rev. Fr. A. U. Akubue for his
guidance throughout the period of this work in spite of his busy schedule,
he still found time to discuss' and offer useful suggestions for the
improvement of this work. The researcher aIso wishes to thank Dr. Ezeudu
and Dr. (Mrs.) A. Oboegbulam for reading and streamlining the work at
the paoposa! stage. To Dr. T. MgbodiIe Dr. Eric Nwagu, Dr. (Mrs.) U.
Umo, the researcher is gratefbl for their contribution during the validation
of the instrun~ents used for this work she also wishes to express her
appreciation 0 Dr. 0. Abonyi for this assistance during the
computerization and analysis of the research data. Also worth to be
remembered are Dr. D. Enyi, Dr. B. Owe, Dr. Z. Njoku and Dr. U.
Nzewi, for thck wonderful corrections during scminai-. To all lecturers in
the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka who contributed to
the success of this work, the researcher is most grateful. The researcher
appreciates the e n c m r a g e m t ~ t and moral support given to her by brothers:
Jerry, Mathew, Christian and sister juiiann throughout the period of the
Finally, mention must be made on the moral support of the ,
following peopIe Dr. M. Uzo, my principal Mrs. C. Okwu, Mrs. F, Iyiegbu
Dr. E. Adinna, Dr. J. Chianu, Mr. A. Chianu, Mr. L. Chidobi, my niece
IsabeIla Onuorah, Dr. G. Obodo and Dr. J. Ezeude, may the God Lord
bless you.
UNOMA CHIDOBI
JULY 2004.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE.. . .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . ,.. ... . .. . . . ... ... . .. . .. ... .. . . . . . . . . . . ... ... i
. . APPROVAL' PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
. . * CERTIFICATION . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .vi
ABSTRACT.. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . ,ix
,CHAPTER ORE 1.t'VTROD UCTIUN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background of the Study.., . . . ... . . . .... .. ... .,. ... . .. . .. . .. ... ... .. . . .. ... .. . I
Statement of the Problem ... , .. ... ... ... .. . .. . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . ..... ...., 7
Purpose of the Study.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ..... . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . ... 8
Significance of the Study.. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , . . . -9
Scope of the Study ... . . . . . . ...... .. . .. . ... . . . . . . ... . . . .., . . .... . . . . . . ... . . . ... 10
Research Questions.. . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -10
Hypotheses.. . . , . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ...... . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . -11
CHAPTER TWO: RE WE W OFLITERA TURE
Stress: Meaning And General Symptoms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 12
Facet A- Duration of Demand.. . . ., . . . . . . . . . .:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 20
Facet B- Type of Demand.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 20
PacetC-SourceofDemand..,.., ...... , ........ ,..,., ....,. , ..... , .... ,. 21
Facet D . International Context ............................................
............................................ Facet E- Aspect of Resource
.................................. Individuals Differences And Stress:
........................................ Consequences Of Executive Stress
.................................................. Ma.jor Causes Of Stress
.................................. Management Of Stress In Education
................................... Time Management: An Overview
Strategies For Effective Time Management .......................
...................................... Empirical Studies of Stress
Related Research Studies on time Management ..................
Gender Location and Size of the School ..............................
School Location ............................................................
Size of School ................................................................
Summary Of Literature Review ............................................
ICliAPTER THREE: RESE4RCH MEISHOD
Design of tkc Study ...........................................................
~ r e a Of the Study .............................................................
Population ..................................................................
..................................................................... Snmple
Instrurncnt for Data Collection ..........................................
Validity of the Instrument ........................................... .. Reliability of the Instmmnt ............................................
....... Method of Data Collection .................................. I.
of The Administrative Time Management Self Report
....................................... Using The Cronbach Alpha
Appendix 1IV: Test of Internal Consistency of ASAS Using the
.................................................... Cronbach Alpha (a). 109
ABSTRACT
This study was designed to investigate the relationship between time
management and administrative stress in Enugu State Secondary School.
Specifically the study explored the level of stress experienced by
secondary school principals, the time management pxtices of secondary
school principals and the relationship ktween time management and
stress, principals' time management practices nnd level of stress in terms
of gender, location, and school size. ' h e study employcd a correlation
survey research design, The study subjects comprised of all the 262
secondary school principals in Enugu State. Nine research questions and
seven null hyp~theses guided the study. Data for the study was collected I
usirLg Administrative Time Ivkagernent and Self Report (ATMSR) and
Administrative Stress Report Assessment Scale (ASAS), Data collected
with these instruments were analyzed both descriptively and inferentially
using mcan, standard deviation, t- test of significance of correlation
coefficience and t- test of difference between means of independent
samples. The rtwdts reveal that secondary school principals in Enr~gu State
generally exhibit poor time n~anagement practices. In addition i t was
revealed that fcrnale principals manage their time better than the male
principals. The study also revealed that principals of small schools exhibit
better time marmgcrnent strategies than those: in big schools. Secondary
school principals in Enugu State generally experience high level of stress.
The level of stress in male principals is higher than those of their female
counterparts. In addition, the study showed that principals of big schools
experience more stress than those in small schools. The study further
rcvealed that there is a sign'ficanr negative relationship beitween time
management and administrative stress in secondary school administration.
Based on thcsc tlndings the researcher recornmcnds that Government
should organize a workshop for s c h ~ F principals m time management and
stress management in school administration. Effective counseling and
psychological services should be made available to principals ro help them
cope with stress. Male principal should try to practice time management
strategy of delegation, which will ease off congestion and reduce stress ,
like their female counterparts do. Principals should strive to practice time
management strategies so as to enable them finish their work on time and
reduce administrative stress. Large schools (thickly populated schools)
should bc shared among two or more principals to enable them cope.
CHAPTER ONE
rNTRODIICTrON
Background of the Study
Stress has been conceptualized from an array of perspectives. It has
been conceived from a generalized, t heo~ t ka l and pathological
pcrspect ive (Schulcr, I 980 S hirom 1882, Moorhead and GrifEn 1997).
Viewed from a generalized perspective., Moorhead and Griffin (1997)
conceived stress as a person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places
excessive psychological or physical dcimnds on the person. Alrhough the
responses are usually non-specific, they embody the psychological,
physiological and behavioural, which are triggered off by discrepancy
between the demands made on our sub-jective assessment of our
capabilities to meet the demands or challenges of the demand. From a
theoretical perspective, stress was conceived from the integrative
transactio~lal perspective (Schuler I980), the facet. Analytical point of
view (Mowhead and Griffin 1997) and the person - Environment Fit
Approach ( S h i t ~ m 1980). The inte,@ative transactional perspective
conceives stress as a non-linear but reciproca! relationship between an
individual and his envimnment (ScRuFer, 1982). According to this model,
an individua! experiences stress from his perception of rk environment
with his own set of unique skills, needs and characteristics. This model
accepts the fact that stress originates from an individual's role in an
organization such as role ambiguity, role ~mf l k t and work overload, and
chat within each role category there are environmental stressom, which are
functions of job qualities, interpersonal relationships, organizational
structure and career development change. On the ather hand, facet
anaIytIca1 model conceives stress as an interaction of different elements of
facet such as duration of demand, type of demand, sources of demand,
interaction contcxt, a$ptct of resources, type of resources and the range of
- respcmsc. From the person - Environment Fit Perspective Shirom ( l9a t )
argues that a mismatch between the characteristics of the person and the
envir~mncnt rmy be associated with the psychological or physiological
strain, This ~nocPel rcsts on the general asst~mption that the more congruent
the characteristics of the person and of the environment in which he is
employcd, the triore favourable the work related outcomes for the person.
Finally, stress is conceptualized f r m a patl~dogical perspective as a load,
h r c e or system of fofces producing a strain or any stimulus as fear, or pain
thnt disturbs or interferes with the nomal physiological equilibrium of an
organism (Webster, 1980).
From the above, conceptualization, it can be readily deduced that
stress ocyurs when k r e are demands on an individual, which tax or
exceeds the person's sdjus?ive rcsources. Within the school system, the
school administraitor is confronted w!!b a number ~f administrative tasks,
which obviously impose dcrnands on the administratoffibadjustivc
resources. The school administrator is f a x d with the task of coordinating
and cont ro lhg many and often c~nflicting social energies within the
sciml system so adroitly that they operate as a whole (Ezeocha, 1985).
According do Okpala (1990), administration involves the careful and
systematic anmgtment and use of resources (human and material),
situation and opportunities for the achievement of the specific objectives of
a given organization. It has a Iot to do with the installation and carrying out
of procedures by which programmes, plans and targets are laid down,
communicated and the progress of activities regulated and checked against
them In Sum, school administration is concerned with thc performance of
exccutivc duties, the carrying out of policies and decisions to fulfil! a
purpose and the controlling of the day-to -day ninning of ;the school.
A school administrator is, therefore, saddled with a number of
administrative tasks. This includcs pupil personnel management, staff
personnel rnamgeir,en~, schml co~nmunity programmes, curriculum and
instnrcrional development, school f?nance nnd business management,
sellool plant and other gcnersl: tasks which ranges from administration of
school extra curricular activities ra other inter- personal issues (Ezeocha,
198s).
Wid> the current population cxplasion in s c h ~ t s in Enugu State
coupled with dwindling resources and scarcity of' personnel in the school
systcm, rhe school aCmrfiistrators find themselves handling a number of
problems at the same time (Ocho, 1997). The peculiarity of executive life
experiences among schoal adminisrrators is that their daily activities are
usually fuUy packed with pursuit of administrative chores as they struggle
to errsure the achievetnent of the goals of the school system and their
personal vision (Nweze, 1995). According to him while the normal
working hours are scheduled for eight hours a day and forty hours a week,
the school executive usually spends about 70 - 80 hours a week attending
to duties related to his leadership of the institution or organization. I n
addition to working more than double the nonnal hours of work, their time
is usurtlly pre-occupied with travelling, attending meetings and conferences
2nd more in~portantly keeping pace with the rapidity and requirements of
hard, costly and risky decisions and policies. While they are weighed down
by their administrative responsibilities, they cannot shy away from their
Family rind other domestic responsibilities. All thesc combine to produce a
cumulative strain, which marginally taxes the individual's adjustive
resourem. The consequence, according to Ezeilo (1989) is stress and
bcrnou t . The prcvalcnce of stress and executive burnout among school
administrators have dominated current literature on stress. Nweze (1 995)
rightfiilly p inred out that the stress in executives is-enhanced by the
continuous exposure to anxiety, fear and tensions associated with
administrative policies and ciecisions. To these are added the fn~stration,
disappointment and stress deriving from other environmenbl situations
(Nweze, 1995). This may invariably lead to depktion of body energy, over
activation, depletion of body immunity with its associated pathologies,
devclopmcnt of burnout behsviours.
Stress as a feeling is a direct consequence of personal attributes and
dispositions as they affect the Individual's reactions to personal life
experiences, Crawford (1W9) speculated that effective time management t
among inctivid~al administrators mfght be beneficial in reducing
administrative bottlenecks and psychological and physidogical 1 consequences.
Time management according tu Anyakaha and E l w a (1991) is the
process of planning, organizing, implementing and evaluating the use of
time in order to accomplish or perkinn certain tasks or duties. It involves
grouping the demands being ma& into key areas so that they make sense
~ n d further requires concentrating priorities so that nttention is focused
on f x e r demands. According to Nweze (19951, the key to egective time
management is proper ordering, of our values, goals and objectives and
spending time on those commanding our priority.
Time, according to Lewis (1991) represents the ultimate energy
crisis as a resource. I t can neither be expanded nor contracted and its
cffectivc management is a pre-condition for any other form of effective
management. Timc management stems from the fact that there is nothing
certain as the passing of the time. This, according to Emetomrn (1997) is
particularly crucial for educational adminis~rator especially in managing
the office, The ducatimal administrator faces the problern of allocating
time to his numzrclug tasks. For instance, the administrator must attend to
parents, staff and students who come to R i m with problem. He will have to
supervise staff' and students, keep performance records of individuals,
groups and the entire systems. In addition, it is expected of the
administrator to plan the financiai, material and human resources of the
system. make decisions, conduct meetings, write and read memos, make
and receive tclephow calls, as well as attend to drop-in-visitors,
While he battles with all these official responsibilities, he is still in
no way spared of domestic task and responsibilities. As such, he is
challen_red with the task of managing the available time to maximize
administrative and domestic outputs. Nweze (1 995) argucd that the extent
to which an administrator experiences administrative stress depends to a
grcat extent, on his time management strategies like time scheduling,
dekgation, avoidance of procrastination and interruption control etc.
There is also the chances for all the above acthidifferently for male
and female ndrninistratdrs. Roberts (1996) studied the various role of
gender on stress nnd discovered that certain personal orientation, thinking
styles or personality characteristics that are the major attribute of sex
directly and independently lead to distress. He equally discovered that
f e n d e s have gencral tendencies to think in negative ways about the task in
which they engage and that this predisposition can influence their
satisfaction regardless of The objective qualities of these tasks. On the other
hand, women wing to various duties they are involved in !ike family
commitment in conjunction with their administrative tasks may experience
stress morc than ekir mare countergart. Stress in male administrators may
be attributed to sex rolc. Also considering the fact that there are male and
female principals and bearing in mind the diversity af the role
responsibility m o s s the ~ V O gender categories it is worth speculating that
their time mafi~gement practices may vary and also the extent to which
they cxpericnce stress,
Akubue (1997) classified scho~ls into two types. Type A are
schools and principals located in urban communities while Type 8 are
scl~oo!s and principals located in rural areas. There is the speculation that
because urhan and rural settings exhibit different sociological and
demographic: characteristics, it is likely that the prEncipaIs in ruban and
rural schools experience different time demands. For example principal in
the urban areas have to deal with a "faceless community", heterogeneous
in nature, a community with no direct commitment to the school except
thost: who Rave their children in such schools. At the same time, principals
in the urban areas may have tou many students, teachers, supervisors
visiting incessantly from the Post Primary SGhooI Management Board and
they may experience stress in diflerent forms whilc those from rural
schools may be faced with an entirely different types of problem. This
distinction according to Akubue (1997: 260) makes one appreciate the fact
that some principals Rave much more credit loads to carry than others and
more problcrns to handle than their counterparts on issues associated with
role exjmt;~tions". As a result of this, therefore, it will be worthwhile to
investigate the stress as it relates to principals in urban and rural settings.
In line with the above, it is obvious that there will be variation in
the timc management practices of large and small-populated schools.
Principals of large schools do have a Iot to do, because as the number of
students increase that of the teachers increase too, other probferns
essocinted with administrative chores are on the high side, thereby making
thc principal concerned to be pmne to more strcss.
Nweze (1995) argued that the extent to which an administrator
experiences administrative stress depends to a great extent on his lime
management potentials. ATthough he presented a logical argument to back
arp his proposition, but it is necessaly to empirically ascertain the exact
relationship between time management nnd administrative strcss. Infact, n
detailed analysis of the relationship bchveen time management and
administrative stress will have good implication for effective school
administration.
Statement of Problem
b Thc increasing rate of administrative stress among school
administrators in Enugu State together with the associated psychological
and pathological manifestations are issues of great concern in the
education industry. While lthc emphasis has been on the pcrsonal well
being of the individual school administrators, the obvi&s consequences on
administrarive e f f~ t iveness and genera7 school break down need not to be
ignored. In fact, the current administrative lapses in schools in Enugu State
typified by poor personnel conduct, lack of contra1 a d poor organization
which marrifcst in general poor academic achievement of student have
been attributed to stress among thc school principal in Enugu State.
Principals in the state have been repofled to exhibit a number. of stress
symptoms, which rangc from physicit1 to psychologiccll anomalies, This
has implications for job performance. It has k e n discovered that stress
experienced by school principals arc also linked with their time
management strategies and abilities. Although, st~rdies cm stress and stress
management arc quite pronounced, availabk literature sccrns to have
negIeeted issues pertaining to time management among principals nnd its
relationship on ndministrative stress.
Time management and stress issues are prominent within the
adrninisfrative circles but most of the argments are based on specuhions.
JIMe the argument on the use of time management in administrat ivc stress
control need mot be neglected, the proponents sf effective time
management as a stress control measure are challenged with the task of
establishing the relationship between the two variables, As s response to
this challenge, this study is faced with the problem of establishing the
rekdonship between time management and administrative stress among
school administrators or principals.
Purpose of the Strrdy
The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship behveen
time management and administrative stress among secondary school
principals in Enugu State. Specifically this study seeks to examine thus:
1. Level ~f stress experienced by secondary school prIncipaIs.
2. Secondary school principals' practices of time management
strategies
3. Relalionship between time management and administrative stress
among secondary school principals.
4. Time management practices of secondary schooI principals of
urban and rural; and large and small school.
5 . Time management practices of secondary schod male and
female principals.
6 . Levcl of stress experience by male and female principals
7. Level of stress experienced by mraI and urban; and large and
small schco!~.
Significance of the Study
Tile predominance of administrative stress among school
administrators has bcen an issue of primary concern to educationists. The
devastating effect of stress on the personal well being of individuals and its
inlerference in the administrative process has led to efforts towards better
understanding of stress and the iden~ification of stress remedy among
sccondary school administrators or prin~ipals.
The study provides an empirical based information on which time
managenlent as a stress control measure wilI be tied with such revelation, it
is cxpected that principal wilI improve their management of time which
will consequentIy minimize stress and enhance administrative
effectiveness.
'me study helps the principals in the state to determine the level of
stress they experienced, their practice of h c management strategies, and
providc cmcrete information ta t k principals on the extcnt to which they
have been able to manage their time, as such guide them in the adjustment
of their time management stsategics.
The study is not only significant to the principals 'but also l o the
students, thc gaJcrnrnent and the nation at large. Thispis because since it
has been discovered that there is relationship between time management
and s t m s , prirxipals as a result wit1 be frec of stress and have better
performance, whic"nwi!l enhance the s tuden t s "academic
perforn~ancdichievement. The nation in general through this would have
achieved their aim of investing heavily in education.
Within the field of vocational psychology in general and the stress ,
discip'line in particular the data from the study will add unto the pool of
availabk data in the fieM which researchcrs can fall back on as basis for
further research. It will also be useful to the school counselors who are
now betiter placed to provide a more accurate diagnosis of the principals'
problem and appropriate measure for remedying it.
The govcrnrnenr 2nd Fmt Primary School Management Board from
this study will have an insight that principals of large school are inclined to
experience stress and give them amenities to cushion the effect of the large
number. Also principals in the urban area should from this study learn to
manage their tirnc to accommodate mu1tiplicit)r of work, which they do
from day to day, Female principals will from this study know that they
have a 101 of hnctions to perform both at home and in the school and as
such will imprwe their time management practices,
From the study principals are bound to renlize that failure to employ
time management strategies have some relationship with administrative
stress, in other words, faiIure to manage time properly in induce
administrative strcss.
The findings of this study could enable the policy makers., educaribnal
hnners, 2nd adrninkrators to know that adminisrra~ors experience stress - ---
nd as such 'be sensitive to it when planning administrative duties. They
vould emphasize time management strategies to help the principals cope.
;cape of the Study
This study was limited to principals of secondary schools in Enugu
<rate of Nigeria. In terms of content, the scope was limited to stress and
~drninistrative time management, like the level of stress and time
nanagement practices. Gender, location and size of school as they affect
rime management and administrativi: stress were covered.
Research Questions
Thz following research questions guided this study:
What is the mean level of stress experienced by secondary school
principals?
What are the time management practices of secondary school
principals? L
What is the mean level of stress experienced by male and female
principals?
What are the time management practices of male and female
principals?
What is the mean level of stress experienced by principals from
urban and rural school?
What are the time management practices of principals from urban
and rural schools?
What is the mean level of stress experienced by principals in small
and large schools?
W-hat are the time management practice of principals in small and
large schools?
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a r cv iw of related litcrature to stress and
Time management in school administration. For the purpose of this study,
literature is reviewed under the Sollowing sub-headings:
ThcoreticaI/Conccptual Framework
Stress: Meaning and general symptoms
Administrative stress: A thcoxticsal nnaiysis
Fndividua! ciil'feremcs a114 stress
Conseq~~enccs of Executive Srress
Ma-ior C m e s of Stress
Management of Stress in Education
Time Mana~ement: An overview
Strategies for Ef'i'cclive time management
Review of Empirical studies:
Empirical studies on Stress
Related Research Studies on Time blnna~ement concepts on school
location, size of school and ses of the administrator.
