24
University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below. Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Publication date: 2014 Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database Citation for published version (APA): Sips, G. (2014). Viral neuroinvasion: causes, mechanisms and potential consequences. s.n. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum. Download date: 29-03-2021

University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

  • Upload
    others

  • View
    1

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

University of Groningen

Viral neuroinvasionSips, George

IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite fromit. Please check the document version below.

Document VersionPublisher's PDF, also known as Version of record

Publication date:2014

Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database

Citation for published version (APA):Sips, G. (2014). Viral neuroinvasion: causes, mechanisms and potential consequences. s.n.

CopyrightOther than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of theauthor(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons).

Take-down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediatelyand investigate your claim.

Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons thenumber of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum.

Download date: 29-03-2021

Page 2: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context
Page 3: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

Copyright © Marijke Jansen,www.marijkejansenphotoart.nl

Page 4: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context
Page 5: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

235

Summary

Page 6: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

236

annex

Summary

This thesis addresses the concept of viral neuroinvasion, or viral infections of the cen-tral nervous system (CNS), in terms of its causes, mechanisms and potential consequences from a clinical as well as an experimental perspective.

Chapter 1 provides an outline of the thematic backgrounds, scope and contents of the thesis. It discusses associations between viral infections and CNS diseases, including clues for potential involvement of viruses in the pathogenesis of the chronic neurological disor-ders Alzheimer’s disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Multiple Sclerosis (MS), and Parkinson’s disease. Also, it outlines mechanistic aspects of viral neuroinvasion including routes of viral entry into the CNS.

Chapter 2 discusses the involvement of paramyxoviruses of the morbillivirus genus in the pathogenesis of demyelinating disease and potential associations with MS. Studies in wildlife have shown that, apart from measles virus (MV) and canine distemper virus (CDV) which can cause demyelinating diseases of the CNS in humans and dogs, respectively, morbilliviruses can cause similar disease in aquatic mammals. This may provide clues con-cerning virus-host interactions that lead towards CNS disease at the level of related (mam-malian) host species.

Chapter 3 discusses neuroinvasive flavivirus infections, with a focus on CNS compli-cations reported for major emerging flaviviruses, in terms of their epidemiology, sympto-matology, neuropathology and neuropathogenesis. Flaviviruses have been linked to viral parkinsonism, in the case of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), and infection of ventral horn motor neurons, as occurs in ALS, in the case of West Nile virus (WNV). In addition, it has become clear that, beside traditional “encephalitic” viruses such as JEV and WNV, dengue virus (DENV) has also been associated with CNS complications and neuroinvasion. This may provide clues concerning virus-host interactions that lead towards CNS disease at the level of related viruses.

Chapter 4 discusses CNS complications of several highly prevalent respiratory viruses, including influenza, by means of assessing currently reported associations and discussing potential common themes with respect to the symptomatology, neuropathogenesis and neuropathology of CNS complications documented in the context of these infections. It has been shown that several of these viruses are associated with CNS disorders and are (occasionally) found in the CNS of both “healthy” as well as “affected” individuals. This may provide clues concerning virus-host interactions that lead towards CNS disease within an infected host species.

Chapter 5 studies the permissiveness of a panel of human neuronal and ocular cells to influenza A/H1N1pdm virus infection. It also documents sialic-acid expression patterns of these cells. The study addresses possible mechanisms of viral neuroinvasion, including

Page 7: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

237

Summary

axonal, potentially olfactory-mediated, transport, neurovirulence and influenza-asso-ciated extrarespiratory complications on a cellular level. Studied cells, including human neuroblastoma, glioblastoma and uveal melanoma cells were shown to be permissive to influenza A/H1N1pdm infection. Several cells were, furthermore, demonstrated to express α2,3- and/or α2,6-linked sialic acids which have been demonstrated to act as receptors for avian and human influenza viruses, as well as other viruses, including adenoviruses and JC virus (JCV).

