UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIApsasir.upm.edu.my/51525/1/FK 2009 108RR.pdfAbstract of thesis presented to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

AMMAR ABDUL AZIZ AL-TALIB

FK 2009 108

THERMAL STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS OF TRIANGULAR INTEGRAL COLLECTOR STORAGE SOLAR WATER HEATER

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THERMAL STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS OF TRIANGULAR INTEGRAL COLLECTOR STORAGE SOLAR WATER HEATER

By


Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

June 2009

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THERMAL STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS OF TRIANGULAR INTEGRAL COLLECTOR

STORAGE SOLAR WATER HEATER


DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

2009

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DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

2009

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To the Memories of My Father to Whom I Owe so Much

And

To My Dear & Respectful Mother

Also,

To My Dear Wife and Our Children:

Sidra, Sara, Ibrahim and Hasan

Ammar/2008

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Abstract of thesis presented to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERMAL STRATIFICATION ANALYSIS OF TRIANGULAR INTEGRAL COLLECTOR STORAGE SOLAR

WATER HEATER

By


June 2009

Chairman: Professor Megat Mohamad Hamdan B Megat Ahmad, PhD

Faculty: Engineering

The current study outlines the results of testing the effectiveness of using

stratification as a collector mechanism for night insulation tool and its effects on

the performance of a Triangular Integral Collector Storage (TICS) solar water

heater.

The main objective of the present work was the desire to develop a new solar

water heater design that can be manufactured in Malaysia with the available

local materials and labor. It can solve the problem of night cooling that are

usually encountered by most of the Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) solar

water heaters. The system, in which this solution is incorporated, was referred

to as the Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector Storage (TSICS) system.

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Experimental and numerical investigations were conducted on both the TICS

and TSICS systems under thermosyphonic mode with no water draw off. The

results obtained showed that the hourly efficiency for the TSICS system is

higher than that of the TICS system, and the heat loss at night is less for the

TSICS system, indicating more favourable outcomes for the stratified system.

FEMLAB software was used to simulate the temperature and velocity

distributions in both the TICS and the TSICS systems. The results obtained are

in high agreement with the experimental results. In addition, FEMLAB has

helped in finding the optimum dimensions for the TSICS system.

Architecturally, two possible ways of installing the TSICS system on a pitch roof

design were suggested, and for the purpose of this study, they have been

called (1) the ‘Floating’ method of installation and (2) the ‘Pocket’ method of

installation, whereupon the details and sketches for both were provided

The methods of Present Worth and Annual Worth were used for the economic

analysis to compare the usefulness of using the TSICS system in comparison to

the utilisation of conventional electrical water heaters. Results from both

methods have led to the conclusion that using the TSICS solar heater- in spite

of its higher initial cost- is more economically superior than using the electrical

water heater, hence leading to and substantiating the recommendation of the

utilisation of TSICS solar heater system.

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Abstrak tesis dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia

sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Doktor Falsafah

ANALISIS STRATIFICASI TERMA PENGUMPUL PEMANAS AIR BERINTEGRASI BERBENTUK SEGITIGA

Oleh

AMMAR ABDUL-AZIZ AL-TALIB

June 2009

Pengerusi : Professor Megat Mohamad Hamdan B Megat Ahmad, PhD

Fakulti : Kejuruteraan

Pengkajian penyelidikan terkini telah menunjukkan keberkesanan prestasi dan

kecekapan penggunaan stratifikasi sebagai alat pengumpul penebat pada

waktu malam bagi sebuah pemanas air solar iaitu Triangular Integral Collector

Storage (TICS)

Objektif utama hasil kerja kajian ini adalah untuk mencipta pemanas air solar

baru buatan Malaysia yang dapat dihasilkan dengan buruh dan bahan mentah

tempatan di samping menyelesaikan masalah penyejukan waktu malam degan

penggunaan pemanas air solar iaitu Integrated Collector Storage (ICS). Sistem

berintegrasi ini dirujuk sebagai sistem Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector

Storage (TSICS).

Pengkajian dan penyelidikan secara numerikal telah dijalankan terhadap

kedua–dua system, TICS dan TSICS, dalam keadaan termosifon dan tiada

pengaliran air keluar.

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Program FEMLAB telah digunakan dalam simulasi pengagihan suhu dan

kelajuan sistem TICS dan TSICS. Keputusan simulasi yang diperoleh adalah

sama dengan hasil eksperimen. FEMLAB juga telah membantu dalam

pencarian dimensi optimum sistem TSICS.

Dari segi reka bentuk, dua cara disarankan untuk pemasangan sistem TSICS

pada bumbung dan bagi tujuan kajian ini, kaedah-kaedah tersebut dinamakan

sebagai kaedah (1)“Floating” dan (2) kaedah “Pocket”. Butiran dan lakaran

kedua-dua kaedah ini dilampirkan.

Kaedah “Present Worth” dan “Annual Worth” telah digunakan dalam analisis

ekonomi bagi membandingkan kelebihan menggunakan sistem TSICS

berbanding dengan pemanas air elektrik yang konvensional dan hasil dapatan

daripada kedua-dua kaedah ini membawa kepada kesimpulan bahawa

penggunaan pemanas solar (suria) TSCIS adalah lebih ekonomi walaupun kos

permulaannya lebih tinggi. Ini telah membawa kepada usul penggunaan system

TSICS pemanas solar (suria) sebagai system pilihan optimum.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost I thank ALLAH the almighty for the blessings and

opportunities that He has provided for me to accomplish this study.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to my advisor and committee

chairman, Professor Dr. Megat Mohamad Hamdan B Megat Ahmad, who is a

constant source of advice, encouragement and all kind of support throughout

this study. He was the mentor who taught me how to blend advising with

friendship. To Prof. Dr. Megat I say, your supervision and friendship are highly

regarded and appreciated. I am deeply indebted and most grateful to Prof. Dr.