Summary of Litcraturc Review
Stress: Meaning and General symptoms
Stress has been conceptunIizccl from, an array of perspectives, which
ranges from psychological to medical (Ezeilo 1995; Nweze, 1995; Uzoka,
i 1995; Moorhead and Griffin, 1997). Although stress is conceived from
many perspectives, mx: definiiions agree that stress is complex and
9. h a is thc relationship between time rnanagen~ent and
adminkfrativc stress among secondary school principals? .
Hypothesis
The fo~!owin$ n d l hypolheses were tested on alpha of 0.05:
Hal: TPe relationship kbveen time management and
administrative stress among secondary school principals is not
staristically significant?
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the time management
practices of male and female secondary school principal
H03: There is no significant difference in the mean level of stress
experienced by male and female secondary school principal
Ho4: There is na significant difference in the time management
practices d'principah in urban and rural schools.
Mo5: There is no significant difference in the mean level of stress
experienced by ~r ink ipds in urban and rural schools
H06: Thcre is no signifiimt difference ir the time management
practices of principals in large and smdl schools
HOT: There is no significant difference in the mean level of stress
experienced by principals in large and small schook.
caused by a slimulus. The shwius can bc either physical or psychological
but individikals respond to stimulus in diRerent forms.
Moorhcad and Griffin (1997) defines stress as a pcrson's adaptive
response to a stirndus rhat places excessive psychological or physical
demands on that person. Given the underlying complexities of this
definition we need to examine its components carefhbzlfy, First is the notion
of adaptation, As Mosrhend and his collreague rightfuily noted, people may
adapt to stressful circun~stances In any of the several ways for i ~ s t a n c e ,
strcss 35 an iolluence that imposes negarivc or unusual demand which is
excessive or an activation. Stressors are anything that induce stress.
Thirdly, srressors are either psycl~ological or physical. Finally, the demand
the strrssor places on the individual must bc excessive for strcss to rcsult.
In any case, i~ rnust bc appreciated that whclt is excessive for one person
maybe p e r f e ~ t ! ~ tolerable for another.
'Usok:~ ( 19951, conceived strcss as a prcssurc. Ile defined "stress as a
prcssurc from an adverse force m inilucncc chat irnrms~s a~nuwa! denland
on nn organization". This implies that stress occurs when there are
dcmands on [he I>erssn, which task oia exceed f k person's ndjustive
resources. In addirion viewing stress as (9 form of pressure, Uzoka (1995)
also viewed strcss as a form of activatica1i. He defined stress as merely the
levcl d activalion with the notion that there is a type of stress that is
essent id for a c t i v a h g people to achieving their undertakinp. Af though
this notion is widely gaining universality this particular study Is primarily
concerned with the type of stress that desrahilizes an individual.
From ark Inreractionist point of view, Apply and Tmmbuch (1967)
co~~ceptual ized work stress as a reciprocal action implying multidi~ectional
causation, which take place between the employee and his work situation.
This implies that strcss arises from the person's interaction with his
environment, As h e person appraises it . As such stress resides neither in
the envkonment nor in the person, but i t is the epproisnl of both by the
empluyce.
A morc elaborate coneeptualizarion of sfrcss was presented by
McGrath (1938: 135) ruggesrcd that i t is more rncaningful to understand
stress in terms OC concliti~n necessary Tor its arousal and in tcrrns of its
symptoms. Therefore, he stared that:
. . .there is a potcnlial for stress when an cnvironrner~tal situation is perccivcd as presenting n demand which threatens to cx'ceccf the pcrson3 scapabilities and resources for mcet ing it, irnder conditions where he expccts n subs~antial dirferential in the reward and costs rrom nlecting the dcnmnd versus not meeting i t
What hlcGrath expresses, here is that thcrc is a potenrial for stmss
a response .to cnvironrnental demand, The eavironrnesit here may inkludc
the place of work, the home thc community or even thc social class of the
individual. 1112 i s of the opinion that where such environmental demand or
expectation is not met, the rcsult is usually stress. In essence, stress can be
bcttcr vicwed as a non-spxific rcsponse to any dernancl. According to
French, Rogers find Cobb (1934) stress is r~ misfit belwccn a pcrson's skills
and abilities, At the same lime, demands of the job and a misfit in terms OF
a jmson's needs supplied by the environment. In some job, stress is a
condihn w k r e Irl jobrelared j actors interact with the worker to change
[disrarpl or enhance) h i s psychological, physical or physiological condition
such that thc persons' (mind and or b d y ) is forced to deviate from normal
f u n d ioning.
Although several psychologist tend to agree on what stress is, the
literature is cl~nracrerized by conceptual diversity, The concept therefore
lacks precision in its definition in that it has been both broadly and ,
narrowly coi~ceptua!ized and trenled as a stimulus, a response, an
environmcntai characteristics, an irdividual attribute and an interaction
bc~.rvec~i an individual and his cnvioomncnt (Rogm, I994 ; Ezci!~ 1995;
NWL'ZC 1995: Moorhcad nncl C>rirlh 1997).
Just as stress is conccptualizd from an array of perspectives it is
pmcesses tend to vary from one individual to the other, IF is worth
apprcciating that much eS what wc know today about stress; can be traced
to the pionewing work of l-kn Selyc. In his analysis of strcss processes
Sclye (1976) identified the genera7 adaptation syndrome (GAS) and also
identified tRrW sragcs of rcspottse ro a strcssor narncly: aIarrns, resistance
and exhaustion. According a0 the GAS concept, each individual has a
noma1 kvci of resistai~c~ to strcs~fi~l cvent. Same individua! can tolerate
a great &a! of stress nnd otkcrs much Icss, but each has a threshold at
which stress s!ark 10 affect him. At the alarm stnge the pcrsm may fed
sorrlc degrec ufpanic and may begin to .~vonder how to cope. If the stressor
is roo exkeinc, the person may simply be unable to cope with it. In most
cases, however the individual gathers his strength (physical or emotional)
mzd kghs to resist rhe neptivc effects of the stressor. Thus at the second
stage of the general adaptive syndrome the person is already resisting the
effcct of Ihc stressor. 'I'hc phasc three kgins when there is a prolonged
exposure to n stressor without r&o!ution of the challenging task. At this
stilge the person literally gives up and can no Ionger tight the stressor
(Moorhead and Griffin, 1997)
Sclyc (1976), in his analysis pointed out that sourccs of stress need
not be bad. For example, receiving a bonus and then having to decide what I ro do with the money can be stressful. Selye (1976) calIcd this type of
stress custress. He dcfinecf eusrress as the pleasurable stress that
acconlpanics positive cvents. Oil thc othcr hand the negative aspect of
st,ress is distress, Excessive pressure, unreasofiatde demand on our time - -
and bad news, all fall into !his category. As the terms suggest, this form of
strcss generally results in ncgative consequcnccs for the individual.
A number d glaring symptoms typify stress. Roger (1944)
en~pfiasized t h ~ ~ r since h e r e arc so many porenfial causes of stress it is
bctler to focus attention on identilfying its symptoms f ir~rn d i f f e ~ n t
pcrspcctivcl;. which ranges from physical to psych01r)gicaI. Addrcssi~g the
syn~ptorns of s:ress from the point of physical manifestations, Ragcrs
(1994) noted that stress related illness might result directly or indirectly
from stress inducing activities. According to Rim, coronaries can result
Tram strcss creared by rcs~Iessncss, hyper-activity, impatience and general
angst. Equally, cxcessive smoking, drinking, inadequate diet and lack of
slcep resdting liam disrrcss may cause illness. Moorhead and Grif in
(1997) also noted that the drastic physical manifestations of slress include
high blood pressure, cxcessive cholesterol level, abnormal cardiogram
readings, weight loss and skin complaint's. Moreover, fainting, frequent
profme sweating and severe .headache rqularTy afflict those who suffer
From protonged and severe stress. E s h a ~ ~ r i o n , depression and feeling of
alienation from the working cnvironrncnt are also commn. According to
bloorhcad and his co!kag.ue, many of thcse physical tnanifestations are
psychosomatic in origin. Amng the most f rquen! psychosomatic
symptoms of cmo~ional tcnsion are indigcssticin, cramp, backock and
insomnia.
On psychological symptmns, Rogers (1994) explained that anxiety
is perhaps the clearest indicator. It affects abilities to ccinccntrate and relax.
While percepions arc aflectcd, stress riddcn individual may become
irrational, cn~ntionally valalile and cxcessivcly suspicious.
On a clear analysis, i t nirry be observed that psychological and
physical Tsl~tors do of' coursc, intcrwt because medical evidcnce has
rcv:atcd that stress related worries have unpleasant side effects on physical
health (Buck, I 9SG) This ~ i f ~ ~ a t i o n was more k a u ~ i f i ~ l l y analyzcd by Roger
(tW4). He c~npl~nsized that the most immediate ccrnscquence of prolonged
crposurc tar srrt'ss i s a constant fcding ~Tliredness dtte to a combindon o r
the draining cri'ects of emotional conflict, over work, lack of sleep arrd
general anxiety. An employee who experience stress created fatigue will
ohiously be dull, clumsy and imablc ro reason clearly.
From tho bdiaviorist point of view, symptoms of stress are manifest
on individuaP's job behrtviour. Some individrmls Ixcorne antagonistic,
others withdraw into themselves. Tension, iircdness and anxiety often [cad
to outburst of hostility and aggression. According to Nweze (1995)
workers under stress generally become over-sensitive to criticism and
increasingly, unable to relate to fricnds and working colleagues. 'The
implication of these symptoms is a further cornplisntion on the individual's
physical and psychological manifestations. It is ixcause ,211 administrators
are csposecl to stress in one way or the other, and also considering the
physical, physiological and psychological impacts of stress on individuals,
efforts have bccn g e m d towards the clcvelopment of coping strategies.
In seconclary school administration, principals are faced with
pressure fmm lhc government 16 ensum [hat teachers work round the clock
even tvithout pay. Teachers, on the other hand antagonize the principal
who force their, t6 work in the midst of poverty nnd neglect. As the actor
in the ccnkr of the stage. he is bound to expcricnct: stress. On the other
hand, w1de teachers abandon classro~rns because of poor working
conditions, srudcnts and parents who would wish the fces they pay to be
justilkd, turn to school administrators for explanations, The schooi
adn~ii~is!rators not only cxpcriewc stress from thc teachers, stuclcnts and
parsnts, but, are also faced wirlr enormous workload, which they have to
accomplish within the shortat. possible time. TRcse and more salient
dcmancis i m p w c.. targc qianlity or slrlsss on the administrator whose
cFficiency is dependent on how fitr kc cc~u!d manage the situation.
Administrative Stress:
I'sychologisls (Schuler;l980; Shirorn 1982; French, Rogers
and Cnbb 1981) have presented interesting ihcoretical anatysis ai
~dnlirlislrslive stms fmm varying pcrsv~tive. These include the
integrahc ermsactiunal m d c l of srress, the facet-analytical model and the
pcrson-environment f i t niodel. A model af stress in ~rganizations is
important nnt only 'because it provides a n mderstnnding of what stressors
exist in an organization and how they work, but also, because it shows
ivhat thc outcomes of stress are, and what and where q~ralities of
individuals influcncc their reaction to ~managen~ent uf stress in
' f ie integrative rransnctional process model of stress proposes a non
linear but reciprocal relationships. The main thrust of the moclel is that an
individual experiences stress from his perception of the environment with
his own set of unique skills, needs and characteristics thus, what is a
stressor far one person may not be for another. According to Schuler
Cli382)l a n indivick~al's response to the stress may alleviate the stress or
provoke cven more stress. Thus, it is important to treat the components of
thc stms inizdcl as having mirl~i-directional causation between them so
that all components can be viewed as either c:x~ses or effects.
Process refers to what happens over time or across stressors.
According to Schuler ( 1982) i t contains two dements: #
it. 'The actual interchange between thc person and thc environment and
b, The person's responses over time to the stress experienced.
Thus srress is not just a dynamic situation of importance involving
uncertainty, but, one which evokes individual rcsponscs that occur over
time. The model is referred to its integrative sincc it has been developed
from the literature and research in scveral, diverse areas and bccnuse a
s tudv of stress req~~ircs an interdisciplinary team.
7'he components of thc transactional process model are the
environmental strcssors, individual characterislies and individual
responses. Individual characteristics include; those which influence the
primary appraisal process on indiviclual ~nakcs of the environment and
those. ivhich influence an individual's short term. Intermediate and long
term responses. Schu ler (1 982) said [hat physiological, psychologiciil and
behavioural are categorized as responses.
This mock1 of stress proposed argues rhal stress originates from an
individual's roles in an organization arxl h a t within each role category
thurc are envilmmcntal stxssors, which arc: interprsonal relationships,
organizational structure and carcer development changc. The model,
howevcr-, holcts that thc drvcloprnent of stress as a m u l t of roles in
organization clcpends strictly on individual chafixteris~ics. Indivitiual
characteristics of administrators are very nuch a function of needs and
vdues, cspcrience, ability and locus of control. Thosc are, however, a
function 01' individual perceptions. The devclopn~ent of stress, according to
this ~ndc! , depends vcry much on individual physiology and individual
responses, Endividuals who could not resist stress, experienced
psychlogical exhaustion. Individual physiological response or resistance
is howcver a fimction of' a numbcr of variables which include physical
condition. life style, S O C ~ ~ I I support, hcrcdily, experiences and self-estce~n.
Critical to h i s modcl is the definition of stress based on individual need for
thc rcsolution of dynamic states of uncertainty.
The nest modcl is the Facet-analytical mode! of stress. The facet
analytical modcl calls for a definition map, referred to as a mapping
sentence. The mapping sentence consists of several f'acts, each representing
a key dimension, or an important general property of the conceptual
domain being dcfined. Specific conlponents of a facet are rcferrcd to as
elerncnts. The apostle orthe h x t mafytical model will therefore see the
subject o f stress as an interaction of the different eIemcnt as shown below:
F:wct A: Duration of Demnntl
This facct iclcntities the lemporrrl propcdy to the dcmand involved in
t k sfresa ~ransnclicrn. Its elertlcr~ts rcfcr lo the clistinction lxtwccn dclnancls
which nyur regular!y, as an ongoing condition in thc organization,
(elcrnent a!), and demands wT-~ich appear as a single event (elen~end az).
Dcmnnds which appear on a rcgtrlar basis, charxterizcd as a chronic
condition of the job, arc by definition more prebic~able and perhaps more
controllable than the demancls categorized in clcment a,. Most of the
related stressors role typically shldied by stress researches, such as rolc
conflict and role ambiguity, B c h g to clement at.
Facet B -Type of Demand
This has tradit iondly been the dominant facet in empirical stress
research. This facet incfudes Anlbiguous demands (bl), conflicting
demands (b2), Quantitatively over loading demand (b3), Varied demand
(b4). and complex demand (bJ). B' refers to uncertainty or ambiguity about
a demand. The employee is unclear abour what is required of him. B2
refers to incongruous ingredients of thc same demand or of several
demands addrcsscd to the employee, intcr-role conflict or conflicting
demands addressed to an mployce , from di ffercnt organizat iond posit ions
which hc fries to f~~ l f i l l . and which saps him both mentally and physically.
Eletncnt b3 has to do with an employee clemand to compress too many task
(meetings, phmc calls etc) into a given work time. Element b4 refers to thc
exkilt to which the varied pace of work (e.g. traffic rush hours for
patrol'rnen) is perceived cis a demand. The complex tasks addressed in
element s b j arc thosc, which concern such tasks as to negotiate with many
different clients, crossing very o Aen-organizat iond boundaries or having
to complete tasks, which constantly change from one assignment to the
nest. -
The source of demand nppears to bc an important dimension of the
impact of' the environment on the en~ployee. TRc do~nand may originate
from the employee's own work roles or his other roles (c.g. cross pressures
fi-om the family and from thc 'employee's managerial position with regard
to overtirnc), from significant others in the organi.~ation, including
supervisors, peers or subordinates, and f r m orgaliizarional proced~rre
including mlcs and regulalions.
Facet D- IntcractionaI Corttext
'This hcct is sornewl~at not dcfined in that i t consists of a
multiplication of two faccts: the unit of analysis to which thc demand is
addressed, namcly the employcc or his work grcup, a d the aspect of work
to which the dcmand relates, namely work proccss or work outputs. By
work outputs, means the pr.oduct produced or sewice rcnkrcd.
The secortd sub- facer, that or the asp-sct of work la which the
dcmand is oddrascd, appears important because wl~en employees have
little or no cmtrol over the out puts of their job, sueh as in automated
prduct ion lincs, and w h m demands arc d i r ~ t e d primarily at work
processes, employees tend to develop more pronounced maladaptive
rcspnscs la job ~&ted stress, S L I C ~ as depression.
Facet E -Aspect of Resources
Deliciotxy of resources to withsrand a demand may be due c ihx to
a qualitative ol ra a quanlitative aspect. of [he resources, inadquntc tools
and cquipmcnt.
Tlx Pcrs~n-Ewimnnlent Fit Thwrv abbreviated as P -E fji theory
appears lo bc the mast widely cirecl and the most extcnsively tested in fieId
research. 'The ~ l ~ e o r y rests on the general assurnpriorl that. the more
congruent the characteristics of the person and of the cnvironrnent in which
hc5 is employed, the more Fmourablc the work-re'lcttcd outcomes ror the
person. The theory prcdicts that a mismatch between the characteristics of
the person and of the environment may k associated with psychdogicaF
strain (such a job dissarisfaction) or physi~logicnl strain (for example, high
bIaod pressure).
FrencRWs P -E Theory proposes t\v6 basic sublypes of fit: objective
and subjective. Objective f i t refers to the match between the environment
and the person's characteristics tvhen both are o~jectively measured, that is
independently of' ihc person's perception of them. Since we follow the
maxim that "stress is in the eyes of the beholder", objective tit is cxcluded
fiorn consicleration here, Subjective f i t rel'crs to tile congruence between
the pcrceivcd aspects of the environment and the person's cognition i ~ f his
characteristics, That is, the self-concept or self-ida~tily of the person. Yct
another bask ccomponenf ofthe theory is that far subjective tit, a mismatch
m y result either when the person" needs or wants are not met by
appropriate environmental supplies i.e. in the fomr OE opportunities for
graMcation or when the petsrx~'~ capabilities ant! resources are
incongruent with eizvironmentnl dcrnands.
Thc proponents of P-E f i t theory vicw, any s i t u a ~ i ~ n where thcre is a
mismatch between an employee's needs and available environmental
opportunities for their gratification as constituting ''job stress". To
illustrate when thc necd for a certain level of envirotunental stimulation,
such as the need Tor a challenging job, is not met by the organization, P-E
fi t thmy rheories r v m l d have us rclfer to the situation as stressful, referring
to it as "under load", Again, such conceptualization is meaningful only if
wc assutnc that thc rmployee has arl inter-nabnormativc yarcfstick, which
delincs for the necclcd or desired Icvc! of opportunities for gratification of'
necds. l:~~rtlierniorc, the sanctio!?~ appl icd are internal, that is, those which
the individual ir;~poses on himselfy. 'The position maintained heru is that the
addition of any irnpoverishmcnt of an employee's needs which result from
deficient environmental supplies, to the clefinitional parametcrs of stress
would blur thc theorcttiuai distinction between the employee's appraisal of
an environn~cnrwl demand involving his resources and his affective
evaluation of :I certain aspects ot'thc reward system in the work place.
Individual Difference nnd Stress
Individual differences, according to Moorhead and Griffin (1997)
are pcrsonal attributes that vary from onc pcrson to another, Individual
differences may bc physical, psychological or cmo t lonal. The individual
differences that char-acterized a specific pcrson make that person unique.
As Griffin and his colleague rightfully pointed out, basic categories of
inclividual differences include ' personality, attitude, percept ion and
creativity. Since school adnlinistrators need to establish effective
psychological contracts with other members of staff and students, and
achieve optimal fits between school administrator^ need to csrablish
effective psycliologicaI contrac!s with other n ~ c m k r s of staff and students
and achieve o;)tin~aI fits between pcopk and jobs, they face a major
challenge in attempting to understand both incliviclual diflercnces and
contributions in relation to inclucemunts and contexts. This is however
better apprccia~ed when the role of personality in an organization is taken ,, r-, i * * kt.: ' ' * % into consideration.