As CNS and ocular complications of viral infections have been described, these results may be clinically relevant. The permissiveness and sialic-acid expression patterns of human uveal melanoma cells may be relevant as uveal complications and uveitis have been described for several viruses, including influenza, and these cells can resemble olfac-tory receptor neurons (ORNs). Furthermore, it may be of interest that several neuroin-flammatory/neurodegenerative diseases start with dysfuntioning of olfactory and optic sensory systems, in the case of Parkinson’s disease and MS, respectively, sometimes years prior to the development of other symptoms. Although studied cells are cell lines, they are of human origin and it will be interesting to see to which extent these in vitro findings cor-relate to the human in vivo setting.

Chapter 6 describes the infection of human nasal mucosa tissue explants with influ-enza A/H1N1pdm virus and experimentally assesses the interactions of this virus with human upper respiratory tract target tissue samples, with a specific focus on the potential infection of ORNs, on a tissue level. Explants were cultured in transwell inserts for various periods of time, and appeared to remain viable, as indicated by H/E staining results, for total culture periods of up to 96 hr. Furthermore, viral nucleoprotein (NP) staining positivity indicative of infection, apparently located to epithelial linings, was seen following infection with influenza virus. Although positivity for the ORN marker olfactory marker protein (OMP) was also observed, no definitive co-staining for NP and OMP was seen in currently per-formed experiments. In analogy to the study described in Chapter 5, it will be interesting to see to which extent experimental results correlate to the human in vivo setting.

Chapter 7 presents a clinical case study describing the occurrence of an inflamma-tory pseudotumor of the CNS associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), JCV and the immune reconstitution syndrome. The inflammatory pseudotumor appeared to have developed against the background of a highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) regimen in an HIV-positive individual. States of immunosuppression, including the use of immune suppressants but potentially also infections, can be associated with reactiva-tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context of an immune reconstitution syndrome. The above described topics can be of clinical relevance, as several individuals are treated with anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory drugs that might have an effect on their CNS “virome” which potentially harbours latent or opportunistic pathogens.

Page 8: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

238

annex

Chapter 8 describes the occurrence of intravascular lymphomatosis (IVL) of the brain in an individual diagnosed with myelodysplatic syndrome (MDS). Both disorders have been associated with (herpes)viral infections and there might be pathogenic relations on the hematopoietic cell level. It has been described that viruses can enter the CNS within immune cells, the so-called “Trojan-horse” mechanism. Beside axonal transport, this may be another specific mechanism suited for viral entry into CNS. Treatment of intravascular lymphomatous cells within the brain, as has been described, can in that respect be of clini- cal relevance.

Chapter 9 provides a general discussion of the themes discussed within the thesis. It discusses the mechanisms by which viruses can enter the CNS as well as (potential) viral involvement in the pathogenesis of CNS diseases, including chronic neurological disorders. As also outlined in Chapter 1, here, axonal, potentially olfactory, transport as well as hema-togenous “Trojan-horse” entry within infected blood cells may provide means by which viruses can enter the CNS whilst relatively “bypassing” peripheral immune responses. Fur-thermore, within the CNS, both (latently present) viruses as well as (non-cytolytic) immune responses may be directed towards avoiding neural cell death and viruses may, in general, affect neural cells in non-acute manners, warranting further study of potential relation-ships between viral infections and chronic neurological diseases.

Also, potential avenues for future research are discussed. Detection and imaging tech-niques play crucial roles in the establishment of (real-time) links between CNS diseases and viral infections. Preventive and treatment options for viral CNS infections may both be CNS- as well as virus-specific. These specificities may be reached through axonal delivery and effective crossing of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) of virus-directed treatment modali-ties, or via their effectiveness before viral neuroinvasion takes place. Developments in the fields of viral and human metagenomics provide clues as to whom to treat when, as not all viruses may always be disease-causing in all individuals. These developments, thus, may be highly important in personalized treatment.

Page 9: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

239

summary

Page 10: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

240

Page 11: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

241

Samenvatting

Page 12: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

242

annex

Samenvatting

Dit proefschrift bespreekt de oorzaken, mechanismen en mogelijke gevolgen van virale neuroinvasie, of virale infecties van het centrale zenuwstelsel (CZS), vanuit zowel klinisch als experimenteel perspectief.