Kamaruzzaman Sopian, the supervisory committee member, who gave all the

support and has offered me all the facilities of the solar park at UKM / Bangi to

conduct the experimental work. I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Mahdi B

Abdul Wahab, my supervisory committee member for his helpful discussions

and advice. I highly appreciate their time and willingness to serve in my

supervisory committee.

I wish to extend my thanks to the staff of the Department of Mechanical and

Manufacturing Engineering for their friendly dealing and moral support. I also

thank my friends and colleagues for sharing their knowledge and

encouragement.

Thanks must also go to my family members, my wife, my daughters and sons

for their patience, understanding and encouragement until the completion of this

work.

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I certify that an Examination Committee has met on 18/June/2009 to conduct the final examination of Ammar Abdul Aziz Al-Talib on his Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled “EVALUATION OF A STRATIFIED INTEGRATED SOLAR WATER HEATER WITH A TRIANGULAR SHAPE”. in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:

Md. Yusof Ismail, Ph.D Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering University Putra Malaysia (Chairman)

Tang Sai Hong, Ph.D

Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering University Putra Malaysia (Member) Nor Mariah Adam, Ph.D Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering University Putra Malaysia (Member)

__________________________

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean

School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: 15 January 2010

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This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Megat Mohamad Hamdan B Megat Ahmad, PhD

Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Kamaruzzaman Sopian, PhD Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (Member) Mahdi Abdul Wahab, PhD

Senior Lecturer Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) ____________________________ HASANAH MOHD GHAZALI, PhD

Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: 11 February 2010

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotation and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any degree at UPM or other institutions.

________________________________


Date: 5 / December/ 2008

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page DEDICATION ii ABSTRACT iii ABSTRAK v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii APPROVAL viii DECLARATION x LIST OF TABLES xiv LIST OF FIGURES xv LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS xxiv LIST OF FLOW CHARTS xxv NOMENCLATURE xxvi ABBREVIATIONS xxix

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Facts about the Sun 1 1.1.1 Energy of the Sun 3 1.1.2 Physical Properties of the Sun 4 1.1.3 Necessity of Solar Energy 4 1.2 Facts about the Sun 6 1.2.1 Classification of Solar Water Heaters 8 1.2.2 Types of Hot Water Solar Collectors 11 1.3 The Present Work Objectives 12 1.4 Thesis Layout 15 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 19 2.1 Stratification in Solar Water Heaters 20 2.2 CO2 and Global Warming 27 2.3 Market Scale 33 2.4 National Energy Policy Objectives 39 2.5 Types of Integrated Collector-Storage Systems 40 2.6 Numerical Simulation of the Systems 60 2.6.1 The Governing Equations 61 2.7 Economical Analysis 63 2.7.1 Present Worth Method 64 2.7.2 Annual Worth Method 68 2.8 Installation of Different Types of Solar Water Heaters 72

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3 METHODOLOGY 75 3.1 Description of the Experimental Set-Up 77 3.1.1 The TICS System 78 3.1.2 The TSICS System 82 3.2 The Measurement System 84 3.2.1 Temperature Measurement 84 3.2.2 Solar Radiation Measurements 86 3.2.3 The Data Acquisition System 88 3.3 The Experimental procedures 89 3.3.1 The Stagnation Day-Time Test Experiment 90 3.3.2 The Night Heat Loss Experiment 90 3.3.3 The Glass Cover Effect Experiments 91 3.4 Experimental Data Analysis 91 3.4.1 Mean Temperature Calculations 91 3.4.2 Efficiency Calculations 102 3.4.3 Heat Losses Calculations 107 3.5 Temperature and Velocity Simulations 107 3.5.1 Triangular Integrated Collector Storage System

(TICS) 108

3.5.2 Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector-Storage System (TSICS)

108

3.5.3 Low Profile Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector System (LPTSICS)

110

3.5.4 Velocity and Temperature Simulation Using FEMLAB

111

3.5.5 Simulations for Different Size Systems 113 3.6 The Experimental Error Analysis 115 3.6.1 Accuracy and Precision 116 3.6.2 Uncertainties on Measurements 116 3.6.3 Error Analysis for the Temperature Readings in the

Solar Water Heaters

118

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 122 4.1 The Experimental Stagnation Test Results 122 4.1.1 Mean Temperature Comparison 123 4.1.2 Temperature Distribution inside the Tank 143 4.2 Results of Error Analysis 157 4.3 Results of Temperature and Velocity Simulations by

Using FEMLAB 184

4.3.1 Simulation Results for Different Size Systems 195 4.3.2 Comparison Between the Experimental and

Simulation Results 199

4.4 Economical Comparison between the TSICS Solar Water Heater and the Conventional Electrical Water Heater

201

4.4.1 Calculations for the Electrical Water Heater by Using the Present Worth Method.

201

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4.4.2 Calculations for the TSICS Solar Water Heater 206 4.4.3 Calculations for the Electrical Water Heater by

Using the Annual Cost Method 209

4.4.4 Calculations for the TSICS Solar Water Heater by Using the Annual Cost Method

211

4.5 The Installation of the TSICS System on Flat and Pitch Roofs

214

4.5.1 Installation on a Flat Roof. 214 4.5.2 Installation of the TSICS System on Pitch Roofs 215 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER

WORK 222

5.1 Conclusions 222 5.2 Recommendations for Further Work 227 REFERENCES 228 APPENDIX A 242 BIODATA OF THE STUDENT 271

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1.1 The Three Main Zones of the Sun 4 1.2 The Main Physical Properties of the Sun 4 2.1 The Market Scale for SDHW Systems as Given by

(Graham,1996) 37

2.2 The Market Scale for SDHW Systems as Given by

(Graham,1997) 38

3.1 The Specifications of the Black and White Appley

Pyranometer as Shown in (IPS.2004 Catalogue) 88

3.2 X and Y Values for the TICS System 98 4.1 Mean Temperature Drop and Night Heat Loss for the TSICS

Effective Storage and TICS System During Five Days of Stagnation Experiments

153

4.2 Mean Temperature Drop and Night Heat Loss for the

Movable Insulation Cover Test of Garg (1982). 154

4.3 Temperature Profile Simulations under Various Conditions 197 4.4 Velocity Profile Simulations for Different System

Configurations (Solar Radiation = 500 W/m2) 198

4.5 The Price Values for the Electrical Water Heater 201 4.6 Cost of the Different Components of the Solar Water Heater 206

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 The Basic Components of A Solar Water Heater 7

1.2 Components of A Thermosiphonic Solar Water Heater 9

1.3 A Schematic Diagram of A Rectangular Integrated Solar Water Heater, (Garnier, 2006)

10

1.4 A Pump Circulation Solar Water Heater 11

2.1 Different Models of A Collector/Storage Type Solar Water Heaters Used by Garg and Rani (1982)

42

2.2 A Rectangular Shaped Tank Used by Skolov and Vaxman (1983)

43

2.3 A Triangular Shaped System Used by Skolov and Vaxman (1983)

43

2.4 Cross-Section of the First ICS System Used by Schmidt and

Shmidt (1988)

44

2.5 Cross-Section of the Second ICS Prototype Used by Schmidt and Shmidt (1988)

44

2.6 Schematic Diagram of Triangular Built–in-Storage Solar Water Heater by Ecevit et al. (1989)

45

2.7 Schematic Diagram of the Rectangular and Triangular Systems Tested by Soponronnaritand and Tia (1994)

46

2.8 Integrated Solar Water Heater with Thermal Diode Tested by Mohamad (1997)

47

2.9 Schematic of the Compact Solar Water Heater, Mohsen (1999) 48

2.10 Details of the ICS Vessel Used by Smyth et al. (1999) 49 2.11

Cross Section of the Proposed KS Systems DTS 1 and DTS II, Tripanagnostopoulos et al. (1999)

50

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2.12 Integrated Collector–Storage System (ICS), Cross Section, Afif (2000)

50

2.13 Schematic Longitudinal and Transversal Sections of an Integral Collector Storage Unit, Amilcar et al. (2001)

51

2.14 Schematic Vertical Cross-Section through the System Illustrates the Function of the Reverse-Thermosyphonic Prevention Valve, Faiman et al. (2001)

52 2.15

Schematics for the Design of Collector-Cum-Storage Water Heaters with and without TIM, Chaurasia and Twidell (2001)

53

2.16 Cross Section of the Experimental Model, Tripanagnostopoulos et al. (2002)

54

2.17 Details of the ICS Heat Retaining Systems Used by Smyth et al. (2003)

55

2.18 Front View of the ICS System, Souliotis and Tripanagnostopoulos (2004)

56

2.19 Division of the Absorbing Surface of ICS Model in Three Parts of Equal Water Volume of the Storage Tank, Souliotis and Tripanagnostopoulos (2004)

57

2.20 Schematic Diagram of SWH with Integrated Storage Tank System Used by Sopian et al. (2000, 2002)

57

2.21 Schematic Cross Sectional Diagram of the ICS Solar Water Heater Showing its Components, Madhlopa et al. (2006)

58

2.22 Schematic Diagram of the ICS System Used by Garnier et al. (2009)

60

2.23 Different Solar Collector Installation on Buildings

72

3.1 A Schematic Sketch Showing the Cross Section of the TICS System

79

3.2 A Schematic Isometric View Showing the Dimensions of the TICS System with the Location of the Thermocouple Wires

80

3.3 A Schematic Sketch Showing the Cross Section of the TSICS System

83

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3.4 A Schematic Isometric View Showing the Dimensions of the TSICS System with the Location of the Thermocouple Wires

85

3.5 Projection of the TICS System on the X-Y Plane

93

3.6 Division into Five Equal Areas for the TICS System

94

3.7 Divisions for Thermocouple Locations in the TSICS System

99

3.8 A Two-Dimensional Schematic Diagram of the TISC System

108

3.9 Schematic of the Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector Storage Solar Water Heater (TSICS)

109

3.10 Schematic of the Low Profile Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector (LPTSICS) System

110

3.11 TSICS System Showing Volumes and Lengths Partitions

114

4.1 Mean Temperature Comparisons for the Systems without Glass Cover During a Period of 24 Hours on 26/Feb./2004

124

4.2 Mean Temperature Difference between the TSICS System, its Effective Storage and the TICS System for One Day, for No Glass Cover Test

126

4.3 Mean Temperature Comparisons for the Systems with Glass Cover during A Period of 24 Hours on A Cloudy Day on 9/March/2004

127

4.4 Mean Temperature Difference between the TSICS System, its Effective Storage and the TICS System for A Cloudy Day on 9/March/2004, for the Glass Cover Test

128

4.5 Mean Temperature Comparisons for the Systems with Glass Cover during A Period of 24 Hours on A Sunny Day on 10/April//2004

129

4.6 Mean Temperature Difference between the TSICS System, its Effective Storage and the TICS System for A Sunny Day on 10/April/2004, for the Glass Cover Test