I * According to Nweze ( 1 995) personality is the relatively stable set of
psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.
Psychologists have identified numerous personality traits and dimensions
that di fl'crentiate onc pcrson from another; But in recent years rcsearchcrs
(Nweze, 1995; hloorhead and Griffin, 1997) identified five fundamental
tracts that are especially relevant to organizations. Thcse five traits are so
i~nportnnt beczusc they are currently receiving much attention, tkcse are
ccrmmonly callzd the "big fivc" personality traits (Goldberg 1W0). They
are agreeableness, conscientiausness, negative crno~ionnlity. extraversion
and openness. Thesc [iw dimensions represent fundamental personality
traits presun~ed to be important in determining the hrhaviour - ofindividuah
in organizations. In gcneral, experls agree that personc?lity nits closer to
thc left eslrenle of cach rlinlcnsion are more posilive in organizational
scttings, while stress closer to rhe right estrcmes are less positive.
'fhc potential value of this framework is that it encompasses an
i n ~ ~ g r a l set oftraits c I ~ make for indiviilual difkrcnccs and which appears
to bc did predicators of cm?ain bchnvimr in cennin students. Although
Cioldbcrs (1990) idenrificd fivc personality traits rhnt nuke t'or- incliviclunl
diffcrenccs, ~Voortmd and Griffin (1997) while studying individual
differences and stress compressed these personality traits into two type:
typt A nncl type F3 personality comperitivc p r d l c s , Typc A pcoplc arc
extremely hizhly cornrnitr~sd to work and h a w 2-11 strong scnsc 01' time
urgency while typc R pcople are less competitive: Iess committed to work
and have n weakcr sense of timc urgency.
Friedman and Rosenn~an's (1980) initial rcsearch on the type A and
R profllc diffcrenccs yielded some findings. Their finding in particuiar
suggested rhnt type A's were much more likely to experience stress more
than type R's. I n recent years, follow-up rcsearches, psychoiogis[ (Fishman
1987: liosen~nan (1997) have suggested that thc relationship bctween type
A behaviors and strcss is not all that straight forward.
Although thc reasons arc unclear, recent findings (Kosenman 1997)
tend to suggesl that type A's are much more complex than originally
believed for esample, in addition to the characteristics already noted, they
are more likely to be depressed and hostile. Any one of these
characteristics or a c~rnbination of them can lead to stress in individuals.
?'nw oher individual diffcrenccs related 1s stress are hardiness and
ilp~imism (kIoorhcnd and Gri l l in 1997). Rescarch suggcsts that somc
pcoplc have hardirr pexona!ity than othel-s (Kobasa 1992). Hardness is a
pefivn's ability to cope with stress. People tv ih hard personalities have an
internal lwus of conlrol, wrc srrongly cammitred to the activities of their
lives, and view opportut~ity for advancerncnt and growth. Such people
according to him arc seen as relati~~ely unlikely to suffer illness if they
experience high levels of pressure and strcss. On the other hand, people
with law hardness may have more dilt'icultics in coping with pressure and
Stress.
Another pxsonnli\y trait undcr individual difference is optimism.
Optimism according to Moorhead and Griflin ( 1 997) is the extent to which
a person sees life in positive or mgative tmns. [II general, optimistic
peoplc tend to handle strcss better. They will be able to see the positive
characteristics of thc situation and recognize that things may eventually
improve. In contrast, less optimistic pcople may rocus more on the
negative characteristics of the situation and expect things to get worse, not
kl tcr .
Althmigh, personairy attributes, which make for individual
cliflercnces hnvc k e n traced 20 stress, it may be apprcciated that individual
differences may also have some implication for iimc mnnagemcnt. In any
case, since studies on stress and it~dividual difkrcnces have not taken time
management into considerarim, one cannot as at now establish thc
relationship between tirnc management and these vSlriabIes with a fair
amount of certainty except through a i v d l designed study o f this type being
prqmscd.
Conseqrrenres of Executive Stress
Nwezc ( 1984) rightiullg mlphasizcd that executive posilions and
he i r environment ilo not directly cause stress, mthcr stress as a feeling is a
direct consequence of personal nttributcs and dispositions as they affect the
individual's reaction TO personal life experiences including threatening,
pleasant and negative ones. This implies that individuals of differing
temperament and dispositions react to situation differently and
consqucn~l y experience d ivcrse consequcnces. Since it is known that
stress -illness pathway is ncver dearly mderstood; onc cannot think that
the conscquenccs or stress arc un-dimensional.
h4oorheatl and Griffin (199'7) said that stress could have a number of
consequcnces. As they pointed out, it- the stress is positive ~ h c result may
be Inore mcrgertic, enthusiasm and rnolivalional. Based on this, they
concluded that stress could produce individual consequences
organizational consequences, and burnout. While these f'xtors seem to
stand alone, they are quite interrelated. For example, although, alcohol
abuse is seen as an individual consequence, it may also affect the
organization the person works for.
From the indivitlual perspective, Nweze (1994) explained that stress
and depletion of body's energy is a majm consequence of stress. As
k c h e r and Ncwman (1978) car-licr noted, stress makcs a lot of demands
on human physical energy resources which body mobilizes to go lhrough
the dcliianils imposed on i t by the situalion or evcnt. Complex task
perforrnancc denlands a lot of encrgy utilization and while thc body under
s i r e~s k t ~ e r pr~parcd to deal with a specific strcssor, i t becomes less
able to respond to several different demands. This explains why
produchity is marginally hampered by stress. Although it is well I
appreciated that irxlividi~nl consequences spread -10 other organimtiorlal
domains, it" the individual who pays the red price.
Another a s p ! of individual consequence of slress is over activation
and depiction of immune system. Moorhesd and Griffin (1997) stated that
pralongod and uncontrolled strcss i s known to Icad to the acrivation of
body system; elevation of blood pressure and over sccretian of body fluid
thc?t leacl to their eventual depletion under continued stress. The
conscquences, according to N w z e (2994) Itad to degenerative disease
such as chronic I~ypertensim, hcart disease, liver and kidney mdfunctian,
head and body nchcs and g m r a l gnstro-intestinal disorder. Apart from
these .medical consequences, other consequence of stress may incl~dc
'mhaviouml consequcnw and psycRo!ogfc.al consequence, Rehaviournf
consequence o f stress may harm the person under stress or ofhers. One
s i~ch bekaviaural stress according to Nweze 1994 is smoking. Research has
clearly docunvntcd that pcoplc who snrokc tend to smokc more when they
experiencc stress. Researchers like Erew and Burning (1987) concluded a
that alchohol and drug abuse arc linked to stress. In addition to nlcuhoI
and dnlg abuse, Frew and his colleague emphasized that other possible
bel~nvilaut-a1 cmsquencc of stress are accident proneness, violence and
I111 Ihc ohcr hand the psychological consequence of srrcss relate to a
person's nxnral hcnl~h and wcll being. Whc~a people experience too much
stress at work ~ h c y may hecomc depressed or find themse1vcs sleeping too
much or not enough. This, according 10 Moorhencl and Griflin mny also
!cad to scuual S ! ~ ~ ~ U L E ~ ~ C ' Y and family pn~hleins. 'The sccond perspective
from where the conscquences of stress can be pcrcciv~d is from the
orgarainrtion p i n t nf view. I t milst bc rc-ernpl~asized that any of the
individual cansequcnce so far discussed can also affcct the organization.
Oihcr results of' stress such AS declinc in pcrfor~nancl: wilhdrawal and
ncgal iw chnnps in ~ t ~ i t ~ d e have w e n n m c direct conscquenccs for
argmization. In terms of pcrfarrt~ancc, Buck (1986) noted that one clear
organizational consequence of too much stress is a dscline in performance.
For operacing workers, such a decline can vanslate into poor-quality work
or a drop in productivity for administrators, it may mean faulty decision-
n~aking or disr~~ptions in working relationship as pcaplc become irritable
and hard ro ger along ~ v i t h ,
Anolhcr serious organizational consequence of stress is withdrawal,
Nwczc (1994) p i n t c d out rhat for the organization, the two most
significan~ forrns of withdrawal behaviors arc absenteeism. Peoplc who are
linving n hard time coping wilh stress in thcir jobs arc more likely to
become sick Or consider !caving the organizalion for good. An
administrator or a reachcc who experiences strcss on the job may exhibit
some sublk f(xn~s of wirhbrawals by ceasing to care about the institution
or the job. In 111c same vain, al~titudcs hnvc bcun reported as another
orgmizational consquencc of cmployec stress. Stress aff'ccts attilude to
work by suppr'cssing job satisfaction morale, motivation and organizational
commitmenr (Mnslxh and Jackson, 1980).
Thc third perspective from whcre stress canscquence could be
npprcciatcd is burnout. Moorhead and Griffin (1997) " defined burnout as
gcncral fecling of exhaustion that devclops whcre an individual
simultaneously cxpericnces too n ~ ~ i c h prcssurc and has loo Sew sources of
satisfaction. Certain stress rcducing and coping mechanisms bccome in
themselves damaging to the individual's health, social relationship, and
productivity and ovcrall well - being. These faulty mechanisms are
collectively h ~ o w n as burnout behaviors. According to Cohen (1978) the
immcdiate experiences of stress is for one to do sornclhing to reduce its
effects. This, according Lo Nweze (1994) may include, use of sleeping
dntgs, smoking and drinking cxcessivcly as a mcans of coping. Others
inciude, dctachnicnt anti avoidance behaviour especially of signiiicance
level, level becoming cynical and justifying and rationalizing his
behaviors. Burnor~t has cIear in~plications Sor both peoplc and
organizations. Moorhrad and Griffin (1997) explained ways in which
burnout develops. According to them, people with high aspirnt ions and
strong motivation to get thing done alonc are prime candidates for burnout
under certain conditions. In such a situation, t11c indiviclunl is likely to put
too much of himself into the job. In order words, the person may well kcep
trying to meet his own agenda while simultaneously trying to fulfill the
organizations expectations. The most likely effect of this situation is
prolonged fatigue, Srustration and helplessness under thc burden of
ovenvhclming demands (Moorhcad and Gri rfin 1997).
Individ~~al responses to the den~ancls imposed on them by virtue of
their administrative positions may vaIy according to the individuals'
responsibility, psychological resources, uspcricnce and availability of
estcrnal social supports.
Apart Srom the effect of stress causing discomfort and prompting
illncss conditions on the individuals, organizational lik is also affected.
Organizations are known to lose money in term of -man hours that the
victim spends in hospital as wcll as mcdical bills because of illness
:issociatcd with stress. The only way therefore to minimize the hazards of
stress on thc i~ldividi~al i\d~ninistrtlto~'~ and Sncilitatc cflkctivc school
administration is to explore appropriate progrmmcs or administrative
process that can minimize stress on school administrators. Although there
are arguments that poor time management is a major source of stress, the '
extent to which administrators time managemunt skills relatc to the
quantity of strcss they experience is merely spcculative. Although the
relationship bctween time management and strcss need not be neglected, it
may not bu propcr to concluclc basccl on speculations that timc
managemenr is a m:ijor det~rmillimt of stress, rarhcr thcre is a need Lo
ascertain the extent to which school administrators time management slull
relate to their level of stress.
Major Causes of Stress
Stress has been attributed to a number of factors. These factors range
fiom physical, social to psychological. Parkard (1986) identified task
demands as stressors associated with the specific job a person performs.
Some occupations are by nature more stressful than others. Beyond specific
task relzted pressure, other aspects of a job may pose physical threats to a
person's health. On heaIthy conditions exist in occupations like coaI mining
and toxic waste handling. Another task demand that may cause stress is job
security. Ezeiio (1989) equally, emphasized that someone in a relatively
secure job is not likely to worry unduly about losing that position. He noted
that threats to job security could increase stress dramatically. For example,
stress generally increases throughout an organization during a period of
layoffs nr immediately after a merger with another organization. Although
this sinlation may not apply in school setting, relevant circumstances are
likety to occur to school administrators. Moorhead and Grif'fin (1997),
however, stratified the causes of stress into two major strata: Organizational
stressor and life stressors. Organizational stressors are factors in the work
place carcgories as that which can cause stress. They said that there are four
ge~~eral sets of organizational stressors. Namely: task demands, physical
demands, role demands and interpersonal demands.
P, final task demand stressor is overload, Overload occurs when a
gerson simply has more work than he o r she can handle (Nweze 1984).
radeqirate work surfaces and similar deficiencies can create stress.
Role demand is another dimension of organizational stressor.
cording to Nweze (1984) role demands are stressors associated with the
role a person is expccted to play. Mmrl~ead and Griffin (1997) dctked a
role as 3 set of expected bchaviours assaciakd with a particular position in
a group or organization. As such it has both rorrnal (i.c job related and
explicit) and informal (i.e. social and implicit) requirements. People in an
institution or al:y organization expect n person in a particulnr role to act in
certain ways. They transmit thesc cspectations both fbrmally and
informaNy, Ind lvidua lu perceive rule expec~alions with varying Aegiws of
accuracy and thcn attemp to m a c t that role. t.lowc.ver, errors can creep
into t h i s process resulting in stress inducing problems callcd role
ambiguiy, ru le conllict and over load (Berdim 1985). Rolc nmbiguhy
arises when a role is mclcar. If your instructor givcs you an instruction but
cspcricnce ambiguity. In work settings, role ambigdty can stem from poor
-job clcsctiptions, vague instruction from a suneruisor or unclear cum from
co-workers. This result is likely 16 bc n suborc':;nate who does not know
ivhr'l~ to do. Role ambiguity can thus he a significant stx~rct. dstrcss.
Role conllict occurs when the messages and cues fiom othcrs about
thc role arc. clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive (Kahn and Wolf
1964). As they esplainecf, one cornnlon form is inter-rolc conflict between
rolcs. For exa-nple, if a person's boss says that to get ahcad one must work
overtime and on. weekends, and the same person's spouse says that more
time is needcd at homc with rhe fa~mily, conflict may result. Intra-roIe
codlicts may occur whcn the person gets conflicting tlcmands from
different sour.ws within thc context or the same rolc. For cxampIe the state
school hoard may tell principals that they nced to put more pressure on
tcnchcrs to fdlow w w work rules. At the same time the teacher may
indicate that they cxpec~ the principals not to get the d e s changed. Thus
the cues are in conflict ~ n d the principk may be unsure abu t which
coi~rsm to follow. On the other hand, intm-sender contlicts occur when a
single source sends cl rar but contradictow messages. This might occur if
the prirlcipak says teachers sirill no more ask shrdwts to come to work in
the evening in school but comes up another day to demand that teachers
call LIP sli~lents 10 wash chapel in the evening ibr a spxial sccasiai in the
school. Moc>rhcad and Griffin ( 1 997) hrther identified another aspect a f
role conflict which he called person role conflict. According to i k m this
type of conflict results from a discrepancy hctiveen the role requirements
and rhc individuals personal values, atti~udes and nceds. I f a person is
asked to do somcthii-rg ~~nethical or illegal or if rhc work is distxtefu1,
person - rolc conflict is likcly to occur. Rolc cmflicr of all variations is of
particular conccm lo managers and school administrators. Research has
shown that conllict n7ay O C C L I ~ in a variety of situations and lead to a
variety of advcrse conscqucnces. including stress, poor per.form;lnce and
rapid t~rrnovcr (Randale 1988; Nwezc 1984).
A final consequence of weak role structure is role ovcrload, which
occurs nfhen cxpcctations Ibr he rolc cxcecds the inciivicluals capabilities.
When the School Roard gives principals sevcral major assignn-~cnts at oncc
while increasing their rcgulnr workload, the principals will probably
experience rolc overload, which invariably generates stress. Role ovcrload
according to Randalc (1988) may also result when an individual takes on
too many roles at onc time. For example, zl person who trics to work extra
hour at his job, runs for clection to the school boards, or teachers union,
serves on a con-rn~ittce in the church or some othcr organization, maintains
an active excrcise programmes and is a contributing member of his family
will probably encounter rolc overload.
The third m4or aspect of organizational stressor is the inter pcrsonal
dernand. Intcrpcrsonal demand is of three categories - group pressures,
lcadcrship and interpersonal conflict. Group pressriru may includc prcssurc
to restrict output, press~ire to conform to the group norrns and so forth. For
instance as Moorhead and Griffin (1997) earlier noled I1 is quite common
for a ivork group to arrive at an informal agrccnlcnt about hoiv much each
member \ \ ; i l l produce. Individuals who produce much more ur much less
than this lcvel may be pressured by thc group to get back in line. An
i~lclivid~ial who feels a strong need to vary from tho group's expectations
will espcrienct. a great deal of'strcss especially if accuptancc hy thc group
is also i~nportant to him.
Lcadcrship stylc may also cause stress. In situations whcre principal
nced a great deal of social and administrative support from the chairman of
the school board and the chilirn~a~i is, hcwevcr, cluitc brusquc and shows
no concern or compassion for him, the principal will probably feel
strcssud. Similarly, assuming an employee feels a strong need to
participate in decision-making and to bc active in all aspects of
management, ancl his boss is very autocratic and refuses to consult
subordinate aboi~t anything, stress is likely to occur. (Kaufhan and Beerh
1986).
Finally, conflicting personalities and bchaviour may cause stress.
Conflict can occur when two or more people must work together even
though their personalities. attitudes and behaviors differ. For cxamplc, a
person with an internal locus of control; that is, who always wants to
control how things turn out might get frustrated working with nrm external
person who likes to wait and just let things happen. Likewise, a smoker
nnd a non-smoker who arc assigned adjacent nffkes obviously will
experience stress.
Generally, stress&-$ arc either suppressors or activators. Stress has
sometimes been defined as merely the level of activation wirh the notion
that some stress is esscntia! for act iv~~it ig people to achicue in their
undertakings. Ilowevcr, the notion of strcss used for this particular study - relnfcs essentially ta activation thnt is destabilizing. These stsessors carry
along dangerous stimuli, which are called stressor stimuli. Thcy include
cmo~ional crisis, physical kaumr-1, inkction, physical rcstr:~inl.. and
estrerncs of hcnt 01- cold and general loss of' composure.
As Nwezc ( 1 985) rightfully noted, stress in organizational settings
also can bc rntlucnced by cvents that take placc outside the organization.
I,iSc strcssors generally are categorized in term of lik change and trauma.
A life changc. according to Moorhcad and GriSfil~ (1997) is any
meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation. I-Iolrnes
(1984) reasoned [hat major changes in a person's life could lead to strcss
and eventually ro discase, Traunla on the other hand is any upheaval in an
individual's life that alters his attitudes, enlotions or behaviors (Okeke
1987). Major life traumas that may cause stress includc marital problcms,
family difficulties and Iiedth problem initially unrelated to stress.
Management of Stress in Education
Granted that stress is universal and potentially disruptive in
aclministrative settings, i t Sollows that puoplc and organizations should be
concerned about how to managc it more effectively. Both individual and
organizational strategies have becn adopted in the management of stress.
Work place stress is prevalent in many organizations not just in educrttion
and increasingly i t is being seen as a subject for administrators to takc
serio~isly .
Moorhead and Griffin (1997) claboratcd on individual coping
strategics. They proposcd a number of strn tcgies for helping individuals
manage stress. l'hc emphasis on individually derived coping technique is
for- the individual to clcvelop and build internal capacities, to handle stress,
As Nwezc (1995) obscrvcd, learning to cope requires first identifying the
sources of stress in our lives, recognizing thc onset of strcss and
mo~~itoring body reactions to stress. I t is on the basis of this learning that
active coping techniques can be developed. 7'hey include the following
techniques:
4 .
I I . Cognitive sdt" c~ncrrrl and
Accordiiig to Nwcze (1995) environmentally derived slrategies of
coping with stress gear toward environmental changes that improve the
abilitits i ~ f the individual to handle stress. The major strategies for
environmental changes include training in relaxation. Moorhead and
Griffin (1997) pointed oul hat propel- relaxation is an cffcctive way to
adapt. In the samc vciri n~usck relaxation exercise have been found rto abet
tension, nrlsicty and stress. Thcy have also been found to promote sleep.