Hoofdstuk 1 geeft een overzicht van de achtergrondthematiek, opzet en inhoud van het proefschrift. Het beschrijft associaties tussen virale infecties en CZS ziekten, inclusief aanwijzingen voor mogelijke betrokkenheid van virussen bij de pathogenese van chro-nische neurologische aandoeningen, zoals de ziekte van Alzheimer, Amyotrofische Laterale Sclerose (ALS), Multiple Sclerose (MS), en de ziekte van Parkinson. Tevens beschrijft het mechanistische aspecten van virale neuroinvasie en routes van virale verspreiding naar het CZS.

Hoofdstuk 2 bediscussieert de betrokkenheid van paramyxovirussen van het genus morbillivirus bij de pathogenese van demyeliniserende ziekten en mogelijke associaties met MS. Diverse studies hebben aangetoond dat, naast het mazelen virus (MV) en het canine distemper virus (CDV), die demyeliniserende ziekten van het CZS bij respectievelijk mensen en honden kunnen veroorzaken, morbillivirussen dergelijke pathologie ook bij zeezoogdieren kunnen veroorzaken. Dit kan aanwijzingen geven betreffende virus-gast-heer interacties die tot CZS pathologie leiden op het niveau van gerelateerde (zoogdier) gastheersoorten.

Hoofdstuk 3 bediscussieert neuroinvasieve flavivirusinfecties, met een focus op CZS complicaties die gerapporteerd zijn voor sterk in opkomst zijnde flavivirussen, in termen van hun epidemiologie, symptomatologie, neuropathologie en neuropathogenese. Flavi-virussen zijn geassocieerd met viraal parkinsonisme, in het geval van het Japanse ence-falitis virus (JEV), en infectie van voorhoorn motorneuronen zoals gebeurt bij ALS, in het geval van het West-Nijlvirus (WNV). Daarnaast is duidelijk geworden dat, naast traditionele “encefalitische” virussen zoals JEV en WNV, het Dengue virus (DENV) ook geassocieerd is met CZS complicaties en neuroinvasie. Dit kan aanwijzingen geven betreffende virus-gast-heer interacties die tot CZS pathologie leiden op het niveau van gerelateerde virussen.

Hoofdstuk 4 bediscussieert CZS complicaties van diverse veelvoorkomende, via de luchtwegen overgedragen, virussen, waaronder influenza. Het hoofdstuk onderzoekt tot dusverre gerapporteerde associaties en bespreekt mogelijke overkoepelende thema’s met betrekking tot de symptomatologie, neuropathogenese en neuropathologie van CZS com-plicaties die zijn gerapporteerd in de context van deze infecties. Het is aangetoond dat ver-scheidene van de besproken virussen geassocieerd zijn met CZS ziekten en (soms) aange-troffen worden in het CZS van zowel “gezonde”, of asymptomatische, als zieke individuën. Dit kan aanwijzingen geven betreffende virus-gastheer interacties die tot CZS pathologie kunnen leiden binnen een geïnfecteerde gastheersoort.

Page 13: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

243

samenvatting

Hoofdstuk 5 bestudeert de vatbaarheid van een panel humane neuronale en oculaire cellen voor infectie met het influenza A/H1N1pdm virus. Ook beschrijft het siaalzuur-ex-pressiepatronen van deze cellen. De studie heeft betrekking op mogelijke mechanismen van virale neuroinvasie, inclusief axonaal, mogelijk olfactoir-gemedieerd, transport, neurovirulentie en influenza-geassocieerde extrarespiratoire complicaties op celniveau. Bestudeerde cellen, waaronder humane neuroblastoom-, glioblastoom- en uveale mela-noomcellen bleken vatbaar te zijn voor infectie met influenza A/H1N1pdm virus. Van ver-scheidene cellen werd verder aangetoond dat ze α2,3- en/of α2,6-gekoppelde siaalzuren tot expressie brengen waarvan gebleken is dat ze als receptoren voor aviaire en humane influenza virussen, en ook andere virussen zoals adenovirussen en JC virus (JCV), kunnen fungeren.