131

4.7 Comparison of Mean Temperatures in the Current Systems with the Systems Designed by Garg and Rani, Mohamad, and Syhari

132

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4.8 Comparison Between the Plate Temperature of the Two Systems without the Glass Cover During the Day of 11/Feb/2004

133

4.9 Comparison between the Plate Temperature of the Two Systems with the Glass Cover During the Day of 09/March/2004

135

4.10 Comparison between the Plate Temperature of the Two Systems with the Glass Cover during a Sunny Day on 10/April/2004

136

4.11 Comparison between the Outlet Temperatures for the TSICS and TICS Systems without Glass Cover on the Day of 11 Feb 2004

138

4.12 Comparison between the Outlet Temperatures for the TSICS and TICS Systems with Glass Cover on the Day of 9 March 2004

139

4.13 Comparison between the Outlet Temperatures for the TSICS and TICS Systems without Glass Cover on the Day Of 7 April 2004

139

4.14 Comparison between the Left Side and Right Side Temperatures during Night Time for the Two Systems without Glass Cover on a Day in February 2004

140

4.15 Comparison between the Left Side and Right Side Temperatures during Day Time for the Two Systems with Glass Cover on a Cloudy Day in March 2004

141

4.16 Comparison Between the Left Side and Right Side Temperatures during Day Time for the Two Systems with Glass Cover on a Sunny Day in April 2004

142

4.17 The Temperature Distribution inside the Storage Tank for the TSICS System without Glass Cover during Day Time on 26/February 2004

143

4.18 The Temperature Distribution inside the Storage Tank for the TSICS System with the Glass Cover during a Cloudy Day on March/ 2004

145

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4.19 The Temperature Distribution inside the Storage Tank for the TSICS System with the Glass Cover on a Shiny Day on April/2006

146

4.20 Temperature Distribution inside the Storage Tank for the SICS System from Evening until the Next Morning on April/2004

147

4.21 A Comparison between the Heat Loss Fraction for the TSICS and TICS Systems and the Triangular and Rectangular Systems Tested By Somchart et al. (1994)

148

4.22 A Comparison Between the Hourly Efficiency for the TSICS and TICS Systems and the Triangular and Rectangular Systems Tested by Somchart et al. (1994)

150

4.23 A Comparison Between the Average Temperature at 5:00pm for the Stagnation Experiment

151

4.24 A Blog Diagram for the Comparison Between the Average Temperature at 5:00pm, and the Temperature Drop During Night Time for Different Researchers

152

4.25 The Rise in Water Temperature (TM2) for the TSICS System Versus the Total Solar Radiation for Different Weather Conditions

156

4.26 Results of the Error Analysis for the Ambient Temperature 158

4.27 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Ambient Temperature Showing an Outlier Point

159

4.28 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TL2 in the TICS System 160

4.29 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TL2 Showing an Outlier Point in the TICS System

161

4.30 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TP2 in the TICS 162

4.31 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TP2 in the TICS System, Showing an Outlier Point

162

4.32 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TW1 in the TICS System

163

4.33 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TW1 in the ICS System

163

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4.34 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TW2 in the TICS System 164

4.35 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TW2 in the TICS System

164



165

4.38

Results of the Error Analysis for Point TW4 in the TICS system

166

4.39

An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TW4 in the TICS System

166



167

4.42 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TP2 in TSICS System 168 4.43

An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TP2 in TSICS System , Showing an Outlier Point

169

4.44 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TL2 in the TSICS

System

169

4.45

An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TL2 in the TSICS System

170

4.46 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TR2 in the TSICS

System

170

4.47

An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TR2 in the TSICS System

171

4.48 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TW1 in the TSICS System

171

4.49

An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point Tw1 in the TSICS System

172


172

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4.51 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TW2 in the TSICS System

173


173


174


174


175


175


176

4.58 Results of the Error Analysis for Point TT1 in the TSICS System

176

4.59 An Enlarged Scale for the Error Analysis Results of the Point TT1 in the TSICS System

177


177


178


178


179


179


180

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180


181

4.68 Performance of the TISC System with Solar Radiation = 500 Wm-2

185

4.69(a) Temperature Simulation of the TSICS System with Solar Radiation = 500 Wm-2

186

4.69(b) Velocity Simulation of the TSICS System with Solar Radiation = 500 Wm-2

187

4.70(a) Velocity Distribution in the TSICS System (Lower Portion), with Solar Radiation = 500 Wm-2

187

4.70(b) Velocity Distribution in the TSICS System (Upper Portion), with Vin = 0.001ms-1, Tin = 300K and Solar Radiation = 500 Wm-2

188

4.71 Performance of the Suggested TSICS System with Solar Radiation = 500 Wm-2

189

4.72 Temperature Distribution in the TISC System with Solar Radiation = 600 Wm-2

191

4.73 Temperature Distribution in the TSICS System with Solar Radiation = 600 Wm-2

191

4.74 Temperature Distribution in the Suggested TSICS System with Solar Radiation = 600 Wm-2

191


192


192


192


193

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193


193


194


194


194

4.84 Comparison between the Simulation and Experimental Results for the TICS System

199

4.85 Comparison between the Simulation and Experimental Results for the TSICS System

200

4.86 Electric Heater Cash Flow Diagram Using the Present Worth Method

203

4.87 Solar Water Heater Cash Flow Diagram Using the Present Worth Method

207

4.88 Electrical Water Heater Cash Flow Diagram Using the Annual Cost Method

209

4.89 Solar Water Heater Cash Flow Diagram Using the Annual Cost Method

212

4.90 Installation of the TSICS System on the Pitch Roof by Using the Floating Method

217

4.91 A Schematic Diagram of the Adjustable Bracket in Three Dimensions

218

4.92 A Schematic Diagram for the Side Elevation of the Adjustable Bracket

220

4.93 The Sectional View of the Pocket Method of installation 221

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LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photograph Page