Additional reseerch eviclcnce has aIso revealed that people who exercise
reg~~larly fed less tcnsion and stms, and more self-confident and show
grmtcr optimism while people who do not esercise regularly feel more
stress, are more I i k l y to be depressed and experience other ncgative
sonseqrience (Fol kins I WG).
A m t h e r aspect of individual coping strategy is the cognitive self-
control. The assumption behind cognitive coping strale6y is that our
emotional f cehzs derive from our perception and interpretation of the
cvcnts and sirualiorls thal chaIlengc our time and other emotional and
psychological refourccs. Stressful events or anxiety provoking situation
musi bc pcrccived as stich Ezcilo 11995) rightfidly noted that stress or
emotional experience does not exist in a vacuum rather events and
situations ar t evaluated. This according to him does not mean that life
evt'nts a d situations are not intrinsically threatening a d st~ssfwl. It
simply implies that t k magnitude of our renctions to emotive experiences
largely deperxls on how we perceive the events.
Ilc also said r h ~ t the role of cognition in emotive expcriei~ces is
sften illustrated by the A - B -C model of human behaviour e put up by
Albefi Ellis who happens to be thc mas1 fimous American cognitive
behaviw~r therapist [Ellis and Grieagcr 1982). The h -B-C model of
human behrlviour is represented rhlls:
A. Event or situation In life;
. Mediating factor in t h a t one thinks about the event, how the
event is perceived by individual and
C. l i e consequences of the interaction of A and B i s , our
rca~rion to the evcnt.
As Nwe7.c (1995) explained from the A-R-C rnodcl, It is clear that
there is no dirtxt link bctwccn A and C. Rather the link is connccrcd by B
which is our thinking. perception an cvdualion of the went or siluation.
What ~ h c Cognitive seIC control strategy of stress ndvcmtcu is firs.t 10
recognize that our thoughts influence our acltions, therefore, these faulty
thoughts should be recognized, changed and concrrslkd w l ~ n confronted
with stressful cvcnts and situations. Stressful events can be discovered if it
is attacking our f a u l ~ thmrght patterns,
The sccond dcrivat ivc of cognition self-control, Hccording to Nwcze
( 1 995) is positive self-insfructiun. Self-instruction means wlrat cvc tell
ourselves w e react and response to situations and evcnt f d o w i n g the way
we talk fn ourselves. For example, Ezeilo (19%) noted that if we accept
deftat in a given situation, we remain dct'mted b~ ifwc claim victory in
our inner self, we wi!l event~cilly achicvc victory. Nwcze (1995) finally
disc~issed cognitive prcparatior. as an aspccr of cognitive self-control in
stress managerrrent. This means simulating the situation in our mind and
gctiing prepnrd For what we lrnvc tn go through. Cognitivr preparation has
also been used in relation to sdf-retlcetion, realistic cvaluafion o f the
s i~ua~ion and developing strategies and alternative for survival.
Rolc managerncnt way r h o studicic! au an aspect of individual cq~ ing
strattgy. In role managcmcnt the individual activcly works to avoid
ovcrioad, an~b ig r~ i~y and conflict (Moorhead and Griffin 1997). This stress
management approach advices that in situation where you do not know
what is expected of you, all you need to do is not to sit down and worry but
ask fbr clarifica~isns from your boss. Another role management strategy is
to learn Lo say 'no'. k i w f 0 ~ d (1999) noted that 8s simple as saying "no"
might sound, a lor of peoplc create problems for rRmseIv~.s by always
saying ''yes''. Bcsidm, working irr their reguIrtr jobs they accept other s
additional resnonsibililies. 1vhic11 make their schednle very .tight and
stressful.
Finally, support groups were studied as individrral strcss
managemen1 shatcgy. A support group is simply iI group of family
members or iiiend with \vhom a person can discuss. Ganster and Maycs
(1986) elaborated on the role of support groups in management of stress.
They cxplnincd that strcss increases when an individud is lonely and has
r ~ h x i y to talk with. During crisis, support group is particuIarly useful
bectlirss i a provides thc individual with a pillar to lean on. The support
q o u p advices and encourages thc individual so that the strcss does not L
build up.
Stress tnnnagcnient 113~ also bccn appmxhccl from organizational
pcrspctcriwc. According to Nwezc (1995) and Coleman (1994)
organizaticsnal cfcrived strategies of coping with stress gcar towards
orynimtiona! changes that improve thc abilities of the individual to
handle stress. Moorhead and Griffin (1997) pointed out that organizations
we increasingly redking that they should bc involved in n ~ n ~ ~ a g i n g the
work lifc and emotional dispositions of their emptoyecs. Two basic
organizational strategies for helping employee's management of stress are
institution^! pr+ymnmcs and collarera1 programmes (Mowhead and
Griffin, 19975,
lnstitucinnnl programmes for managing slress a undertaken
lhrough es~ablished organizational mechanisms. Far example, Roger
(1994) t m e d that prqxrly dcsigrled jobs and work schedules could help
east S ~ W S S . ShiR work, in par~ici~lar can cause major problems for
employees because ttlicy constan~ly llavc to adjust their sleep and relaxation
pnttenrs. TIIUS, the work design and work s c l ~ ~ d u l c should be a foc~rs of
organizational efforts to reduce slrcss.
The organizational culture has also been used lo help manage stress
(Crawford 1999). In some organizations, for exa~npk, there is a strong
norm against raking lime off or going on vacation. In the long run, such I
norms can cause majar slress. 'TIILIS, ~ h c organization should strive 10 fosler
;i cu l~ure rhar reinforces il hmlthy mix ol'wark and non-work activities.
TI= final aspct of institutional progranmes in the management af
srrcss is s~~pcrvision. Altliough, a supcnjisor can bc a m+or sclurcc of
ivark overload, if made axvilrc af f k i r potential for assigning s ~ r e s s M
m o u n t of' work, suprviscs R bettzr job of keeping workIoads reasonable
and rnonirars strcss in employees and ensures that they do not develop
high stress espccinlly at rile organizatior~al levcl.
In additiorr lo i n s l i t u t i ~ n d efforts aimed at reducing stress, many
~rganizations are ~urn ing to collateral programmes. Moorhead and Griffin
(1997) defined a collateral stress progrmrnc as organizational
programma .;pecial!y created 10 help ernp!oyee deal with stress.
Organizations t w c adopted stress management programmes, health
promotion progranmes and other kinds of programmes for this purpose.
More: and more institutions and establishments are dcvcloping thcir
programmes or adopting existing programmes of this type. Cohen (1985)
earlier noted that many institutions and organizations today have employee
h e s s programmes. Thesc programmes attack stress indirectly
encouraging ernployces to exercise, which is presumed to reducc stress.
Fixllly, !wgnnizations try LO hclp crnployccs cope with strcss through
otlicr kinds 01' prograrns lor examplc; existing career clcvcloprnent
programs have becn dcsigned with anli stress activities. This is to ensure
lhat cmployecs work clay in and day o u t thcy are exposcd to other
activities still on the job, which hclp thcm easc off stress or workload.
Nwakan~a (1996) emphasized that other institutions an establish~nents
rnust ensure that they have a stress control progrnrnrne. This ensures high
productivity on thc part of thc employees.
Generally, cvidence from the study of organizational behavior
(Coleman, 1993) links strcss to thc antecedents and demands in the work
cnvironmen~. Thesc antecedents include work overloud, work ambiguity,
n1anagerial/acl111i!7istrativc problems, Iogistics m c i manpower problems.
They also incIudc factors intrinsic on thc job. Organizational stress control
tcchniq~~es embody methods of adnhistration that rcduce administrative
bott lcneck, and lilvours delegation of' power and responsibilities that build
in leisire and relaxation,
Although a number of studies have been conducted on stress
management, it must be appreciated that emphasis has not been placed on
secondary schoaT principals. It could be that researchers actuaIly neglect
Ihe tedious nature of their job or nhnr the roles of school principals are
neglected. With thc increasing emphasis on duca t ion and current
revelations an stressful Iivcs ol'secondary school principals, if has beconxs
necessary to explore variables that may rclatt: to stress experiunccd by
school principals. In the same vein with thc current .=schoof population
explosion, which implies more jobs for both reachers and principals, it has
become necessary h a t attention be paid to tirnc rnm~gernent and nlso the
estcnt to which time rnanagcment r e h c to stress.
Time rnanagcmcm is a topic receiving much attention and
enjoying cansidzrable popularity roday, lmaga (2000) pointed out that the
implications of thc h n c ctomtnt as a ma-jor resource instrument of
direct ins, conrrdling and rcgulating productive activities was recognized
by man even beforc the concepts of management and administration were
I'ona~alized and accepted as concrete and meaningful disciplines and
subjects worlhy af study. ?he hislory ol' time kecping and time
management is as OM as mankind. Ancient Egyptians as early as 1500 BC,
~ r s d Obelisks in monitoring timc ( S e t h a 1983); Heimlich Von Wyck
invcnted the rncchanical clock In Paris. Imaga (2000) cxplained that at thc
emergence ofrke clock, great historians like Munfod commented thus: . ,
... net thc s t e m engine, is the key machine of modern industrial age, For w r y face of its developments, the clock is both Ihe outstanding fact and typical symbols of the machine; even today, no other machine is so ubiquitous With thc inwcn~ian af clock, employers began t o use tirne t o determine what m11put should k expected of a worker as the honest work pcr hour. (~Vurnford 1934: 13)
The impaoz: of lime rnanagcrnent on prductivity together with its
rtla~ionsflip to tvark efliciency came to be recognized and fully
appmciacerl whzn in 1 SS 1 - 14 1 I , Frederick Taylor through his principles of
scienlific mnnn&enlent lorma!izccl Lime study and work-study [George Jr,
1968: 12 - 13) as in [ Emnga 2000). Anyakoha, and Eluwa (1991) dcfined
time management as the process of planning, organizing, implmenting
and evnluating [hc use of rime in order to accomplish or perform certain
task or dulics. Accordhg to them, cvcryooe has the same amount of tirne
per day and how this time is used affects each persons goal attainment and
the use and dcvc!opment of other resources. Motr (1 980) pointed out that
t i n ~ e management is glr)anymous with time control that will allow both
participatitm and quality performance in importan! professions! activities.
a r rn iqw resource ;lnd i s inelastic. While everybody shares equal amount of
thc resource, the diflexncc, lies in the way each person manages it.
Addressing ahc issue of time management and executive life, Nweze
/ 1935) cmphnsixd that p" d [he chdlengcs of stress managerncnf is the
dificuhy DL' coping with srress itself, The diffic~ilry in coping with stress
may be a problem of time management. I-ie Further noted, that rhe concept
of'tinx mamgcment i s an ~pproach of good management of the dcmands
being madc an US by virlue of our roles and responsibilities. As snch,
time rnmagemcnt means grouping IIK demands being made intu key result
areas so that 21-icy make sense (Richards, 1987). This also requires
concentrating on prioritics in ardcr to cope effeclively by focusing
attcrtfion on fenrcr demands.
Anyakoha and E l u ~ (-1991) developed effective patterns of time
use. According to thcm. time use has been grouped according to its
sprcific applications as follows: work time and non-work timc. Work time
is thc time spent on activities, which produce rneasurabk resuIts an onc or
others. Anyakoh and her colleague painted out that varictics of work time
include employment lime, home refated work timc and volunteer work
time while cmployncnt work time refers to time spent on work for pay, the
home relared work iimc has to do with the time, s p a on household care,
personal carc, ,~nd care for other family rnernkrs. In'the same vein, the
volunteer time refers to the lime spent on voluntary work such as church,
commirni ty or national work for no monetary pay.
On the other hand, thc non-work time include the sleep time, free
tirnc and IcIsurc time. N w r x 1( 1995) proposed a theoretical relationship
k twccn e x e c ~ ~ t i v e s t m ~ and time mnnagctnent. Although 16s arguments ,
were not backed up with empirical evidence, he emphasized that time
rn;lnagemcnt, i v l~en used as a strcss coping stratcgy helps the individual
marlager or business executive take stock of his workload, identi& the
priorities and as such become bctacr phced to cope with the multiplicities
of' prcssun's and demands on his ~ i m c and resources. Time management
thcrcfbrc. is like keeping a diary h a t schedules thc person's lime in terms
ol'kecping tmck ufdaity pplans and xrivities.
?'ttus, elY'cctive management rrf our time 2nd resources cannot be
advancud without building sclrldulcs inlo what i vc do ~~vcryday and
without ordering the ~Tcnimds and cammirrnents to d ~ y .
Anyakoh and Eiuwa (1991) itemized thc advantages of time
rnanagclnent. According to lhcm, lime miunagumcnt tninimizcs ~vustc of
time and leads to the accomplishnze~lt ol'greatcr u.ork, helps to establish a
routino for household tasks and finally reduces indecision or work in the
use of time and other resources so as to rcach goals. In additim, effective
time management cnsurcs f i l l 1 coordina~ion ol' all componen units of' n
systcm and ensures rhnr all available time are utilized judiciously. While it
is well appreciated that time management is gaining recognition in ,
administrative settings, c~nphasis of' adniinistrators h r w bccn focused on
how best to manage time to ensurc productivity. LittIc have thcy evcr
tl10~1ghf that time management may influence thc psychological and
physiologicali disp~sition of' itdn:inistrators. Although, the exact
rdntionships k~\cre.en time mnagernent and psyclmlogical disposition of
administrators have not bcen quant ificd, researcl~ers should not neglect thc
likely rehionship that rnay exist between thesc variables.
Strategics For Effective Time hlanagemcnt
'Time ~nanagement, an essential aspect of management has been the
focus of resemch, in this current era of work overload. A number of
strategies have been evolved for its propcr ~nnnagcment. They include
delegation, timc scheduling, interrupt ion control and avoidance of
procrastination,
Delegation, nccording ro Rogers (1994) is a technique for saving
time and a n i x agcrncnt contra! method. I t occurs within all organization.
In n school sysrcm fir csamplc, the chairman of tlrc posl primary school
mnnngcmcnt board dirccrs thc activities sl' secondnry education in the
state ?Ic delegates the f i~nc~ ion of s\~pcrvision and control to the chief
si~pervisory principals w h ~ in ta~rn delcgatc dutics t o school principals and
olher supwisory principals at rhc zonal Ieve!. At the school levcl, the
principals delegate &!ties ta cornpetmt staff thmirgh formation of
conmi tkcs and units that cmrdinatc thc various functions and ncitivitics at
thc school level. As Roger (1994) righifully pointed out, the assignment of
esponsibilities to subordinates, accompanied by the ddegation of
authority necessary !o impkmcnt decisions is essential for eficient
adrninisrration because adrninistmtors do not have the time or specialist
k~~~cn-tllcclgc to tcke all important decisions. It is, however, necessary to note
that clelegatim needs adequate care and precautions. Cnre is necessary in
the choice of duties f ~ r delegation and administrators rnmt ensure that
subordinates selected to receive delegnced work arc competent to complete
it successfully.. On the other hand, the recipients or delegated authority
must be given all necessary resources, information and executilve authority.
In addition ta enswing that work is complctc lvithiil a specified time
schcduk, dclcgation i s an escdlcrr~ n m n s for developing tk talcnts or
subordinates, espc~ially in arcas t h a ~ require the exercise of direction
(Irnnga 20001, Anyakoha and Ehnva 1% 1).
Anokhcr stratcp for iimc managemctlt is rirnc sckcTuIing. Tirnc
scheduling, othenvise referred to as time budgeting was upheld by Roger
(1994) as a good strategy for time managemmt among executives who are
faccd with work overload. FIc said that whcn your work is chopped into
small pieces by dozens of routine rnattcrs, concentration is destraycd, plans
arc neglected and major nsponsibiIities are postponed. Scheduling blocks
OF time helps to allevia!e thcse conditi~ns. Grouping tasks and cnsuring
thaa cach task is perfornled at the appropriate time can achieve this.
McCellion ( 1 998) noted ahat whilc most organizations give attention to
planning financial budgets, relatively reiv consider the importance of time
budgets.
FinaIly, lime can bc e f f e c k l y managed through intern~ption
control. A l h r ~ g h s u m ir~tcmrptions are unavoiclltblc, Rogers (1994)
pointed out that cxarnining your personal attitudes could reduce them and
solicit cooperation of subordinates. The empl~asis on the open door
policy or nmagcmcnl d e n resull in cxcessivc interruptions. When [he
open dcwr is ~ ~ n d c r s i o o d to be appropriate avaihbility rather than a literal
open door, f e w r drop-in visitors and distractions are experienced.
e'onlrol lim.lg inhcrruption involves building nnd adhering striet ly to
tirneiabk. An administrator should have time Sor seeing visitors.
Afternping t ~ ! cut down on time wssfes w i h u t dear knowledge of your
current lime k h a v i i j ~ ~ r s can result in further waste of time. As such, all
prograrnnlcs for improving lime rnanagemcnt shrruld beghi with time
analysis study. TIris will provide the administrators with concise
information Row his lime is being spctlt and where to make adjustments.
Anyakcrha and Eluwa ( 1 99 1 ) proposed a number of guidelines for
cff'cctive we of' tinw. Their guidclincs incl~idc use of timetable o r time
pl:~n, proper orduring of household chores, avoidance of procrastination job
altera~ion and usc of woik simplification techniques likc avoiding the
slipulfit~d prr~cedurcs of doing thirigs They hoz~wcr noted thnc timc
manngcment tcchniqws often depends on the type ~ ; f ,job involved.
Ern>iricd Studies on Stress
A number ai' empirical srudics, which dwell on strcss among
administrators, have been cond~ictcd( Miles 1986; Robcrts 1986 Nweze
1992; : Doyle el al. 1995 Oboeghulam 1999 ). Ekylc (1995) undertook a
compr&hensive survey of kachcr's stress, job sat ishshn and career
commitment among 7 10 Ml-time school teachers. A principd component
analysis of a 20 - item sources of teachers stress invcnrory hac! suggested
fbur distinct dimensions which were labeled: pupil rnisbehauiour; ' t ime
rcsotrclrces dilliculries, prc~lkssional recognition RC'CYIS and poor
relationships rcspectivcly. To check on the validity, the group of 710
tcnchers was randomly split into hvo s e p m t e samplcs. Exploratory factor
a ~ ~ a l y s i s was cmied out on the data from sampfc 5 (N = 335), while
samplc 2 f N -3755 provided thc cross validnlim data for a confirmatory
facfor analysis. Resulls supported the proposed dimensi~nality of the
sources of teacher stress (n~easurernent, model), along with evidence of an
additional teacher stress factor (workloadj. Consequently, structural
~noduling of thc causal relationships between the various latent wariablcs
and self-rcportcd strcss was undertaken on ~lrc combined samples (N-
7 1 O). Although both non-recursive and recursive models incorporaring
poor C O I J C I ~ I K relationships as a mediating vnriabk svcre rcstal Tor their
godncss of tit, a siti-rpk regression model provided h e most parsimoniaus
tit to thc empirical data, wherein workload and student rniskhaviour
accounted for most ol' the variance in predicting teaching stress.
In ano~licr empirical study, Nweze (1.992) explored the infli~ence of
school dimale on ndtninistrative stress among secondary schml principa2s.
The study was conducted using one T~unclrcd and twcnty secondary schonl
principals drawn from the two hundred a d forty cight secondary schools
under Enugu Srate Secondary Education Board. The study explored four
aspects of the school climate. They are the physical climate, the
i ~ n i t s of the School system. Data For the study were collected using a
school climate inventory and Administrative stress scale, Summary of data
analysis rccfeaM that school clirnatc is a major dctcrrninant of
organizational stress. The study revealed that F o r physical climate is
relaled 10 slress. This has to do with s p e c and general accommodation.
Tcnchcrs who lack n rficcs, tribfcs, spacious classroom m d corn fortable
physical stnlcturcs for tcaching and learning generally expe~iet~ce stress.
When they expcric~cc such stress, thcy l i~rn to ttx adminis~rators who
invariably will be faccd wirh diftinrlties addressirlg such problems. The
conscqucnce of such dif'ficdties is siras and burnout. In 1hc sane vcin,
schools lypified Sy poor psychological, psychosocial and p e r socidogica!
climate arc usually said to be staessrd to al l component units of the
schools. Thc study observccl that good rapport between principals, teachers
and students generally rcduced stress while p a r rappcwt gemratcd stress in
principals.