Aangezien CZS en oculaire complicaties van virale infecties zijn beschreven kunnen deze resultaten klinisch relevant zijn. De vatbaarheid en siaalzuur-expressiepatronen van humane uveale melanoomcellen kunnen relevant zijn aangezien uveale complicaties en uveïtis voor verscheidene virussen, inclusief influenza, zijn beschreven en deze cellen kunnen lijken op olfactoire receptorneuronen (ORNs). Verder is het interessant dat verschei-dene neuroinflammatoire/neurodegeneratieve ziekten beginnen met dysfunctioneren van olfactoire, in het geval van de ziekte van Parkinson, en optische, in het geval van MS, sensorische systemen, soms jaren voor de ontwikkeling van andere symptomen. Hoewel bestu deerde cellen cellijnen zijn, zijn ze van humane oorsprong en het is interessant om na te gaan in hoeverre deze in vitro bevindingen correleren met de humane in vivo situatie.

Hoofdstuk 6 beschrijft infectie van humane neusslijmvliesexplantaten met influenza A/H1N1pdm virus en bestudeert de interacties van dit virus met humane bovenste-lucht- weg “target” weefselsamples, met een specifieke focus op de mogelijke infectie van ORNs, op weefselniveau. Explantaten werden gedurende diverse periodes in “transwell inserts” gekweekt en bleken intact te blijven, op basis van H/E kleuringsresultaten, gedurende maximale kweekperiodes van 96 uur. Verder werd, na infectie met influenza virus, virale nucleoproteïne (NP) kleuring, indicatief voor infectie, waargenomen, ogenschijnlijk gelokaliseerd op het niveau van de epitheliale omlijning. Hoewel positiviteit voor de ORN marker “olfactory marker protein” (OMP) ook werd waargenomen, werd in tot dusverre verrichte experimenten geen definitieve co-kleuring met NP en OMP gezien. Analoog aan de studie beschreven in Hoofdstuk 5, is het interessant na te gaan in hoeverre de experi-mentele resultaten correleren aan de humane in vivo situatie.

Hoofdstuk 7 geeft een klinische “case study” weer, die het optreden van een inflamma-toire pseudotumor van het CZS geassocieerd met humaan immunodeficiëntie virus (HIV), JCV en het immuunreconstitutiesyndroom beschrijft. De inflammatoire pseudotumor leek zich te hebben ontwikkeld tegen de achtergrond van een “highly active antiretroviral treat-ment” (HAART) regime bij een HIV-positief persoon. Immuunsuppressie, als gevolg van het gebruik van immuunsuppressiva maar mogelijk ook infecties, kan geassocieerd zijn met

Page 14: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

244

annex

reactivatie van latente pathogenen. In dit geval kan het immuunsysteem, na HAART, zich (opnieuw) gericht hebben op JCV in de context van een immuunreconstitutiesyndroom. Bovenstaande thema’s kunnen klinisch relevant zijn, aangezien diverse personen behan-deld worden met antimicrobiële en anti-inflammatoire middelen die een effect zouden kunnen hebben op hun CZS “viroom” dat mogelijke latente of opportunistische patho-genen herbergt.

Hoofdstuk 8 beschrijft het optreden van intravasculaire lymfomatose (IVL) van de hersenen bij een persoon gediagnosteerd met myelodysplastisch syndroom (MDS). Beide aandoeningen zijn geassocieerd met (herpes)virale infecties en er zouden pathogenetische relaties op hematopoietisch celniveau kunnen bestaan. Het is beschreven dat virussen zich in immuuncellen naar het CZS kunnen verspreiden, het zogenaamde “Paard van Troje” fenomeen. Naast axonaal transport kan dit een ander specifiek mechanisme zijn dat leidt tot virale verspreiding naar het CZS. Behandeling van intravasculaire lymfomateuze cellen in de hersenen, zoals in dit hoofdstuk beschreven, kan in dat opzicht van klinisch belang zijn.

Hoofdstuk 9 biedt een algemene discussie van de thema’s die in het proefschrift aan bod komen. Het bediscussieert de mechanismen waarlangs virussen zich naar het CZS kunnen verspreiden alsook (mogelijke) virale betrokkenheid bij de pathogenese van CZS ziekten, inclusief chronische neurologische aandoeningen. Zoals ook geschetst in Hoofd-stuk 1 kunnen axonaal, mogelijk olfactoir, transport alsook hematogene “Paard van Troje” verspreiding in geïnfecteerde bloedcellen hier routes vormen waarlangs virussen het CZS kunnen binnenkomen terwijl ze daarbij perifere immuunresponsen relatief “omzeilen”. Bovendien kunnen, binnen het CZS, zowel (latent aanwezige) virussen als (non-cyto-lytische) immuunresponsen erop gericht zijn neurale celdood te voorkomen en kunnen, in zijn algemeenheid, virussen neurale cellen op niet-acute wijze aantasten, hetgeen verdere studie naar mogelijke relaties tussen virale infecties en neurologische ziekten rechtvaar-digt.