3.1(a) Photograph Showing the Fabricated Systems as Installed at the Solar Park at UKM, Bangi

81

3.1(b) Photograph Showing the Researcher and His Supervisor with the Fabricated Systems as Installed at the Solar Park at UKM, Bangi

81

3.2 Appley Black and White Pyranometer, Model 8-48

87

3.3 The Data Acquisition System

89

4.1 Installation of the TSICS System on a Flat Roof or on the Ground.

215

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LIST OF FLOW CHARTS

Flow Chart Page

3.1 Flow Chart Showing the Methodology Steps Followed in the Study

76

3.2 Steps to Perform Velocity Simulation Using FEMLAB

111

3.3 Steps to Perform Temperature Simulation Using FEMLAB

112

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NOMENCLATURE

A/F Sinking Fund Factor A/P

Capital Recovery Factor

Ap

Aperture Area (m2)

BA

Annual Benefit

Bj

Benefits at the End of Period j

CA

Annual Cost

Cj

Costs at the End of Period j

Cp

Specific Heat of Water (4.186 kj/kg.oC)

G

Solar Irradiance Intensity (W/m2)

g

Gravity Acceleration

I

Integral Hourly Solar Energy Falling on a Tilted Surface (kW.hr/m2)

i

Interest Rate

.

fQ Rate of Energy Transferred to the Storage Water in the Solar System (W)

m

Mass of the Water in the System

mc

Mass of Water in the Lower Collection Part of the TSICS System (kg)

mi

Mass of Water in Node i (kg)

mT

Mass of Water in the TSICS Effective Storage Tank (kg)

mv3

Mass of Water in the 3rd. Portion of the TSICS System

N

Life Time

P

Pressure

P/F,i,j

Single-Payment Present-Worth Factor for Period j at Discount Rate i

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Pe Peclet Number

Qu Useful Heat (W)

T Time Duration of the Test (sec) T

Temperature

T0

Initial Water Temperature at the Morning (K)

Tc

Temperature at the Collection Portion

TD

Delivery Temperature (oC)

Tf

Final Temperature (oC)

Ti

Initial Temperature (oC)

Tin

Inlet Water Temperature (oC)

TM

Main Supply Temperature (oC)

Tm1

Mean Temperature of the Water in the TICS System (oC)

Tm2 Overall Mean Temperature for the TSICS System

T max Maximum Water Temperature Each Day (K)

T mc Mean Temperature at the Collection Portion

Tms Mean Temperature of TSICS System Effective Storage Tank

TmT Mean Temperature of Water inside the Stratification Tank for the TSICS System

To Reference Temperature (oC) Tout

Outlet Water Temperature (oC)

TSet

Hot Water Set Temperature (oC)

Twi

Temperature of Water at Node I (oC)

Tτ

Water Temperature at Time T (K)

U

Effective Heat Loss Coefficient (W / m2. oC)

U

Velocity Component in the X-Direction

V

Velocity Component in the Y-Direction

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VolA Volume of the Lower Triangular Region of the TSICS System

VolB Volume of the Lower Rectangular Region of the TSICS System VolC

Volume of the Storage-Stratification Tank of the TSICS System

x

Mean Value

.inst Instantaneous Efficiency

hr Hourly Efficiency

maxx Maximum Error

z Standard Deviation

z

Standard Error

Water Thermal Diffusivity

Coefficient of Volumetric Expansion

θ Angle of Inclination of the Collector

ν Water Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s)

ρ Water Density (kg/m3)

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ABBREVIATIONS

AC)electricity Annual Cost for the Electrical Water Heater AC)solar

Annual Cost for the Solar Water Heater

APEC

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation

AW

Annual Worth

AW)electricity

Annual Worth for the Electrical Water Heater

AW)solar

Annual Worth for the Solar Water Heater

CAD

Computer Aided Design

CFD

Computational Fluid Dynamics

ESTIF

Europe Solar Thermal Energy Federation

EUAB

Equivalent Uniform Annual Benefit

EUAC

Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost

GEF

Global Energy Federation

ICS

Integrated Collector Storage Solar Systems

LPTSICS

Low Profile Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector System

MTA

Mean Ambient Temperature (oC)

NPC)electricity

Net Present Cost of the Electrical Water Heater

NPC)solar

Net Present Cost of the TSICS System

NPV

Net Present Value

NPV)electrical

Net Present Value for the Electrical Water Heater

NPV)solar

Net Present Value for the TSICS System

P/A

Uniform Series Present Worth Factor

P/F

Single-Payment Present Worth Factor

SF

Solar Fraction

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SDHW Solar Domestic Hot Water System

SWH Solar Water Heater TICS

Triangular Integrated Collector-Storage System.

TSICS

Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector-Storage System

UKM

University Kebangsaan Malaysia.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Facts about the Sun

Without the Sun, life on Earth would not exist. Our planet would be a frozen

dark ball, drifting dead in space. The Sun is needed for light, heat and energy.

With the Sun, plants can grow, and animals can eat. The Sun is just a star, just

like those usually seen twinkling at night (Rao and Parulekar, 1997).

The Sun is a typical G2 star. G stars are classified as having a temperature in

the range of 5000 to 6000 K, and a color ranging from white to yellow.

Spectrally, G stars show most predominantly the lines of ionized calcium. Lines

from ionized and neutral metals are present. Lines from ionized hydrogen show

up weakly (Rao and Parulekar, 1997).