A numbcr of studies havc also becn candi~cted which relaied to
organixalional strcss. Miles ( I 986) studiccl role requirements as sourccs of
organizahnal stress. i-Ie sl~idies the relationships between major role
rqukrnents and cxpericnced rolc strcss on thz basis of data drawn from a
sample of two hundred and two rcscarch development professionals. Role
ambiguity and various Iypes of role conflicts wcre used as mcasures of role
stress. hcItlckd in d c requirerncnts are integration and boundary-
spanning activilics, personnel supcnhion and scientifk research. His
lindings show that role conflict appcarec! to bc more sensitive than role
ambiguity ro i~it'fercnccs in rescnrch and development role requircments,
Alrhough this rescarcher used role conflict and role ambiguity to
successfi~lly dacribc strcss. I t must be appreciated that there can be role
ambiguity and role conflict without an i ~ t a of stress (Moorhead and
Criflin, 1997).
Although this researcl~er ~lscd role conflict and role ambiguity to
successfully dcscrik SI~L)SS. It m i ~ t be appreciated [hat t l~erc can be role
ambiguity a d mlt conflict wilthout an iota or stress (Moorhead imd
Griffin, 1997).
Rolc strcss w t s alst~ studied empirically f'm the point of vicw sf
the individual's pcnmality, K e n a n and McBrain (2979) explorcd the
re!ationsI-rips bctween role stress measures in the form of an~biguiy,
conflict and overload and psychdogical stmin typified by tension at work
and job dissaM5c;lcaion an o sample of 90 middle rnanngers. Role stress was
associnkd with loiv job satisfaclion and high level or tension fit work, but
k s c relationships e x ~naderatcd by personality characteristics.
Individ~rals j ~ i i h lypc A personality (extraverts) si~oived stronger
rclntionships between rde ambiguity and psychlogical strain than those
with type R personality [Introverts). Also role ambiglity was significantly
associated with high stress and Buert (1960) reported findings that
supporleb a rclaiionship ktween hours of work nnd death fiom coronary
disease. 111 an invesrigation sr ~nortality rates of men in California, they
obsenu! that workers in light industry under the age of 45, who are on the
job ~norc than 18 hauls a wcek, have twice the risk of death ~ rom chronic
heart disease \\.orking 40 hours or less a week. Oboegbulam, (IiW9) in her
s w l y confirnu that in Nigeria, a$ in other developed and developing
countries, tcnching is a stress -1aden profession. In her work, both teacher
and principals rated "too much work at school" 3s the greatest source of
stress, the factors O F time pressure werc cor~sidercd marginally stressful.
Although, a number of empirical studies have ken conducted in
relation to stress, it is worth noting thnt the attention of researchers,
especially those concerned with administrative strcss and Burnout have not
been fixed on issues pertaining to tim management. This is because
administrators are faced with congested schedules which they are expected
to attend to within the limited available time, the extent to which they can
nlanage time and the impact of time nlanagement potentials on the qualify
of strcss they cncountet need not k neglected
Relnted Research Studies on T i m Marlagenlent
Soinc crnpiricnl s tudia have been conducted which relate very
closely to time management in gmeral (Sikavica, 1978; Ilereen 1989;
Penham, 1989; Egbuagu, 1992). Although most of" the studies were not
centered an schod adminisrration, the methodologies employed in the
study codd bu clnployed in school administrative settings. In the same
vein, while m x t of the studies were conducted in oversea settings, i t must
lx ~~ndersfood t h a ~ their relevance to our contemporary setting is in no way
rnini~ml.
Sikavica (1979) studied similari~ies and differences between time
managemunt approaches of American and Croatian mnnnger. The study
presented a comparative analysis of the time nlanagement styles in
companics in and the Unites States. Data werc derived first from a
1983 survey ccrricd out anlong 231 managers from 25 companies across
Cmatia and the United Stateq and n 1995 sm-vey co7ducred among 77
managcrs from 12 US companies situated in Kcntncky, The companies
included hotels, fast hod chains, rcqailers and whoksalers. In addition to
examining rrmw~gcrs' socia econonlic cl-iamctcric;tics including gender, age
sta~lcture and Icvel' of educatiorl, the study investigated management
approachcs, looking at aspects such ns Eendership skills and expertise,
management mcrhods. The findings indicated that Croatian managers do
not direr grcarly from their US counterparts in terms of sscio-economic
characteristics, ahhough thcre tend to be more Fmale and younger
tnanagers it1 USA. In terms of knatvledge, skill and capabilities, the
similarities betwcca the countries are great, both Croatian managers and
US regard icchnical and economic knowledge and managerial, and
is concluded that ouordl, rhe differences between US and Croalian
tnangcrs are ncgl igi bla.
Sikavtc;~ (I998) also conducted a study, which borders cm tirnc
rnanagcment and leadership. The study was spe~ilkcnlly centered on
succcss of hotel mnnagcrs. According to him the success of hotel
rnanagcr may depend on his pcrsonal skills and abilities and as well as on
the exler-nal environment. The study utilized ten top managers o W m c and
four srnr ~ U T C I S in Slovakia and the purpose was 14 determine rhe
d c ~ e r n ~ i n a n ~ s of s\~ccess. Findings indicate that success dcpends on
proFession:\lism. leader cornmunica~ive abilities, and ~hc ability KI motivate ,
people, to organize time and to c o p with impending sfress. Managers in
!lie hotels studied nppcnrcd to h a w most of tlme characteristics, however,
shortfalls did occur in rhe areas o f time management, dckgation of duties
and in developing training programmes for new employees. Alfhough this
study s o e m to providc interesting rcvchtion about cimc managemefit skills
of managers, i t did not explore the implications of time managcrnent skills
on productivity. The significance of this study should bc based on the
extent to which the researchers can provide convincing evidence that time
~nanagemcnt MIS are co-dcterminants of administrative effectiveness and
productivity.
A number of research studies on time rnanagment, whish pertains
specilkdly to delegation are available in literati~re (Mereen 1989; Penham
1989). The studies slxlw that delegnt ion reduces workload on exccut ives,
rninirnizcs adn-~inistrativc stress and enhances ~vcra l l procluctivity.
DeTcgation nccording to Penham (1989) requires a style of leadership that
i s a combination of directive and supportive I . behaviours, where rhe work is
assiged rogether with the authority, and resources to get the job done. As
such delegation can achieve several things: it can free up time for key
priorities, motivate and build ~9p the competence 01. staff and enhance their
is a cornbinaltion of directive and supportive behaviaurs, where the work is
assigned togcthcr with the authority, and resources to gct thc job done. As
such delegation can achieve sevcral things: it can free up time for key
priorities, rnorixdtc and build up the competence of staff and enhance their
professional growl? and development. 11 aEso allows decision to be taken at
the most appmprinrc level and increase [he effectiveness of the
organization, Thc decision between the core work force and the flexible
labour Fringe, along with the decision as to confract out, fit into the
principlc of deccnira!izati~n. Most of the studics suggest that
decentralization and empowerment can iwrk well wirh rt n u m k r af
cnte~prises and organizations. According to thc revelation of the studies
conductcd by Hereen (1984) and Penham (1989) eliminating the
bureaucracy often found in centralized management cncouraga energy
and enthusiasm and results in a betlcr service. Although decentralization
and empowerment as aspects of time management are not as easy to
Inanagc as central establishmenls, the findings of these studies concli~de
that lhc resuhs in impravcd performance are worth the extra efforts. ,
Egbuagi~ (1982) also conducted a survey research on time
management strategies of Iscal government aclministrators. The study
revealed that most local government administrators manage the limited
t inre very effectively through delegation of responsibilities to competent
subordinates. Although rthc study did not explorc In details the type o r
duties and respansibilirtics being delegated to subordinntcs, the research
was point blank in nck~iowledging that most locd government
administrators studied were obviously incompetent and could have in no
way been nblc to manage their work schedules without dekgation.
Egbuagu ( 1 992) rcfmed to time management, though quitc numerous in
foreign literatures, has not attracted much attention n I Nigerian
rescarchors. Although stress and burnout are prominent among our
exccutivcs, researchers have not deemed i t necessary to ascertain the extent
to which tlxy can be influenced by rime management.
Some other variables h a t were investigated in the study:
Gender, Locatlon and Size O T School
Gentler
Researches have b e 1 1 carried out on the roles of gender on stress.
Rrccl~cr (1984) indicated thnt as women gain increasing occuprional
mobility, they not only may bc exposed to the same physical and emotional
hazards of 111c work environment as men, but also may be exposed to the
pressure creatcd by rn~lltiple rolc dcmands nnd conflicting expcctations in
thc family, This author stated that recent changes in the traditional values,
sex rdcs cause more stress among women than among men.
In a s tdy by Kyriacm~ and Stuclin'(W78), on the prcvalencc, sources and
synrp tms nf stress, fcindc tcachcrs appeared to f?nd scveral items
regarding pupil misbehaviour greater source of strew than their male
colIcag~~er;, whereas mak teachers reported greater strcss for administrative
papcnvark. Payne and Fumhana (1987) in their study on dimensions of
occupation31 strcss in West India11 secondary school teachers, found that
female teachers repited significnntly greater stress than male teachers on
the Factor Time Management. Aigrte (1982) rorlnd out that female teacher
mow than thcir male counterparts fee\ the dfects of the stressoas on their
~ r S m ~ n a n c t . ~ . 'IIc result of his findings indicate, to a certain extent, that
k m a l c tc;lchers arc nzore prone to stress towards leaching than their male
coIleagws. Roberts (1996) studicd the various roles of gender on sfras.
Rolxm discovered that cel~ain personal orient at ion, thinking styles or
personality cbarnctcristics thnt are major attributes of sex directly and
independmtly lead to distress. Traditionally, these individual
characteristics have been assumed on7y to moderate the impact of external
stressors such as life events on personal well being. Roberts also
psycholclgical s~amina, such escessive entrgy devoted 10 a rrcrve-racking
job, lad; of slecp and omitted meals Form R highly stressful combination.
IIc strewxl that although continually striving for a goal can provide a
sense of direction and purpsc, unrealistic goals and rewards elre
inherently stress f d .
School Location
School location in this context nlenns whether the school is in Ihe
rurd 01- urban area, Boyk (IWS) said that apart from the population,
sornc other cnvironn~cntal Cactors likc wban m d rural settings influence
stress, HI: said that in the urban setting thcre are a n u r d x r of other
factors that attract on individual. and involve his time thereby generating
what he callcd rolc ambiguity. For him rak ambiguity generates stress and
could account for the possibility of people in urban sctting experiencing
more stress than their munterparts in rural settings, Expcriencc has shown
that teachcrs in the urban schoo!s tend to cxpcriencc more stress than their
counterpart in the rural area; this is bccausc the population of both
students and teachers in the urban arca is greater than that of the schools in
thc rural areas. Also according to Akubue (1997: 359)
Another problem will1 typc A schools ( w l ~ i c h is schools and principals located in the ~ ~ r b a n community) is that the principi~ls have to deal with a faceless community, hcterogencous in nature, a community with no direct commitment to the school, except those who have their children in such schools,
Size of School
Size of school is related to the popillation af both staff and studcnfs
in thc schoo!. In this study a small school is regarded as a school with
student population under 500 while a large school is a school that has a
student population of 500 nnd abovc. According to Mirogu (1992) in all
administrat iv~ setting, tllr number of subordinate under an admillistrator
determines the amount of stress he experiences. With the increase in
schooI population, the principals are confronted with a number of
re:;ponsibilities such ns c?ccclrnrnndfirion, provision of facilities and control
that havc obvious implications on administrative stress. In relation to time
mmagernent and school size Imaga (2000) said that timc management is
to 3 great exten! il function of school size. When the size of scImo1 is
large, there are more responsibilities for the principals, which ordinarily
task the timc mnnagemnr potent i d s of the administrators.
S~rrnrnary of Literature Review
The rexnrckr has presented a comprehe~~sive review of related
literature both !iron% theoretical and empirical perspectives. The review
presented a detailed conceptualization of S ~ W S S both from the
psychological a d physiological p i n t of view. The definitions were
backed up with ~ h c various ~heories of stress tI~ac approaches stress both
from within and outside rk individual in question. Theories like Schulcr's
Intcgrat ivc Transactional Moclel, Moorhead's Facct m a lyt ical t hemy and
Shir-om's Pcrsonl Environment Fit Approach. I t was an these theories that
thc researcher anchored this study. The review presented interesting
findings abo~it individual differences in stress. [I looked at a stressor not
as a specific vari:~ble but as anything that generates stress in an individ~ral
and that individual respond In stnlssors differently depending on their
pcrsonal phys;ological and psychological d;spasition. In addition the
r e s e a r c h also presented a comprehensive rcvicw sf the consequences of
strcss, m i o r causes of stress and stress nlanagernent in culmntion.
Literature was also reviewed on concepts of time managcment and
strategies for effective management. In additim a review of literature of
some other variables which are investigated in the study was done like
gender? location and size st' school, as they amwt principals' stress and
time n~anagcmcnt. Various empirical studies on strcss and time
management were teviewcd. I-Towever, some of the result of the
empirical studies are variance for example Milus (1986) in his findings
said that role requiremenz is a source of organizationd stress, while
Moorhead and Griffin (1997) are of ~ h c opinion that There can bc role
ambiguity and role conflict without an iota sf stress.
The r-cvicw sho\vcd an in-depth literatur~. on job stress among
principals within and outside thc country . It nlust be observcd [hat thc
review clid not provicle any evidence or findings on relationship bctwcen
time management and stress. Thc situation presented a wide gap.
Considering the crucial nature of time lnanagemcnt a d the increasing
lcvel of administrators' stress, il will be v e q necessary to cxplore the
exact relationships between thcse two principal variable in an
administrative set up.
CI-IAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter presents the method and the procedure the researcher
adopted in this sludy. The chapte~ is presei~ted under the foll~wing
subheadings: Design, Area of stlidy, populn tion, sample, instmment for
data collection, validation of the irrs~nment, selhbility, method of data
collection, scoring and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
This study empbycd a carrelntion method, Ntvaorgu f 1991) defined
. a corrdation design as the type of design that estliblishcs relationship
bctwe.cn two or more variables. In this particular study thc variables arc.
rime nlanagcment i ~nd nchninis~rative stress.
Area of Strldy
'The area covcrecf by the study is all the sratc public secondary
schools in Enugu State af Nigeria. The statc has substantial number of
state secondary sc!mols. The choice of this area is made first because of
logistic convenience and the researcher sees the state as having thickly
populated state smondary schools atad in thc effort to control such a large
schod the principal may experience stress.
Population
The poputntim for the sluby consisted of all the secondary school
principals, numbering 262, in statc secondary schools in Enugu (2001
Annual staff sstudcnts distribution, State Education Cornn~ission Enuguj.
The choice of principals in public secondary school only was made because
they are the people at the helm of affair the chief executive ofeach schools.
Sample
Owing to the fact that only the principals were used for the study and
considering the fact that the number of principals are not too large (i-e. 262),
there is no sample. The researcher used all the principals for the study. The
use 0:; all the principals further helped the researcher in avoiding sampling
errors,
Instrument for Data Collection
The instruments for this study are questionnaires. The first instrument
Adminiitrathe Time Management Self Report (ATMSR) was constructed
on the basis of the Research Questions on a 5-ponit scale of 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,
which represented the degree at which executives practice time management
skills. The questionnaire consists of two major parts. The part 1 of the report
contain items on personal data of respondents,. Part 11 contains 20 items on
time management practices of secondary school principal (see appendix 1)
Development of the instrument
The research based the development of the instrument on the
theoretical, practical and empirical sources of information on time
management strategies. The theoretical source was mainly from various
literaturz reviewed by the researcher in the area of the study. The practical
informa?:ion source was based on the practical experience of the researcher
who, for, over twenty-two years, has been in the teaching profession and for
some rime now has been a vice principal. The empirical source was based on
some information gathered from researches carried out by image (2000) and - -----_..__
Rogers ( 1 984).
Direc,; evidence of content validity is obrained from the examination of a
rest by competent judges".
ReliabiPity of the Instrument
A preliminary study was conductedbin Ebonyi state. In order to
establish the reliability, the instrument Administrative Time LManagement
Self Report (ATMSR) was administered to 30 principals in schools in
Abakaliki- EbonyC Slate. Also the administrative stress assessment scale was
adminisrered to the same principals. The two instruments were subjected to
test of internal constituency using the cronbach procedure.
On rhe test of internal consistency ATMSR yielded an Alpha of 84
while [he ASAS yielded aIpha (n) of 0.95. Summary of the reliability test is
shown in appendices 111 and IV).
Method of Data Collection
Data for this study were collected using both the Administrative Time
Management Self Report (ATAMSR) and Administration Stress Assessment
Scale (ASAS). Both the ATMSR and ASAS were administered as a set to
the 2 6 1 principals in public schools of Enugu State. The researcher L
admkistered the instrun~ents to the respondents with the help of five
research assistants. The distributed questionnaires were collected either on
the spot or within a week. Copies of the questionnaire properly completed
and returned were 260. This gave a percentage return of 98%. This could be
considered as high percentage return.
Method of Data Analysis
The mode of response (ATMSR) on a 5-point Likert scale is:
- - Almost Always - - 5
- - Usually - - 4
-. -. Sometimes - - 3
- -- Seldom -.I_ _ _ _ =-.-.- 2
- -- Almost Never - - 1
While that of ASAS on a 4-poirit Likert scale is :
MT = lMost Time - - 4
S0.T = Some Times - - 3
Se. T = Seldom Time -
N T = No Time - - 1
The mean and standard deviation were used in answering research
questions 1 - 8. The acceptance level for (ATMSR) is a mean of 3 which is
the mid range at which time management strategies are practiced. Any item
that is up to 3 is considered to be a favoxable time management strategies
Whe.re as for (ASAS ) mean stress of 2.5 which is the mid range at which
there was the presents of stress, is considered to be stressful.
The standard deviation was also used to measure the variation in the
distril~ution of scores. The research question 9 was answered using Pearson
r. the acceptance level goes thus:
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
7 -
1 his chapter presenl results of dala analysis based on the rcsearch
qi~fi~lions and hypotlicscs that guided this study. Results are presented in
tablcs according to the individ~ial research qirestions and hypotheses of the
study.
Research Qtlcs tions:
Research question Z
tWwi is ilre lewl of stress experienc~d bj) s e c o ~ d w y school
prirtct'pols ?
Data collcctccl ivith thc A(iminist~-nlivc Srress Asscsslncnt Scale (ASAS)
were i~sed to answer this rcscarch question. Data were analyzed using
mean and standard deviation. Summary of data at~alysis is presented in
table 1.
Qualitative Znterpretarion to Correlation Coefficients.
Correlation coefficient (r) I
ldterpretations
very low, virtually no relarimship
Low, definite positive relationship
Medium relationship -----------I High relationship
Very high near perfect relationship
Adopted from Wwasgu (1992)
In hypothesis 1 the pearson's r computed in research question 9 was
further subjected to a test of significance of correlation coefficient at 0.05
level of significance, while hypotheses 2 - 7 were tested using t-test of
difference between means of independent samples. In all cases the critical
value is 1. 96.
Summary of dara analysis presented in table 1 above revealed that all the
mean level of stress experienced by secondary school principals were rated
abovt: 2.50 which is the mid range at which to agree that the level of stress
experienced was high. The interpretation is that principals in Enugu State
Secondary Schools experienced stress.
Research Question 2
Whut nre the time mrrnugemetrt pructices of secondary schw!principuk?
Tnbk 2: Time manugt?ment pmctices of secondury school principals
I do my hardest task when my energies are at 0.29 Not
their ~ e a k 1 2.23 1 1 pacticing I
Items '.
I know when I wake in the morning what my ?- two or three primary tasks for the days are.