Ook worden mogelijke opties voor toekomstig onderzoek besproken. Detectie en beeld-vormingstechnieken spelen een cruciale rol bij het leggen van (“real-time”) verbanden tussen CZS ziekten en virale infecties. Preventieve en therapeutische opties voor virale infecties van het CZS kunnen zowel CZS- als virusspecifiek zijn. Deze specificiteiten kunnen bereikt worden door axonaal transport en effectief “oversteken” van de bloed-hersen-barrière (BBB) van virus-gerichte behandelmodaliteiten, of door hun activiteit voordat virale neuroinvasie plaatsvindt. Ontwikkelingen met betrekking tot het virale en humane metagenoom geven aanwijzingen betreffende wie wanneer te behandelen, aangezien niet alle virussen altijd in alle personen ziekmakend hoeven te zijn. Deze ontwikkelingen kunnen dus erg belangrijk voor gepersonaliseerde behandelingen zijn.

Page 15: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

245

samenvatting

Page 16: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

246

Page 17: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

247

acknowledgementS

Page 18: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

248

annex

Page 19: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

249

acknowledgements

AcknowledgementS

Now that it has come down to these pages, many colleagues/family members/friends (and these terms can be used interchangeably!) have already been mentioned, referred to, or included within this thesis. In the very “final” stages of preparing the manuscript, my mother kindfully agreed to design the artwork on the cover and preceding thesis sections, and my brother to act as paranymph. In this, also final, phase I really also wanted to refer to my father (’s thesis)*. This might seem “symbolical” (and maybe it is!) but it really also has to do with the broad manner in which he formulated his thesis’ acknowledgements, generally thanking everyone involved, which I understand and had in mind for this section as well... You can therefore really see it as an "ultimate reference” from my side...

As described, many people have been listed within this thesis, which I, maybe also for that reason, really wanted to dedicate to all of you, as my family and friends! Sometimes even also “functions” or “titles” have been named. In these respects, I can really say that I feel this thesis, and me being at the point where I am right now, is the result of interactions with all of you and I am very thankful for that!

I, here, maybe a bit in analogy to my father's thesis and notwithstanding the fact that I mentioned him, my mother and brother to also explain why I formulate the acknow-ledgements like this, in no specific order would like to express equal, heartfelt, thanks to everyone who has stood by my side in this process also because I have the feeling that there have been so many people of importance to me and who have “touched” me, and just to let you know that I am really very, very grateful to each and everyone of you!!!

With best wishes!

George

Groningen, June 2014

*Sips H, The plasma membrane of the liver parenchymal cell: structure and function/ door Harmannus Johannes Sips, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1981

Page 20: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

250

Page 21: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

251

curriculum vitae

Page 22: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

252

annex

Page 23: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context

253

curriculum vitae

curriculum VitAe

Gregorius Johannes (George) Sips was born on the 30th of December 1981 in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. He followed high school education at R.K. Gymnasium Beekvliet, Sint-Michielsgestel, The Netherlands and obtained an MD at the University of Groningen, The Netherlands. During his medical studies, he enrolled into an MD/PhD trajectory, against the background of which the work described within this thesis was conducted. Part of the “MD” phase of his studies consisted of a period of clinical electives at the Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, USA and, during the “PhD” phase, he had the opportunity to be involved in research-related activities at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health , Baltimore, USA. The present manuscript forms a combined result of these activi-ties and the input of- and interactions with many involved individuals.

Contact details:

University Medical Center Groningen Department of Medical Microbiology Hanzeplein 1 P.O. Box 30.001, HPC EB88 9700 RB Groningen The Netherlands [email protected]

Johan de Wittstraat 82 9716 CJ Groningen The Netherlands [email protected]

Page 24: University of Groningen Viral neuroinvasion Sips, George · tion of latent pathogens. In this case JCV, following HAART, may have been (re)targeted by the immune system in the context