The Sun is about 150 million km away from the earth. Light from the Sun

takes about 8 minutes to reach the Earth, knowing that the light is traveling at a

speed of 3 × 108 m/s. The distance from the Earth to the Sun varies throughout

the year. At perihelion (closest approach) the distance is 147 million km, and at

aphelion (farthest) the distance is 152 million km. Due to this distance variation,

the Sun will appear about 3% bigger at perihelion than at aphelion. At this point

in geological time, perihelion occurs in early January, and aphelion in early

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July. The Sun's age is estimated to be around 4.5 billion years. It should remain

more or less as it is for another 5.5 billion years, although it will

continually be undergoing changes as it consumes its fuel through fusion (Garg

and Prakash, 2000).

The Sun is extremely hot. The middle of the Sun is about 16 million degrees.

The surface of the Sun (what is seen), the photosphere is only 6000 degrees.

The Sun is a giant, natural thermonuclear reactor that converts hydrogen to

helium in its core to produce the heat sensed on our faces as sunshine.

The Sun is held together in an equilibrium state by the mutual gravitational

attractions between all its atoms acting to compress the solar center and, thus,

produce and contain the nuclear reactions taking place there (Garg and

Prakash, 2000).

The solar atmosphere outside the energy generating core adjusts itself to carry

the enormous amount of energy that emerges from the surface in the form of

radiation.

The Sun visible to our eyes does not have a solid surface such as that of the

Earth or the Moon. Nevertheless, what is seen is only its very outer layers

because the gas is opaque. This outer visible surface is a few hundred

kilometers thick on the Sun and is called the Photosphere. This layer is the top

of the solar convection zone where the solar energy is carried to the outer

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surface by convective gas motions over the last quarter of the solar radius.

Further inside lies the radioactive zone where the energy is carried principally

by radiation, not convection (Garg and Prakash, 2000).

The sun generates approximately 5.6 X 1027 calories every minute or

3.9 X 1023 kilowatts of power. However, the Earth only intercepts less than one

part in two billion of this total or about (1353 watt/m2). This known as the Solar

Constant (Garg and Prakash, 2000 and Rai, 1989).

Earth would not have any life on it without the Sun’s energy, which reaches

Earth in the form of heat and light (Rai, 1989).

1.1.1 Energy of the Sun

Nuclear fusion releases energy deep down inside the Sun’s high-temperature

core, which extends from the center to about one-quarter of the radius of the

Sun. The layers above the core produce no energy, so the core, which makes

up only 1.6 percent of the Sun’s volume, produces all of the Sun’s energy.

Energy moves from the core to the rest of the Sun through two spherical

shells that surround the core (Garg and Prakash, 2000).

In Table 1.1, the main three zones of the sun are shown.

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Table 1.1. The three main zones of the sun (Garg and Prakash, 2000).

CONVECTIVE ZONE RADIATIVE ZONE CORE

Convective zone is region where energy is carried by convection ,cells-rising and falling currents of hot gas.

Radiative zone is region where energy leaves the core in the form of streams of photons.

Core is the central region where nuclear reactions occur. It occupies 2% of the volume of the Sun, but contains 60% of its mass.

1.1.2 Physical Properties of the Sun

In Table 1.2, the main physical properties of the sun and comparisons with the

earth are shown:

Table1.2. The main physical properties of the sun,

(Garg and Prakash, 2000)

Mass (kg) 1.989e+30

Mass (Earth = 1) 332,830

Equatorial radius (km) 695,000

Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 108.97

Mean density (gm/cm3) 1.410

Mean surface temperature 6,000°C

Age (billion years) 4.5

1.1.3 Necessity of Solar Energy

The increasing cost and scarcity of oil, gas, and electricity has focused

attention on the need for transition to renewable energy sources. Solar

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energy can play an essential role in this effort, particularly for domestic and

commercial space heating ( and cooling) and water heating.

Malaysia as a developing country is reported to perform well in economy and

industrialization. At the same time, the usage of energy is increasing year by

year. In the year 1995, the total demand for energy was 22,164 kilo ton of

energy (ktoe) and it increased to 25,558 ktoe by 1998. The main sources of

energy are crude oil and petroleum products, which are depletable energy

resources. Although Malaysia currently produces adequate oil for local

consumption, but in the long run, the country needs to develop its renewable

energy resources in order to ensure the sustainability of energy supply and

consequently of the country’s sustainable economic development. The total

primary energy demand is expected to increase at a growth rate of 7% until the

year 2020 (Komathi , 2000)

Solar energy is available freely and abundantly throughout Malaysia. Malaysia

has a high solar radiation level that ranges from 6.5 kwh/m2 in January and 6.0

kwh/m2 in August, but unfortunately only 2.6 % of this energy is used.

(Komathi, 2000).

Government and non-government agencies should take more proactive action

to coordinate and promote energy generation based on renewable resources

such as inventory of renewable sources, identification of suitable technologies,

create incentives for appropriate practical application and a better national

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renewable energy policy to allow more participation from government, non-

government and public. The public should be educated on the real situation of

energy resources and problems that going to be tackled if there is

no action taken. Awareness among them is the key point to shift from non-

renewable sources to renewable sources.

The energy crisis in 1970s stimulated vast amounts of research and

development into new and improved renewable energy technologies.

Governments across the world created new programs, or strengthened existing

ones, that focused on developing alternatives of fossil energy. The 1970s also

produced innovative thinking on energy issues and the need to transcend the

existing energy paradigm, (Hedger et al., 2001 ; Yergin, 1993).