Mean 2.71
6. I do not do everything myself instead I delegate
7. L allow not more three unauthorized interruptions a da
8. Id0 not put off d&cult task or procrastinate
9. t return calls or scheduks when I say I wilI --. 10. In general my day-to-day task reflects and
supports my larger goal. 11. I do not allow too much drop in visitors
12. T do not get too involved in details
1 13. I use time inventories like diaries, rime table
SD 0,29
2. 1 accomplish my two or three primary tasks by the end of the day
2.5 1
2.63
Decision Not practicing
0.48
0.62
0.33 -
2.29
2.48
2.33
2.55
2.45
2.85
2.73
Not practicing
Not practicing Not practicing
0.57
0.42
3. 1. complete tasks by the deadline ( 2.48
practicing Not
0.66
0.49
0.51
0.65
0.43
0.59
4, 1 do spend enough time in planning.
practicing
Not practicing Not practicing Not practicing
Not practicing
I Not pmctking
Not . -
2.49
I4 do not waste a lot of time in m e e ~ i n ~ s (2.48 10.42 ) N o r
19. I ensure strict adherence to time schedules - 1 , - 1 2*44 1 0.39 1 ;:Ling 20 I ensure that unnecessary meetings or activities 2.1 I 0.62 Not
are susnended practicing
15.
16.
17.
1 8.
Summary of data analysis presented in table 2 reveals thal principals
in Enugu State. do not practice . t h e management skills effcctive. As
indicated by rhe mean af heir response. All wcre rated bchw 3, which is
tRc mid range at which timc management skills were practiced.
C
I do not get too involved ir l detaiIs.
1 do not sp&d too much time moving from place to place. I plan duties ahead of time
-
I do list projects in order of priority.
I
Grand Mean
Research Question 3
fh18 on the cxtcnt of stress experienced by secondary school
237
2.41
2.59
2.48
- practicing - 2.48
principals werc separated for male and femalcs. Summary of result is
sllown in table 3
Not
0.62
0.5 1
0.44
0.62
practicing Not practicing- Not practicing
No1 practicing Not oracticinrr
Dcci-
sion
Decision Mean
I respond irritably lo any request from co- ivorkcrs.
No Stress
LL S 1 ress I work ovcrtime consistently yet never feel fired.
- - - - - -
Evcn nvcr rningpmblems I lose my temper - ---
I hear every piece of information or qucstion as criterion o fmv work. - f- If someone criticizes my wnrk, I take it as a personal attack, -.
My emotions seem flat whether I Ilia told good news or bad ncws about my perfmnance.
Sunday nights are the worst time of the week,
To avoid c,oing lo work. I'd evcn pretend sick when I ' m I'eeling - finc.
I fecl powertcss to lighten my workload to schcdule, even though I have always got roo much to do, --
Evcryiliin~ I do sccnls like n druin on rny en erev.
Stressful
Stress Stressful
No Stress
Stress
Stress
Stress
et hinhly emlionnl OW minor mistakes, !A2 - I tell people about sports or hobbies that I'd like to do but say I never had time because o f rhc hours I spend a1 work. -- My hcdrll is nlnning down; i o f t ~ have headache. -. hckachcs and stornacl~acl~cs. --
I we t i n w as enemy.
Stressful
No stress
Stress
Stress
Stress No Stress
14
- If I evcn eat lunch, I do i t ar m y dcsk while working. --.
I can tell the difference M w e n work and play; but never had time ro relax benvcen activities. -
Stress
'I'hc data prestntcd in rable 3 above s b w s that the item means scores for
male principals were rated above 2.50 which was the mid range at which
their was the presence of strcss. While the mean score for female principals
werc rated below 2.50 cscept in itctns 5,6 , 1 1, and 19. The interpretat ion
was that male. principals experience greafer administrative stress than their
fcmdc counterparts. As indicated by the grand mean of their response:
I kel like I want to cnvcr m y d and hidc. ------
I scein distracrcd - 1 do things with poor coordination. -- I blame my family - bccnuse of them, 1 have ro stav in h i s iob and location. - - - - -
I have mined m y relationship with co- workers whom I feel 1 c - l e r e - -%. aqninsc. 7---
Grand Mcnl1 I -
Resewdl Qrrestion 4
2.94
3.15
3.24
3,13
3.14
Wflrrf are tire time mnnnprarf prnctices of male and femnk
priwcipl? 4
Data m time ananagcmenc strategies were also separated for males
and fcmala. Sufi~rnary of data analysis is shown in tablc 4
0.49
0.43
0.51
0.66
0.5 I
0.87
0.36
0.49
44
.&
Stressful
No stress -
Stress - Stress
Stress
Stress
r
1
2
2.3
1.95
3.3
1.90
Female
Mcnn
3.19 I k n ~ w ivhen 1 w3kc up in the morning what my two Or ~hree primary !asks for the cay are.
1 accomplish m y two or three primary,
SD
0.41
0.30
Male
Mean
2.25
2.21 3.49
Deci-
sion
Not
Prac-
tising - "
SD
0.75
Decisi on
Practic ing
- - tasks by the end of'thc da! . I cornplere rasks by the deadline. - I do spend enough time on planning-
I do my hardest task whcn m y energiss ;ire at their ntak.
I do not do cvcrything myself instead I delcgnre.
I allow nor more than [I-rcc unnuthorized interruptions a day, -- -
I don't put off difficuh task or ~ u r a s t i n a t c ,
I return call when I say I will.
I n gcneral, my day-lo-day task reflects and supports my Iar,~er goal. -
1 do not allow too much drop in visitor.
I do nor get too involved in details,
I use tirne inventories like diaries, time ~ a h l c etc, to nionitor m y limc use.
I da not waste a - lot of rime in rneetincs, - - L A
I do noQet too involved in details. - -- I do not spcnd too much time moving Porn alacc ro alocc.
I olan d d u s nl~cad of time.
I do l isr projects in order o f priority.
I ensure strict adhertme to time schedules.
I ensure hat unnecessary mserings or ac~ivities are suspended,
Grand Mean
2.41 ( 0.71 ( Not 1 3.39
2.21 1 " 1 3.34 I Practising
Result of data analysis summarized in tablc 4 reveals that fernale principals
displayed highcr t i m management strategies. As shown in table 4 the
grand t ~ ~ c a n t i i ~ ~ e management skills of male principals is 2.21 on the 5
psirlt item basis whilc rhat of thc fcnialc principals is 3.34. From the above
i t has been secn that in Enugu State male principals do not practice time
management skilIs while their feinale counterparts do.
Rtsenrch Question 5
Data on level of stress ammg secondary school principals were
scparawl across school location - urban and rural. They wcrc analyzed
bcsr=riprively wing Incan and standard deviation. Summary of data
anal-fled as shown bclow in table 5 .
1 respond irritably to any request from co- workers.
I work ovcrtirne consistently yct never fml tircd.
Even over minor problc~ns I lose my rcmpcr
1 hear every piece of information or auestian as criterion o f n w work.
If someone criticizes my work, I take it as apersonal atlack. - - M y emotions seem flat whethcr I m a fold goad news or bau news about my performance.
Sunday nights are the worst time of the w e t k. - To avoid going rn work, I'd even pretend sick when I ' m feeling fine. -- I fect powerless to lighten my workload to schedule, even though I have always got too much to do.
Evewhing I do swms like n drain on my s v .
I get highly tmotionrll over minor mis~akes.
Urban
"I"
Deci-
sion
Stress
-- S I ress
Stress -- Stress
Stress
Stress
Stress
Stress
Stress
-- Stress
Stress
Decision
: ? f % - + s ~ ~
2.86 /O.SII Stressful /
2,96
2.65 0.33 Stressful
- 2.93 0.28 Stressful
3 0.49 Stressful -
0.48 Stressful
I tell people ahout sporls or hobbies that 2.59 I'd like to do bur say I nwer had time because of the Imurs I spend a1 work. ---- ---
My hcalrh i s running doivn; I ofren have 2.94 he;rdachc, backaches an3 stomachaches. -- I see time as enemy. 3.36
IS I even eat lunch, I do it at my desk 3.09. while working.
I can tclt the difference between work and 2.52 play; but never had rinle to relax between. nct~vhiec.
I fcel like I want to cover my head and hide. - I seem distracted - I do things with pQOr caardina~ion. --- I blame my family - because of them, I hsvc to s t w in t w o b and location, ' 1 - --- I hnvc ruined my relationship with co- \vurkers wham I feel I compkte against.
Grand Mean 12.98
Strcss 1 2.93 ( 0.55 1 Stressful I -
Stress 2.86 0.44 Stressful
Stress
Stress 1 2.96 1 0.49 1 Slnsshd I Stress 1 2.93 - 1 stressful 1
A shown it1 table 5 the slrcss levels in principals-of both urban and
n ~ r a l schools arc almost q u a l . This implies that school location does not
influence thc level o f stress experienced by secondary school principuIs.
Research Question 6
Data on timu management practices of seconclary school principals
werc separated across school location. Data wcre also analyscd as shown
in tablc 6.
7 1
Table 6: Time ~r~anugement-pmciices ofprincipals from urban and rural
what my two Or three primary tasks for the day are.
2 ( I accomplish my two or thrw prirnary 2.62 1 tasks by the end of the day.
1 3 1 I comdere tasks bv thedeadline. 1 2.66
( 4 1 I do spend enough time on planning I
( 5 ( 1 do my hardest task when cnerqies are at heir peak. 'I--- -I----
not do evcryhing myself instead I 2.62 delelate,
SD ( Deci-
I sion
0.47 Not
I praciising
0.38. .&t 1 practicing
Rural I
Mean I SD ( Deci- I ( sion
2.39 0.36 Not Practi- s: . ., . .+
b
2.68 0.55 Not
I ( Practi- ( sin
1 7 1 1 allow no more than ttcee12.73
( 8 ' 1 don't put off difficult task or rocnstinarc.
9 I return call when I say f will,
10 In general, my day-to-day task reflects I?- and su orts my larger goal.
( 12 / I get too involved in details. 1 1 - 5 1 ( 0 4 8 1 LL ] 2.69 ( 0.69 1 L b
I I I I I I
1 1
2.44
2.61
2.74
I allow loo much drop in visitor. ( 2.26 1 0.53 1 ..
( 14 ( I waste a lot of time in meetings. 12.79 ] 0.51 1 L L ( 2.42 1 0.44 1 b&
I I I I I 1
1L
I 13 I 1 use lime ~nventoricr like diaries, lime
1 5 ( I do not ger roo involved in details. 1 2.80 I 0 39 1 6 6 1 2.49 ( 0.53 1 4 b
0.44
C.50
C.29
I I I
1 I table ee, to moniror my time use. I
2.58
17 I plan duties ahead of time. I
..
r t
I L
much time moving
0.43
1 I sing I I 0
2.42
2.39
2.18
6 4
2.63
, L
0.44
0.51
0.69
2.15
0.75
13 1 I do Ihpmjects in order of priority. ( 2.66 0.59 1 b' ( 2.44 0.53
64
1 6
I
bb
2.39
LL
0.37
Not
Practicing
0.81
t L
bL
2.45 0.44 Not practi-
Summary of data analysis summarized in table 6 above reveals that
principals from urban schools exhibit better time management skilIs than
i I
those in rural schools while principal from urban had score of 2.62 on the 5-
0.66
0.84
19 I ensure strict adherence to time schedules. A--
20 1 I ensure thal unnecessary meelings or ' ! acti\.ilies we suspended.
point scale those in twral schools had 2.42. Since both urban and rural
2.49
2.50
scores did not get up to three which is the mid range at which time - --_ _ -
management skills were practiced as such neither of them practice time
management skills. On the other hand, school location does not i nhence the
2.62
Not 1 2.42 practicing
I I
level of stress experience by secondary school principals
4 6
0.66
0.35 4 4
4 L Grand Mean
Research Question 7
Not practising
46 2.40
2.42
What is the level of stress experienced by principals in smtilE and lrirge schods?
The data collected from school principals on the extent to which they
experience stress were separated across school size i.e, in term s of school
population. Those schools with a population of up to five hundred and above
were categorized as large schools while those with population below 500
were classified as small schools.
Summary of data analysis is shown in table 7,
Table 7: .Meun level of stress a p e r i e ~ c e d by priPtcipak in small and
Snlall School Large School - - Mean 1 SD Remark Mean SD - Remark
I respond irritably to any request from LO-norlisrs.
I I work ovenirne consisren~ly yet never ( feel tired. -
1.84
2.02
No Stress
L.
0.41
0.25
2.58
2.85
--- 0.7G
0.Gl
Stressful
bL
Even over minor problems 1 lose my ternper .-
I hear every piece o f infortnation or yestion as criterion ofmy work.
If someone criticizes my work. I take it ns a nersnnal nttnck.
My emotions seem f l b ~ whether I ma told good news or bad news about 111y ner formancc.
Sunday nights are the tvorst rime o f h e week.
1-0 avoid going to work, I 'd even pretend sick when I'm fcelinq fine. - - - . - - P
I ktl powerless to lighten my workload to schedule, even though I have always go1 too rnirch ta do.
Everything I do seems like a drain on mv cncrgv. -
I get highly ernotionnl ovcr minor mistakes.
No stress
Stressful I rrll people ahoul sports or hobbies r l ial I'd like to do but say I never had time brcause of rhe houri I spend at work.
M y healrh i s running down; I onen have headache. backnchcs and stomachaches.
I sec time as encmy. -
[ f I even eat lunch, I do it at my desk while working. ---
1 can ~cll the difftrtnce be~wtxn work and play: but never t ~ d rime rs relax bursiceen nctiviries.
I V~cl like I want to cover my head and hide,
L I
--
Stressful
I seem distracted - I do hings with poor coordinntion.
I blarnu my family - bccausc of'rhem, I have to m v i n this iob and locarion.
I have ruined my r&i~ionship with co-
.- Grand Mean
liesulr of data analysis presented in table 7 indicates that principals
of small schmls exhibited Tower level of stress than their counterparts in
large schools. This imptics that the size of sci1001 influences the level of
stress experienced by school principals in school administration.
Research Qllcstiorl8
kffhnt is t l rp time rn~.stro~~enrc~rtiprfi~fices u$ principnls in smdl n t ~ d
lnrge sclr~ols?
Data collected on time management were also separated across
school slzc and analyzed descriptively using rnem and standard deviation.
Summary of data analysis is shown in table 8.
Table 8: Time inmrlgrn~ent practices of princ@nls itt snzali and forge
- 1 I know \vIicn I wake up in thc 1 3.48
morning lvhat my two Or three prinivy tasks for the day are.
2 1 accomplish my two or three 3.55 primary tasks by the end of the day.
3 1 corn lere rxks by the deadline. - 3.22
~ , " , d , n O u s l m ~ ~ 3.29
I do my harilcst task n~hen my 2.96 cnergies arc al their peak.
G I do not do eve~yt!liilg myself 3.1 5 instcad I delegatc
-- 7 I allow n o ~ more than rhrec 3.22
~lnauthorized in!erruptions a day.
SD Remark Mean -
I Practi- 2.17
sing
0.50 . b 2.12
0.33 . L
- 2.15
0.48 L C 2.07
0.45 Not 2.09 practi-
sing
C.77 Pracli- 2.12
8 I don't put off dil'ticul~ task or orocrnslinate.
13 1 use time inventories like diaries, I time table c\c, to monitor my tiinc use.
I
16 1 1 do not spend too much lime
17 1 I plan duties ahead of lime. I
18 1 I do l is[ prqiectr in order orpriority.
strict adherence to time schedules.
0.74 1 Not 1 2.25 1 0.33 1 "
As shown in tablc S pri~cipaFs oG sunall schools exhibit h i g h time
managcmcnt skills than those of large schools. W d e principals nf small
schods as indicated by the mean of their response had a score of 3.22 on
the 5-point scale those of large schools had a scorc of 2.12 . Those of small
schools scorc a h v e 3 wbik those of large school scorc below 3 which is
the mid rangc c ? ~ which time ~nanagerncnt strategies wetc practice
cffectivdy. Thc in~crprc~ation was I ~ B I principals of small schods manage
their time bettcr than thosc o f large schools.
, Kes~am-ch Question 9
Dala €01 lectd 011 ~ h c level uf t i m management stmtcgies exhibited
by stxondnry scl~ocll principals nierc corrclaled w i h ~ h c data collcckd on
[he levcl ol' stress tIxy exp3rimce using lhc person's I'rocluct Moment
CorreMion Procedures. Summary of'thc a~~alysis i s pl-escnfed in table 9.
Time marmgement (vsr. Strtss (uar. 0005) Ihl
As shown in table 9, the computcd relationship between time
management and stress i s -.S677. This indicates that there is a very high
negnt-ive relationship beween time management and stress among
secondary school principals, This implies that with an incease in time
management sisategics, thae is a reduction in the level of stress
experienced by the principals.
Time management {var. 0004)
Hypotheses
1101: The rehliumhip bei~vrcn l i ~ w r?.rcrr~ngetner?l und slr-css cmong
s~condmy school prirlcipcrls is r?ol slrrfislicnlly signijjcnrrl.
The Pcmorn's 'r' (-.St5771 computed as the rclationship was further
sub.iected to il lest of signilicance at an alpha of 0.05 using the t-test of
signi fkance of c~rrel~l t iod to-efficient.
R = 1.000
Summary OF result is shown in table EO
R = -8677
As shown in table 10 the calculated t-value is greater than the critical
value at an alpha of 0.05. The decision rule is to reject the null hypotheses if -- 5.-
the calculated vaIue exceeds the critical value. Since the t-cal is greater than
the critical value the researcher rejects the null hypotheses and concludes
that there is a statistically significant relationship between time management
and stress in school administration.
H02: TIrcr~ is no sigr~ificnnt dijfcrence in the time management practices
of male nndfc~nale secondary school principcrls.
Data on the time management practices of inale and female principals
were collected differently and subjected to a I-rest of' difference between
means of samples.
Summary of data analysis is shown in table 1 1.
Table 7-1 : t-test of difference in the time maftugement practices of male
and femak principds.
I Computed 'I-' 1 r2 t-cal
56.622 -.8677
Summary of data analysis in table 1 1 above indicate that the
calculated value of t (10.46) is greater than the critical value (1.96) at 5%
probability Ievel. The researchers, based on the decision rule, rejects the
0.75290
Catego9 - Male -
Female
Alpha
0.05
t-crit
l .96
N ' 194 68
t-ca;
10.46
Decision
Reject Ha1
hlean 34.40 64.82
0
SD 19.22 21.10
Decision
Reject H02
Alpha t-cit
0.05 1 1.96
Null hypotheses and concludes that there is a significant difference in the
mean time management practice of male and female principal
H 0 3 : There is no significant dvference in the nleun #eve€ of stress
e-vperi~nccd by male nnd female secondary school pri'ncipak
Data collected on level of stress experienced by secondary school
principals were separated across gender. The difference for the two
categories was tested using t-test of difference for independent sample.
Summary of data analysis is presented in table 12.
Summary of result also revealed that the t-cal is greater than the t-
critical value. Based on the decision rule the researcher rejected the null
hypotheses and concludes that there is a significant difference in the mean
stress level experienced by male and femalis&condary school principals.
I F e m a l e -
H04: There is m sigrtificunt llifference in the time nra~rcrgenzent prlrclices
of principds in urban and rrrra! schools.
Dsta on time management practices of principals were separated
across schoc~l location (urban and rural) and subjected to t-test of difference
between means of independent samples.
Surnrnary of data analysis is show in table 13.
, C64 68
X 47.89 38.93
SD 21.88 ,
21.20
t-cal
2.97
Alpha
0.05
t-cit
1.96
Decision
Reject H03
79
Table 13: t-te.vt of dlifference in the time management practices of
pri~cipdsfsorn wban and rural schools
rule the researcher upholds the flu11 hypotheses and concludes that there is - --. - ...
no significant difference in the mean time management practices of principal
in wban and rural schools.
Ha5: There is no sipificant difference in the mean kvcl of stress
experienced by principals in urban and rural schools.
Data collected on level of stress experienced by secondary school
principal were separated across school location. Data were analyzed using t-
tes: of di ffcrence between means of independent samples.
Sum~xary of the analysis is shown in rzble 14.
Uphold HO
Table 14: t-test of SXiJfererrce in the mean level of stress mperienced by
D e c i s i o n
2.134
I
C~tegosy -
E--
Result presented in table 14 shows that the t-cal(0.30) is less than the
critical value (1.96) at 95% confidence level. The researcher therefore
upholds the null hypothesis and concludes that there is no significant
difference in the mean level of stress experienced by princiljals in urban and
rural schools,
Mean 52.42 46.80
N 93 1 79
/ Category
Urban
Rural
SD 19.21 21.1 1 0.05 1.96
N
83
179
Mean
42.81
43.69
t-test
. 1.96
Alpha
0.05
SD
22.31
21.23
Decision
UpholdHO
t-cal <-
030
H 0 6 : Thrw is no signijicartf diJference iit tlre time m n t t q p m n t
pmctices of principals in I m p U I C ~ s m d l S C I I ~ ~ S .
Data on time inanagernent strategies of principals wcre separated
acrriss school size summary of result is shown in tablc 15.
Table 15: t-test of sl~ferent irr of the f i m ~ mmogenten? strdegies of
Decision
Reject 1-10
AS shown in table 15 a b u t , rhe crrlcdntccl t-value is 1 1.92 while the
critical valur: at an alpha of 0.05 is 1.9G. Rased on thc decision rule the
rxxrmher rejccts the nul! hywthcsis and conelides that there is a
significant difference in the mean time management practices of principals
from large and m a l l schools.
HOT: TI~cre is tro signi~cntrt dQ"Ji?refzce i ~ t the nrcnn levd of stress
esperie~mrl by principals i~ hrgc ~ n d srnall schmls.
Data collccki! on Iwcl ol' slrcss cxpcricnccd by secondary schoot
principals wcrc scparaled across school s k and subject to a t -~cs t of
difrer~ncc betnwri means nf independent san~ples.
S u m n m y of da~:r nnalysis i s shoivn in rable 16.
t-cnl Alpha t-crit Dccision -
#
S~rrnmar): of data analysis summarized in table in table I6 reveals
Lnrgc L school
that thc t-ca1 (5.56) is greatcr than t l ~ critical value (1.96) at an alpha of
0.05. I3ased on thc decision rule the researcher rejecls the null hypotheses
and concludes thar there is signilicant difference in the mean IeveI of strcss
183
cxpcriertcsd by principals in Earge and s111a11 schools.
5 1.60 20~59 5.56 0.05 ) 1.96 I~cjectHOI
Srrnlmary of Resrllt
R ~ s u I t s prcscnted in rliis chapter reveal the following:
(a) Scco~~dnry S C ~ I C K ~ ! principal in Entigu State generally cxhibit poor
time tnanngctilent pmcticcs in additio~l ilt is rcvcalcrl lhal l'emaIe
principal manage their time better than the male praincipals. The
study also rcvcals c h a ~ pri~icipats of "small school exhibits bctter
time rnnnagenxilt s t ra tcg i~~ Ihnn lhasc in big schools. 1,ocation
made no difference in the time manogmient practices of the
principal
(b) Secondary sclioo: principal in Enug~r state generally experience high
stress. I'hc Ievcl of stress in male principals is higher than those
of their female counterparts. I11 addition tllc study showed that
principals of big schools experience morc strcss than those in
small schools. I'rincipals in Enugu Statc do not experience any
stress as a res~~lt of 'location.
There are an iinvcrsr relationship between t i ~ n e management and
adrnir~istrativc stress. In other words, if time management
practices i n c r ~ a ~ e u , then the amount of strcss to experience is
less. On the other hand, whiIe the time management practices
dccrcase the anmint wC stress-experienced increases.
TI~cre is a significant' negative relationship between time
management am1 stress in secondary school administration
CHAPTER FIVE
DISClrSSJON, CONCLUSION, lMPI,ICATIOM AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
111 [his chapicr ~ h c rtseat.chcr discussed the findings of the sludy
based on the nine research q~lcstions and seven null hypotheses that guided
this sriidy, Thc rcsearchcr also madc some recommendations, discussed the
limitations of thc sludy arid finally suggested areas of fit~rl-ler rcsearch.
Rcsul ts are disct~ssed ~intler the following subheadings:
a. Level of strcss esperiunccd by secondary school principals;
b. Time mamgement strategies practiced by secondary school
principals;
c. Rdaticsnsl~ip ktsvecn time Management and stress fimong
sc.corrda~-y s c l m 1 principals;
I . GcnAcr, location and school sizc and their impact on lime
management praclices and amount nf strcss cxpcricnccd by thc
principals.
A. Level of stress experienced by secondary school principals.
Data colIected with the Administrative Stress Assessment Scale
(ASAS) wcrc usod lo ans\\/cr research questions and tcst relevant
hypotheses on stress. ltesult of data analysis presented in table I revcals
that principals al' secondary school experience a lot of administrative
stress. An individual is said lo experience great strcss i f hc records a Incan
of up to 2.50 on 4 paint scdc As shown in table 1 , the principals had a
mean of 2.92. . The finding at'tlais s~udy is in agreement with that of Nwezc (1993).
IIe 11otl-d that in Nigeria, especially among administrators i1 nurnhcr of
administrative slmss inducing variables to schocd d i m a t e nod argued that
~mfcss thc school climate is conducive lxlth sociaIly and psychd~gicaNy
school administrator \v iH continuc to cxperieticc stress, Nsvcze (1994)
honwcr, did not takc time management into consitlcration when he was
analyzing the causes and consequences of stress Packard (1988) also
prcscntcd a similar result Rclt outsirk Nigeria setting. His s t ~ ~ d y , though
centered in America shows a striking relevance to the findings of this
study. 1 Ic rcvcaled that the major fi~ctors that inllucnce lhe efticiency of
schcd pr i~~cipals in many districts i s , stress. According lo him the
conscqwnces of stress on the school principals extends to both the teachcrs
and students. <. Iherc is an agreement between thc finding of' this study and the
studics of Oboegbuln-n (1999) on strcssors and stress n m a g e m n t of
tcachcrs and principals in two Nigeria states. She confirmed that i11 Nigeria
as in othcr dcvcloped and dewloping countries, teaching is a stress - laden
profession
B. Time Managcmcnt Strategies Practised by Secondary School
Principals.
Data collected with the Adininistrativc T i m Managcrnent Self
Rcport was usd (13 answer the research questions and test rclcvant
hypothcscs on h e mlanasement. Summary of data analysis shown in table
2 revcals that the mean time management sfrategies practiced t>iv secondary
~ k o o l pril~cipnls in Ilnugu State is 2.48 with a standard dcviation of
20,16, As prescntcd in tile Arlrninistrative Time Management Manual of
the Rogers ( 1 994) invzntoly, which was used for this study only a mean
time rnanagcn~cnt of up to 60 will bc considcred aclcquatc for an
administl-atos. Going by this guidclinc, i t could bc seen that Finugu State
secondary school principals' practices of timc manngemcnt strategies are
poor,
Egbcagu ( 1992) presented a h l i n g , which is similar to thc findings
of this study. I-Iis study was howcver conductcd in a locaI government
setting. I-Ie also found orit that IocaI government staff exhibits poor time
managcrncnt s t r~egies . Egbngt~ ( 1 992) blamed the poor timc management
on the imbility af adminisfrator; to delegate responsibilities 10 their
subordinates. In [he samc vein tmnga (2000) present&! comprehensive
review nS t ime rnanagtmcnt potentials and problem in Nigerian schools.
IIe rcvocrlcd clcarly that a number sT ad~ninistralivt: lapses e~perie~llced in
Nigerian higher iristitulions sfem from poor time management skills of
school administrators. Al~hrat~gh !ic did not provide a guidc on how
adminislratnr should manage thcir time, he recornmenbed that a special
workshop on timc management be organized for school administrators.
'These findings lcnd suppod ao r hc earlier argument of Imaga (2000).
According lo I~nagri (2003) time management is to a grea.lat exrent a function
of school size. Wlicn the size of school is large, there are more
sc~pmsibihties for thc principals. Which ordi~~ari ly tasks [Re time
manageme~rl potcntlah drhe administra~or.
C . Rclntionship between Ti me Mnnagernent and Stress anlong
Secondary SchooI Principals:
Data coIlcctccP on time management strategies of secondary school
principals were corrdated with rhc data on heir level of stress to ascertain
the cstent to which the two variable reIate or are funclions s f cach o W r
summary of data anaIysls shown in table 4 reveals that the reln~ionship
between time m a n a g m c n t and stress among secondary school principals is
0.-8677. This implies a high negative relationship indicating that as rime
management skills increases, lhe level of stress experienced by principals'
dccrcascs.
On ;I test of signific~ncc or Lhc o5scrvcd inverse relationship
summary of data analysis in table 10 revcals that t l m e is a significant
invcrsc rcIation41ip between the ttvo variables.
Coleman (1994) pmcnteil a finding, which lcnds support to the
findings of this study. According to him, slress develops wherr an
administrator c o ~ ~ l d not fdfi l l his administrative responsibilities within the
stipulated timc frame. He argued that the likelihood of accomplished
adminis~rative r.c.spmt;ibiiit ics dcpenils to a great extent 011 time me.
Cmwford ( 1999) also arg tcd that tinrc nianagement has some implications
on stress among cop esecutives. His arguments are that stress arises when
an individual is eompktely isolated from other leisure activities as a result
oT congestion of dutics. When timc is d l managed, Crawford (1999)
argued that dutics couldn't gel congested to such itn extent that it can
s~imulatc strcss. In the same vein, French, Rogers and Cahb (1984) in their
Pcrson -Ernhnmcn! 1% model cxphin the role of timc managcnient on an
individual's propensity to experience stress. Although their arguments
ccnicr on ir-~!h;idual"s adiustnlcnt to the envimnrricnt, it was earlicr
clarit'lcrl that cffectivc time managenlent is an essential aspect of an
individua!? sadjustmenr to he envimt~rnent.
(d) This study also explores the diflerences in the time management
practices o f malt and female principals. As revealed by h e result oFclata
analysis summarized in table 4 thc mean time rnanagernenit strategies
displayed by nlalc principals is 2.21 while those of their female
counterparts arc 3.34 Female principals thcrcfore exhibit higher time
management skills ban ~ h c male principals. 'fir: tcsl o f significance of the
difference in the time management skills of maTc and female principals
reveals that the calculated t-value is 10.46 while strc critical value a1 fin
alpha of 0.005 is 1.96 owing to the f a d that thc vfiluc cxccccls thc critical
v a h c at the given alpha level rle researcher rejecrs the truII. hypothcse~ am
concluded thal he~e is a significanl dil'krence in the time management
slr;ltcgics of m l c a d i'malc principals. - Randale (I4358) presented a sludy, which lcnds s u p p r t to the
findings of his research. In study titled "Multiple roles an organizational
cornrnihnents", he notcd that women are bctter skillccl in management of
n~ultiple roles through task delegation. He notccl that more male
administrators consider delegation a feminine attitude or display of
weakness and incompetence. While they strive to attend to all tasks on
thcir own they fails ro make judicious use of available tirne.
This study also explored [Re time management strategies of
principals in urban and ruraZ schmls. Summary of result shown in table 6
reveals that principals in urban schools had a mean tirne inanagernent
skill of 2.62 while their muntcrpafls in rural school had a mean of 2.42.
This indicates that priwipals in urban-shols - _ exhibit higher time
management skills chan those in rural. schools. Although result in table 6
reveals that the time management skill of principals in urban schools is
higher than those in rural schools, rhe tesr of hypotheses show in table 13
indicates that the difference in time management skills for the urban and
mrsl schools is not statistically significant,
This study alva revealed the difference in time management
practices of principal across school size. As shown in table 8 the time
mal!agement skills exhibited by principals of large schools is 2.12 while
those of small schools had a mean of 3.22 indicating that there is a higher
time management practices among principals of smali school than those
of large schools. The test of hypotheses on the significance of difference
in !he mean time management skills across schools size as shown in table
15 reveals that there is a srgnificant difference in the mean time
management strategies of principals in large and small schools. This
finding lends support to the earlier arguments of 1maga (2000); that time
management is to a great extent a function of school size. When the size
of school is large, there are more responsibilities for the principal, which
ordinarily tasks the time management. potentials of thc administrators.
(e) Result d data a~alys is in tabIe 3 presents the extent to
which male and female principals experience stress. As
shown in the table, the mean level of stress experienced by
male principals is 3.14 while that of female principals is 2.1.
This indicares rhat male principals experience higher stress than
t h a ; ~ famnTn r n r ~ n t a m n r t Thn Gnrl;nnc r\C'th;r. c * , l / l x ; o r v r n a
w i t h that of Wcwton ~d Kecnam (1985). According to their study an role
stress and dc~crnrinants or executive burnout, females are !css prone to
stress than n-tales. Thcir argumect is that men arc very much involved in
stress inclr1cing I-oles than females. Thc study was, however, generalized
and could not present much on the types of roles in sehool settings which
are morc strcssfid to niale than to the fenlalc principals. Ipaye (1997)
presented il more interesting explanation of stress in males and fcnlales in
secondary sc4100T adtninistrari~n. I r l h is work on guidance and counseling
p m f i c e s , he r ~ c a k d that within sucondary school adn~inistmtion maIes
lend LO be mow competent in teachings and handling of students and nt the
same t ime do o k r hings . They loose cooperation from members of staff;
they find il wry diflicult LO accmpPisR a number of tasks. This invariably
induccs stress. On the other hand Ipaye (1497) cxplains thar female
principals arc Inore c~ndescending and olten delegate duties to
strborclina~es. By so doing shc accol~~pl isks a number of administrative
casks in a short wkik and consequcnrly avoid strtss arising from poor job
z~ccomplishment. On h e ccst ofhypoheses, rhc study reveals that there is
n significant cliffmmco in the mean level of stress cxpcrienoccl by male
and h n n l c priwipalt;.
Summay of data analysis i n tabtc 5 also revealed the Ievel of stress
as cxpericnced by principals in urban and rural scl~oc~ls. As shown in tabk
5 , principals from ~lhb3lh SCROOTS had a mean sltress level of 2.88 while their
coimterparts in mral schools had a mean stress level of 2.93. Although
principals of tiiral xhw1s had h i g h level OF strcsr; than those in urban
schwl.s, Ihe test of significance of difference in their mean level of stccss
in tabk 14 reimled that the diffkrence is not significant. The rcsearcher
concluded h a t although the mean level of stress experienced by principals
in mral school ~'sceeds those of the urban schoo!~, there is no statistical!y
signifjcant differcoce in their mean level of sfress. The findings of this
study disagree with that of Boy1 (1995); he argucd that environmental
I'actors sirch an urban and rurnl selting influenced stress. His argument is
that in urban settings there arc a number of other factors that attract an
individt~al and involve his t ime thereby genm'iting what he rcferred to as
role ambiguity. According to him role ambiguiy generates stress and could
account for the possibility of' peoplc in urban setting experiencing more
strcss than theii counterparts in rural setting. His agreement, however, did
not consider ~*olc specificity, which contains in secondary school
adn~inistr~a~ion. 1r1 secondary school administration, all principals both
from a~rban and r~wal schook havc svcific rolcs, which they are expected
to perform, and the roles do not differ with school location. As such, there
are two basts l'or the argumunt h a t role conflict or role ambiguity arc
esperienccvl rnmorat by ~rincipals from urban setting than those of their rural
counterparts.
In the same vcin., this ~ i d y considered level of stress experienced by
principals of largc and sninll schools. As shown in table 7 principals of
s-r-lal! scliaolu haw a mean stress lcvcl of 1.97 while thcir counterparts that
handle largc sclwols had a mean stress level of 2.7 a standard deviation of
20.69. This indicares that school size influences Ievel of stress on
principals. Or. fhe test of significance of the difference on the level of
stress cxperienccd by principals of large and small schools, summary of
data onnlysis shown in table i 6 rcveaIs that the a-cal is 16.43 wide thc t-
critical valuc is 1.96. The calcuIated valuc excecds the criticat valuc the
researcher rejccrs [Re null hypotheses and concluded that !here is a ,
significant diffcrence in !he mean level of stress espr ienced by principals
of larger and slnall schools.
Tl~el-c is an ngrecmcnt bcrweerl ~Iic IIndIngs or this sludy and the
adminfs~rative burnout, I le said that in all administrative settings, the
number of szrbordlnate u d c r an rtdminislrntor dctmmincs the quantity of
b u m c n ~ ~ hc expcricnccs, With incmasc in school population, the principals
burnout he expcrienccs. LfJith increase in school population, the principals
are confronted ivi th a number of responsibilities such as accommodation,
provision of fhcilities and control, which have obvious inlp1ication.s on
administrative stress.
Cmclusion
From thc rcsults obtaincd in thc investigation into rhc relationship
bclween l ime management and administrative stress in secondary school
administration in Enugu statc the researcher drew the following
conclusions:
a, Secondary s s c h ~ ~ l principal gcncrally expcsience high leud of
administrative S I ~ S in Enugu Statc.
b. Secmdary schaol principiils in Enugu State generally exhibit
poor ilirne managemen1 strategies. ,
c. There is a significant negative relationship betwccn timc
management and administra~ive stress among scconday school
principals in Enugu gate
d. The study also revealcd that female principaIs exhibit higher time
management praclices than he i r mnlc counterparts. In thc some
vein principals of m a l l school eshibitcd higher time
~nanagcn~ent practices of the time management strategies than
those in large schools. Thc study howcver rcveaIed that although
thc time managcment strategies exhibited by principals in urban
school is higher than those in rural schools, the dif'fcronce is not
statistically signifkant.
e. Male principals experience higher love1 of stress than their
femalc counterparts. The study also revcaled that while principals
of large schools esperience a statistically significant higher level
of stress than those in small school, there is no signiticant
difference in the level of stress experienced by principals in
urban and rural schools.
Education Implications of the Study
Thc findings of this study have some implications on education
uspecially in Enugu State. In the first inshnce the study revealed that
secondary school principals in the State experience a lot of adminis~rative
stress.
This inl'orms thc government nnd school board on the necd 70 devise
approaches to strcss nlarlrlgement among the principals so as to minimize
thc consequences uf administrative stress on general f~~nctioning of the
school system.
In addition this sti~dy revealed tlw poor time management srratcgies
cshibited by secondary school principals in Enugu State- 'This implies that
if sc11001 administration is to improve in the state, cft'oris shvuId be made
by thc school board to improve upon the time rnanagcrnent slratcgics drthe
principals. ?'his coulcl bc achicvcd through seminars and workshops on
tirnc manageruent in sscondary school administrqt' r loll,
Thc differences in stress and time management across thc variables
of gender, school location and school s i x were also revealed. The
im~lications here mre ;tfra~ siwh variable be taken into cansidcration when
designing stress and time management remedial programs for school ,
principals.
Finally, the stt~dy rcvcaled that time management has a significant
invcrsc rehtionship with strcss. IIaving revcilled th:it stress is a function of
tinlc management. the school board, counselors and psychologist charged
with the responsibilities of managing stress anlong schooI administrators
will now have a clcar focus on the sources of strcss and therefore better
plnccd to handle it. This will not only lead to an improvement in time
managemilt but also a reduction in the level of stress experience by school
principals.
9 1
Rccomnicntlat iorl
Based oil riic 17ndings of' this study. the rcsenrchcr made thc
fbllo\ving r-econ~iiienda~ioris:
I;c~vc.rnlnc.nl should orgnnizc n ~~or l t shop Ibr school principals
on time ~nanrtgeinun! m d slress managcmcnl in school
adminisiration.
Effeurivc counseling arid psychological scrvice should bc
made available to principals to help hem tope with slrcss, or
con~ro! T I E rxcurronce Q S strcss.
Male principals should rry to practice the time management
slrutcg r 4 bclcgnlion, which will ease off congestion and
rcclucc slress likc [heir fcniole counterparrs do.
Principals sl'lould strivc to practice thc time nlartagcn~ent
s~mtcgies so as to enable them finish ~hc ir work on time and
rcclucc adn~inistr-r~tive stress; sincc fimc mnnagcment has an
ilii.ersts wtatiol~sltip on administrative strcss.
Principals should make adequate use oftheir vice principal so
that thcir lw~d should be reduced to avoid strcss.
Principals should be mndc to know by their cmployer
[he adverse ef'flccl of adnlinistration stress on both their
personal wJl k i n g and administrative effectiveness so that
they will as much as possible avoid i t .
Sincc hrgc size of schmls rcsult in pmr lime mamgaircnt
practices, which conscquen~ly induce strcss, l u g e schools
should bc sl~ared among two or morc principals 10 enable
thein cope.