The diminishing of non renewable energy resources, and their current rise of

price; the availability of solar energy in Malaysia, have pushed for the current

study.

1.2 Solar Water Heating Designs

One of the most widespread uses of solar thermal technology is solar water

heating. Solar water heating systems (SWHs) have now been used for more

than sixty years (MNRE, 2007 and Kalogirou, 2004). In many countries, which

include China, Israel, USA, Japan, Australia, South Africa and Cyprus, SWHs

are very popular for their use in community, commercial and industrial

applications (Chow et al., 2006; Houri, 2006; Kaldellis et al., 2005; Nieuwoudt

and Mathews, 2005; Zhiqiang, 2005 and Bhattacharya and Kumar, 2000 ).

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There are a few parts that are basic to most solar water heating systems:

collector(s), storage tank, heat transfer medium, and interconnecting plumbing,

(Figure 1.1).

The collector intercepts the sun’s rays and converts it into heat which is

transferred to the storage tank using a fluid such as water or antifreeze. An

expansion tank is used in closed systems to accommodate the slight changes

in volume that result when water or antifreeze is heated and expands. If glycol

is used, a heat exchanger is needed to transfer the heat from the collector to

the water that will exit the tap.

Figure 1.1. The Basic Components of a Solar Water Heater.

A temperature and pressure release valve is a common safety device found at

the top of water heaters. If the water gets hotter than it should or the system

builds up too much pressure, this valve will open, releasing water until the

temperature or pressure drops to safer levels. The simple control system

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disables the backup heating system (gas or electricity) during daylight hours,

giving the sun a chance to heat all of the water in the storage tank.

1.2.1 Classification of Solar Water Heaters

Solar systems for heating water or space can be divided into two classes,

which are the passive and active systems. The essential difference is that

passive systems need no auxiliary power to operate while active systems are

dependent on externally driven fans or pumps.

The first commercial solar water heater, patterned after the fundamental black

can, was patented in 1891 by Clarence M. Kemp as an alternative to the wood

stove ( Bainbridge, 1981).

The principle types of solar water heaters as classified by Graham (1997) are

passive systems, integral collector-storage systems and pump circulation

systems.

1.2.1.1 Passive Systems

The majority of domestic solar water heaters use thermosyphonic circulation of

water between the solar collectors and the storage tank. This requires the

storage tank to be mounted above the collector to produce thermally driven

circulation between the collector and the tank. The advantage of these systems

is that they do not require an electrical connection and have very low

Maintenance, (Figure 1.2).

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1.2.1.2 Integral Collector-Storage Systems

Integral systems, (Figure 1.3) combine the water storage tank and the collector

into one unit. These systems are simple and effective, however, due to high

heat loss at night they only provide hot water during the day and early evening.

The products range from simple glazed low-pressure plastic tanks to high

quality steel tank systems with selective surface coatings to minimize heat loss.

Figure 1.2. Components of a Thermosiphonic Solar Water Heater.

These systems make up the major portion of the large market in Japan

(Graham,1997). The main limitation with this system concept is the night

cooling and reverse circulation during nights and during low solar radiation.

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Figure 1.3. A Schematic Diagram of a Rectangular Integrated Collector-Storage (ICS) Solar Water Heater, (Garnier, 2006).

1.2.1.3 Pumped Circulation Systems

Pumped circulation, solar collector arrays connected to conventional

enameled Steel hot water tanks (Figure 1.4) have been widely used for

domestic solar water heating in North America and Europe (Graham, 1997).

The development of this design concept was driven by the need to provide

freeze protection in these climates. The market share of such systems dropped

significantly during the 1990’s due to the lower cost of externally mounted

thermosyphonic systems. However production of pumped systems has started

to increase in recent years, due to an increasing number of consumers who are

not willing to accept the visual impact of an external roof-mounted tank, even

though such systems are cheaper and have better performance. New design

concepts for pumped systems have resulted in increased use of this

configuration however, it is primarily suited to large commercial systems.

Another classification used for solar water heaters are the open or closed loop

systems (Syhari, 2004). An open system means the water circulating through

the collector is the same water to be used. A closed system circulates the

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separate heated fluid from the collector through a small loop that includes a

heat exchanger, usually located in the storage tank.

Figure 1.4. A Pump Circulation Solar Water Heater.

1.2.2 Types of Hot Water Solar Collectors

There are basically three types of collectors: flat plate, evacuated tube, and

concentrating. A flat-plate collector, the most common type, is an insulated,

weather proofed box containing a dark absorber plate under one or more

transparent or translucent covers.

Evacuated-tube collectors are made up of rows of parallel, transparent glass

tubes. Each tube consists of a glass outer tube and an inner tube, or absorber,

covered with a selective coating that absorbs solar energy well but inhibits

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radiative heat loss. The air is withdrawn (evacuated) from the space between

the tubes to form a vacuum, which eliminates conductive and convective heat

loss. Concentrating collectors for residential applications are usually

parabolic Troughs that uses mirrored surfaces to concentrate the sun’s

energy on an Absorber tube (called a receiver) containing a heat transfer fluid.

Most commercially available solar water heaters require a well-insulated

storage tank.

1.3 The Present Work Objectives

The solar domestic hot water system (SDHW), composed of one or several flat

plate collectors and a storage tank covered with opaque thermo insulating

material, is known all over the world.

However, its use has not become generalized in spite of the improvements

introduced in recent decades. These systems have certain limitations that make

their use difficult (Amilcar et al., 2001).

(a) They require high initial investment compared with some conventional

systems such as those based on the use of electricity.

(b) They do not guarantee the permanent supply of hot water.

(c) They can suffer damage due to freezing effects in winter time.