TIw govcmmenr should stop involving principals on other
jobs like politics outside the administration nf their schools.
Govemmmt should build quarl;ers for principals in ~ h c rural
arcas s o that they will qilickly gct to their houses and rest aftcr
school.
.jobs
Linr itations
Admittedly the generalizations made wMi rcspcct to this study is
subjected be thc folkwing lirnitalions:
1. Some principals were not willing to respond to the inslrurnents
especially the instrurncn~ on stress. Thinking that the data will be - used ;For retirement, bur they later did, after making me to come
Inany limes.
2. Surnc principds sccms 10 Re too busy to w s p ~ d prrrmj~ly lo the
si~uatio~~s. As sirck rncaswes or stress arc aisually liablc to minor
crrors bcmisc the dispsition of 111e respondcn~s arc lu some extent
functions d itnmediatc eircurnstawes. The researcher, therefore.,
status ol'principals as is usually ohtairicd in rnariy stress s~oclies.
4. Sirlcc the whole population jvas carried, the researcher spent money
Iiteraturc, has not attrxted much attention of Nigeria researchers. As such
topics are suggcvfed for research.
a. Mluence of stress on adn~inistra~ive effec!iveness of secondary
school principals.
b. Relationship between time management and stress in tertiary
school administration.
c. The relationship between time managenlent and individual
differences.
d. Relationship between time management and stress in primary
school administration
c. The relalionship between time management and administrative
effictiveness.
f. Adminisnativ e timc wasters in schoo\s.
Summary of the Study
This study focuses on the relarionship beween time nianagement
and stress, in Enugu state secondary schools. ?he need for the study was
actually promptcd by the observed distressed principals and lapses in
E n u y S rate secondary schools. - -. -. _ I For the purpose of successhlly achieving this problem, the
following nine research questions were asked: - What is the mean level of stress experienced by
secondary school principals?
What is the time management strategies displayed by
secondary school principals?
What is the mean level of stress experienced by male and
firnale principals?
What are the time nlanagement practices of male and
female principals?
What is the mean level of stress experienced by
principals from urban and rural schools?
Wha~ are the time managenlent practices of prii~cipals
fmm urban and rural schoolsi?
What is the mean level of stress experience by principals
in smalI and large schools?
8. \\/hat are [he Incall Icvcl oi f time inanagcnlcnt prxtices of
principals in small and largc schools?
9. What is fhc relationship bctwwn time management and
ndministrative stress Rmong sccondq school principal?
Seven hypotheses were ttlm hrnulatcd and; tested at 10.05 Icvc! of
significance.
1. I-TOI : The rcllotivnship between timc managcment and administrative
stress among sceondary principal is not statistically significant,
2. HOz: therc is no significant diffcrcnce in the time management
strategies od'nlale and fernale principals.
3 ]lo3 Thcx is no significant diflcrence in the mean lcvcl of stress
Expcricnced by nn lc and fenialt: secondary school. principals
4. 1 There is rn significant difference in the time management
Srra tq ies of principals in urban and rural scl~ools
5 . [-109: t lme is ns significant difference ir.l the mean lcvel of stress
experienccd by principals in urban and n ra l schoals?
6. Ho6: Thcrt is na significan! difference in h c hfie rnanngcment
Prnclices olprincipals in iargc and small schools
7. HOT: Thcre is no signilicant difference in the mcm lcvel of stress
cspcricnced by principals in largc and small scliool;~?
I<cscarch 1 - 8 \\;crc answcred using mean score and standard
deviation, for 9 Pcarson r was i~sed. IIypothcsis I invuTwxl lest of
significance of correlation ca-efficient at 0.05 level of significat~cc. FVhiIe
IIypolheses 2 - 7 were tested using L- rest of difference bctwccn m a n s of
independent snrnples. The instrunlents used were subjcctcd to o thorough
fi~w and content validity. The population was madc up of all the 262
principals in Enugu state secondary schools.
ALtcr thc analysis the follon ing findings were nladc ;
1 . Sccontfary school principals gcncrnlly expcricncc high lcvel of
adminislrative stress.
TIlc study reveals that male principals experienced higher level
of stress than thcir female counterpart.
Thc study also revealed that principals u f large school uxperience
a statistically significant higher level of stress than those in smaIl
school.
'I'hcre is no significant difrerencc in the 1eveI of stress
cxpcri?ncecl by principals in urban and rural schools
From the study it was revealed that secondary school principals
in Enugu state generally exhibit poor time management practices
of the strategies. .
The s~ncly also revealed that Fcrnalc principals exhihit higher time
nianagcment practices then their male counrerpart.
Principals of small s c h d exhibited higher lime management
practices of the stratcgics then those in large schoots,
The sh~dy also reucaTed that althoilgh the time rnanagemcnt
practices of the stra~egies exhibited by principals in urban
schools is higher than thosc in nraI schools, the differcncc is not
statislically significant
T k r c is significant negative relatiomhip between timc
m a n a p r e n t and stress among secondary school principal in
1:nugu Srate.. i * m v - v *w
A k i h c A.U. [ I 977) " Adniinis t~~t ion of s c l ~ ~ o ! community relationship" in Ndu A N ; Ocho; LO; okekc B.S (cd) Dynamics of Educational
Adlninistration and Management. Awka: Mcks.Pub. Ltd.
Appely T r u m h l l R , (1996) Psychologic~il stress. New York: Aplleton Century Croft
Appleby C. R. ( 199 1 ] Mocler.~ basiness adninistrution. London: Pitman publishing
Armstrong M. ( 1 990) The fmr, f ~ ~ m g e r :F fmndbook: A Reference ~ u i d e to :he best in management practice. Great Britain: Ksgan page - Ltd.
Rechr, T.A. and Newman, J, E, (19781 Job strcss, employee health and organizational effectiveness: "A facet nnalytic model," Per.soni~ei pyc%lology 3 1 , 665-669.
Rcnneci R. ( 1994) Persotml eflecliveness. (zn' cd) London: Kogan page I.td.
[krdian, G. A. 1 19855, "Dutcomcs o f sole stress: A Muhi sample Uonstrucltivc Replicalion". Academy i~f1Mnring~rner7t h f r . n a / 1 8, 363 - 375.
Berg, ZS.R & Grell, M.D. ( 1 977) E(hicational resenrc/r An infron'rtcfio~7. (3"' ed ) . New York: Condnw.
Floyle, G. J. (1995), "A Structural mock1 of the bimcnsions sf teacher stress". British Joz~rwd of'Educationni Psychology 65, 49 -67.
Hurdcn. D.S. (1986) Single pnrcnts and work setting: The inlpacl ol' Multiplc job and home lifc responsibilities. Fotni/y Rcl(i/iut~s 35, ( 1 ) 37 - 43.
Cohen, S. and i+'ilIs 'I'. A (1985). Stress social support and thc buffering hypotheses, Psycl.rologicn1 Bdletiu 98, 3 10 - 3 57,
Coshsn, J (1978) Health care copping and the counselor personal and guidance 56 - 620.
Colcn~an R.S. ( 1 994) S/ress ot;, environtnet~t. New York: Harper and ROW
Cook L,. C, and Cook C.E. ( 1 996) A sociolo@d appt-ooch fo ed~ico/ion. Ncw York: PuIcGraw - H i l l
Craig, L I . ( 1987) Pritnnry I~ecrclship it7 IAP 1990s. London; Longman Crau.ford, M. ( 1990), Managing people ir! education, London; P ~ L I I
Chapman
Ilenga, D. ? (198U). "The state of counseling in Nigcria". International Journal for Advancement of Counseling 6, 1 15 - 123.
T/7r S C ~ J O I Cutrnse for in (1 c/me/opirg 11fl/iot1: Pt'oh/~/irs ~ t n d prospers.
Calabar; 'l'rinity press and pubIishing Co
Drunkcr, P. E. (1967) The effective esecutivr. IJ. S.A.: Marpcr & Row publish inc.
Egbt~agu, C.A. ( l$192). f i l e rmvwget?leut in local govcvwnerrt ~~chrinisrmri~m Unpublished PufPA thesis, Ur~ivsrsity af Nigeria, Nsi~kka.
Ellis. A grid Griger, R. (1982) Handbook ofraliot~ol ettlolive ~herupy. New York: Springer.
F:metarom U.G (1997)" effeczive time Managemen~r Reflection for educational administrators, in Ndu AWN; O c h , LO; Okcke, 13,s led) Dynamics ot'ebucationnl ad~ninisrration and management. A ~ k t l : kkks P L I ~ Lti!,
Dolkins. C . ( h 996) Stress ardphysicd frnii7ing, London: Paul Chapman.
Fostcr, P, ( 1999) Brmhess dt1~inistmfic~7. Lmdon: Addison Wesley 1,ongrnarl Ztd.
French, J. IC.1). Rogers \V And Cabb S. (1984). Adjustment as a Person -- environrnei~t fit. En G. U. Coelho, D. A Hamburg and S.E. Adam (Eds) coping and adaptation New Yo&; McGraw - Hi
Fridman M And Rosenman, R H. (1980). Role of social support in experience of strcss at work. Jorwnnl of Applied Psychohgy 71, 103, - 110
Ganstcr D And Mayes T., (1986), Role orsocia! support cxperknce of stress at work. JOWWNI QfAppfied Psycbalqy 7 1, I 02- 1 1 0
Goltlbcrg, L.R. (1990), "An alternative description of personality; the Big Sive I'wtor sltluc~ure"Jo~trwd ofPersorznlify ardSocia? Psyhology 59, 11 2 1 6- I 229
I-Iavel. C. R. (1 96 1) Admin'nistrclrtion of hcalfh physicd edrjrrca/ion and I-ecrcntior7 1J.S.A: The Ronald Press Company.
Hereen I3, ( l989]. Delegdiol7 in blisinesx m~lnag~rncj.rt New Y ork; OxfimI publishing.
I Iigp,ing N.C. (lC)86). Occupations! stress and working ivotnen: The effects of two-stress reduct iota programme. Jorii-ml of Voco~ional Rohiwiortr. 29, 66-78
I F~~lmes D.S (1 984) Mediation and somatic arousal reduction hnlcricnn psychologist 39, 1 - 1 0
Irnagn ET.U.1 (2000) Iirw rrrnr7agcrnent cis nn instr-rrmenl nj'increming ~ ~ x e c u f i v e proiiuc/ivity n d eflciency, A paper presented at the scminar for S C ~ O ~ univcssity maoagerncnt organized by the offkc of NIX vice chnncelIor, University Of Nigeria. Nsukka, 6"' - 8'" Junc.
Ind ik I3 Seashore S.E. And Slcsingrr, 5 (19641, Demographic correlates of psychological slrtlin. Jorrrnnl of Abnonnai and Social Ps~~cholo~qy 69 -2G - 3 8
I pa ye T ( 1 99) Sz[icle/ine and cntrnselir7g practice, I Ie-I re: University of I k press
rvcnceivieh 6 . M And Maltoson M.T. (I980) S/ress nndwork: A rt~rmqevinlpevspec/ive Gfozvienv: Foreman Inc
Ivcncievich 5. M And Smith S, V, ( 1 982) Job difficulty as interpreted by incumbents: A study sf nurses and engineers. Hzrt~lwn nd~ric;>ns 35 (5) 391 -112.
Kahn R. L. ( 1 953) Arnbiguiv and overload: The elsnlents in job stress occrpn/io~rnl rttental healrh 3,2-9
K a d S. ( I 998) Epidcmiokgica! contributions to the srudy of works strcss in C o o p @.L and Paync, R. (eck) s/r.ess i7/ ~vot'k. NCW York Wilcy
K;tufirnan Rvl, G And Dechr, 'I' ( L !%), h-tterac~ims between job stress and social s t~ppor~ : Some counter interactive results. Jozrri~ai of App/ied P.~yclrs/ngy 71, 522 - 526
Keenam A And M c I 3 a h , G .D. [ IYN), Effccts Lype 'A' behavior intolerance of mtbiguiry and locus of contra! on the relationship between rolc stress and work related outcomes. Jolrn7nl of Occrpa/inn~rJ Psychof~~gy 52,277 - 285
Keenam 4 And Ncwton T. S. (1987) Work difficulties and stress in young professional engineer. Smmd t3f Oc1wp~7tioml Psyc/~oIogy 60, 133 - 145.
Kcssler K (1 985) Social factors in psychopnthology: stress, social suppor~ mi coping process. aw?riul r-evielv ofps,vchalogy 36, 372 - $3 1.
Kocha. .I. a. ( 1982) Job stress among school administrators" factorial dimensions and different effects. Jownrll OfApp/ied PsycMogy 67 (4) 493 - 499).
Ixv i L. (1998) Society stress and cliscase. New Yo1.k: Oxford Universily prcss
Macbcth M, (1983,) ' i O ~ ~ top of the job" Crrmdimz brisiness 69, 67-76.
Madson J . F. ( 1 1985) 4 historical view of the stress field Jotrrrlal of Nlrmcm S I ~ P S . ~ . I . 67 - 12
Moorhead G And Griffin W. R, ( 1 907) lntrductior~ lo orzgnr~imhnrd Gehoviortrs, Boston: Houghton Miffin Company Motr D. L, (1980) Business Edilcrtti~n Forurn 34, StilPwater.
(1985). IZolc stress i-eexnrnined: An imvestigational of role stress pmdictor orgm7izcr~iort b4/1lrvinrrr- c r i d hrman r~ccision process 40, 340 - 361.
Nweze A. (1995) "Stress in the executive" in N.N Ezeilo (cd) Funmi'y slress rrlnnngement Enugu: ABC books.
( 1995). T/7e e S / m rrnd contror' cfsrress in police sefificc. A papcr presented at a workshop for senior command course. Police Staff Collegc Jos, January 25'".
( 1 9 94). S~t.e.rs And J!lmss: Mmrsit?g comes, ejfeecfs rrnd p-even~iot;. A paper prcsenred At LEUAPS Scminar; Nationnl 1.ibrat-y Jos, Iunc 29"' - 30'"
Nwczc ES, (19%) Influence a f school cli~natc on administra~ivc struss ucpbl isI~cd M. ED. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Pearlion 1.1. (! 992) Sex role and depression. In N Dalen And L 1-1 Ginsberge (eds)L@ spnn development psychology: Nurr~rasive ct-isis. New York: Academy Press
Randall M. D (1 988) Multiple role and organ izafional cor!rrnitnrevrts Jclwrml C)fOryanizational Behaviozrr 9,309 - 3 17
Roscnman R.H ( 1 997) ;(jpe 'A ' bd~miorrr nrdjnw Irco~ New York: Ktropl
Schuler R. S. [ I O U [ "Jocirnal ~f occupational behaviour 3, 5 - 19.
Sertima I . V. ( 1983) Blrrck in scimce: h c i e n t rind ntadcrn, New Eruuswick: Transaction book.
Shaw, I. (1 99 I ) Br,siness ntl,t!i~iistt*ritiot~. London: Pi tnmn publishing Ltd.
Shirum, A . (1982) "What is organizationai stress: A facet analytical conceprualimtion, "Jmrr~rcrl Of Occipotionnl Behnviows 3,21 - 37.
Siknrlica P. (1998) Management npproaches: Similarities and cli ffc~encos between American and Croatian nlanngers. Tozrrism and hospirdiry nlnnnptrent 2 ( I ) 157 -1 77.
Stat!. A. D. (1 999) Concise dictiot~aq of business management, U.S.A Roi~alcdgc.
Uzoka F. A. The Family induced stress and family Therapy. 111 E z e i ! ~ B.N (ecl) Fntnily s!ress nmmgement. h u g u : ARC books.
Taylor I I . L., ( 1992) Whnr is linw worlh? London: Kogan Page Ltd. Winston S. ( !989) The or*gcmize e.r~c7rfive new ways to manage rime, paper and people. Great Britain: Kogan Page Ltd.
APPENDIX 1 AI)h4IIV1STRATIVE TIME MANAGEMENT SELF REPORT
(ATMSR) PART 1
PERSONAL DATA NAME OF SCHOOL SCHOOL LOCATION: ..-
srzE OF SCI-IOOI, (POPULATION): SEX OF PRINCIPAL:
PART 11 SECTlON A
TIME QUOTIENT SELF REPORT Instn~ction: Indicate your respmsc with a tick in the approach column corresponding to theitcm s choice. KEY
AA - Almost Always SE = Selclonl U = Usually AN = Almost Never ST - -- - Somehes
( Items
what my two or three primary lasks for the day are
2 1 accomplish my two or three orirnarv tasks bv the end of the dav ,
oom_pletc -- tasks& - the 1 (lo snend c n o u d ~ time in ~ l a n n ~ n a ,
5. 1 1 do my hardest task when my 1 cncrgies a r t fit their peak
T i G G G G G t h i n g mstead 1 delegate. mysel
I allow no more than three unau tha r i~ed i n t c r n ~ r s a day
--
- 8.
9. 10.
! 1.
12, 13.
14. --
-- -- -- 1 don't ~ t i t o f I ' d i rhu l t task or procrastinate - I re~urnmessageswhcnIsnyIwil l - Ingcneral ,mydaptodaytaskeffect and supparts my Inroc qoal
- ! = ' A -
i d o not allow too n ~ u c l ~ clrop in visi~ors - 1 d o not gct involved in rletails. -- 1 usc timc inventories like diaries, lime tn t~ lc ctc, 10 monilor my time LlSC
I do not waste a lot of time in
too involved in details too much t i&
I ensure . strict adherence to schcdule - -
1 or activities arc suspended
APPENDIX I I ADMINISTRATIVE STRESS ASSESSMENT SCALE (adapted from
hloorllcad and Griftin 3 997) - PART I
PERSONAL DATA NAME OF SCHOOL: SCHOOL LOCATION: scr-road SIZE (POPULATION) SEX OF PIUNCIPAIl:
PART 1 I STREES ASSESSMENT ITEMS
Instrl~ction: Please indicate yaw response with a tick in thc appropriate column c o r w s p d i n g to [he items of your choice. Thc responses will be treatcd as cofifkicntid and will strictly be ~iseci for research purpose. KEY MT = Most Time SO.'^ - Son~e~inws SE.T - Seldom Timc NT. - - No 'Time
1
2,
3 ,
Item l>sporld irritably to any request from co workers --- I work ovcrtime consistently, yet ncver reel tired Even ovcr n h o r problem I Iosc my temper
M Z T
-.--
S0.T
.
SE.T NT
--
I hrar eiwy piece of in[brrnatiou of question as criterion of mv work _._.
If someone criticizes my work 1 t ake i t as n personal attack My emotions seem flat whether 1 an1 told gmcl news or bad ntws about -- ~nyperfo~mmce Sunday nights nrc the worst time of' the \\leek TO avoid going to work I'd even
retend 1-ick ivhen I'm feeling fine P -L-. - -- I fcrl poiverless to lighten my work I- load to schedule, even though I h a w I always pot too lnr~ch to do Everything I do feels like a drain on 1- mv energy _.-LL
1 gct highly emotional over minor
I te[l people about sports or hobbies that I'd like to do but say I never had time because of thc hours I spend -- at work My health is ninning down; 1 often -I--- have hcadache, backaches and I stomachaches I I see h e as enertw I If l even eat lunch, I do it at my dtqk while working I can tcll the difrerence bctwecn work and play; but nevcr had time to relax between activities --I- [ feel like I want to cover my head and hide
poor coordinatian ----- I blame my lamily ~because o f them I have ro stay in i- this job and
co-wo, kcrs whom I Ted I compete I
PART I I I
Test of Reliability of ATMSR Using the Cronbach Alpha (a)
Variation
Score on thc total tesl
52 42 36 37 62 48 48 40 55 24
68 30 50 40 66 39 60 69 60 30
40 48 59 67 50 40 64 52 69 66
vt = 170.17
APPENDIX TV
TEST OF INTERNAL CONSISTENCY OF ASAS USING THE
CRONBACH ALPHA (a)
RESPONSE CATEGORIES VARIANCE
7
The researcher also computed variance of the total score obtained by each
individual in the total test. The scores are shown as follows:
a = (Uk- 1 ) (1 -Cvi/vt)
Where K = number cf items in the questionnaire
v i - variance of individual items of questionnaire
vt = variance of total sum of scores of individual in the
questionnaire