(d) If they are active systems, they require auxiliary energy to drive the pump

and the control system.

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The Integrated Collector-Storage (ICS) solar water heaters are simple

compared to their conventional counterpart. They have lower initial and

operating cost with free maintenance. In spite of the mentioned advantages,

such systems still have lower long-term performance due to their high heat

losses during the night or the time when there is no solar insolation. Some

solutions for decreasing these losses had been suggested and studied, as will

be shown in the literature review. The suggested solutions have given good

improvements in the performance but they have either added to the initial cost

or changed the system to an active one (Amilcar et al., 2001).

The following can be listed as the objectives of the present study:

To develop a new design of solar water heater that can be manufactured

in Malaysia with the available local materials and labor and can solve the

problem of night cooling accompanied with most of the ICS Solar Water

Heaters with simple components and affordable price.

To develop an Integrated solar water heater in which the absorber plate

can performs the dual function of absorbing the solar energy and storing

the heated water, besides a modification in tank shape to achieve

stratification.

To solve the problem of night cooling in an integrated solar water heater

depending on thermosyphonic flow and stratification only, without using

any moving parts, electronics or controls and to compare the results with

other researchers work in the field.

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To conduct a simulation study by using FEMLAB, in order to compare

the experimental results with the simulation results and to visualize the

stratification effect in the TSICS system, beside finding its optimum

dimensions.

To do economical analysis for comparison between the TSICS system

and the conventional electrical water heater by using the annual cost

method and the present worth method to prove the economical

superiority of the TSICS system.

To study the architectural concepts of installing the TSICS system on flat

surfaces and pitched surfaces, and providing the required schematic

drawings.

In the present study, a modification for the ICS systems which have been

designed and studied by Ecevit et al. (1989) and shown in Figure 3.6, and also

by Soponronnarit et al. (1994) and shown in Figure 3.7, and then by

Mohamad (1997) which is shown in Figure 3.8, has been made.

The performance of the proposed Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector-

storage (TSICS) system has been compared with that of the Triangular

Integrated Collector-Storage (TICS) system with its optimum geometric design

as given by Soponronnarit et al. (1994), with the intention to prove the

effectiveness of the triangular cross section with the stratification tank as a

passive low cost solution to the night heat loss problem, and can be locally

manufactured in Malaysia with the available materials and labor.

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Also, the diminishing of non renewable energy resources, and their current rise

of price beside the availability of solar energy in Malaysia, have pushed for the

current study.

1.4 Thesis Layout

In chapter 1, an introduction to the sun and its importance for life of humans,

beside its composition, zones, age and temperature are explained.

The availability of solar energy in Malaysia and the necessity of using it as an

alternative to the non renewable energy resource is also discussed.

The classifications of solar water heaters and their alternative designs have

also been demonstrated. The basic ideas behind the modification of the

conventional Integrated collector-Storage (ICS) systems are introduced and the

objectives of the present study are presented.

In Chapter 2 a preview of previous works relevant to the present study is

presented. The review includes the concept of thermal stratification as a mean

of improving the thermal storage efficiency. The effect of increasing CO2 gas

and its influence on global warming is also discussed. Comparison of the

market scale for the solar water heaters in different countries and the wide

range of designs used for different climates and demand requirements are

demonstrated.

Numerical simulation for the velocity profile and temperature distribution inside

the TICS and TSICS systems by using the FEMLAB software are presented in

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this chapter as well. In the FEMLAB software, the finite element method is

used to solve the governing equations subjected to the applied boundary

conditions. Also, simulations for a proposed system entitled as the Low Profile

Triangular Stratified Integrated Collector System (LPTSICS) are shown.

Also presented in this chapter are the two different methods used for the

economical analysis. The present worth Method and the Annual Worth Method

are used to prove the economical superiority of the proposed TSICS system in

comparison with the conventionally used electrical water heaters. Cash flow

diagrams are drawn for the two systems for the purpose of comparison beside

a solution for the problem of alternatives with different lives are explained, and

the results are presented.

At the end of the chapter, the Architecture suggestions for the installation of the

TSICS system on a flat and pitch roof are described. Two methods are

presented, the floating method and the pocket method. Sketches and

explanations are provided as well.

Chapter 3 presents the experimental set up and procedures. The Malaysian

energy policy objectives, and its agreement with the current study is also

explained. In addition, the types of ICS systems studied earlier by other

researchers are demonstrated, and a description and sketches for the TICS

and TSICS systems covered in this study are presented. The measuring

instruments and experimental procedures are explained as well.

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The analysis of the experimental data is presented and the Procedures to

calculate the mean water temperature in the TICS and TSICS systems are

explained, Besides, calculations for the efficiency and heat losses in the two

systems are described.

The FEMLAB simulation results for velocity and temperature are presented as

well for the systems under consideration.

Appendix A, is related to the chapter and is provided to show more simulation

results for different dimensions and different solar radiation intensities.

Presented in this chapter also, is the error analysis for the experimental data.

Definitions for the accuracy, precision and uncertainties on measurements are

explained. Difference between the systematic and random errors in the

experimental data is presented. The terms of mean value, maximum error,

standard deviation and variance are all defined.

Moreover, the error analysis for all the temperature readings at the different

points in the TICS and TSICS systems are shown.

The experimental results and their discussions are shown in Chapter 4.

Results obtained from the experiments conducted on the two systems with and

without glass cover are shown. Comparisons between the two systems under

different operating conditions are also presented. Comparisons for the

performance of the TSICS system with systems of different configurations

studied by other researchers are shown, and explanations are given as well.

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Moreover, the simulation results and their comparison with the experimental

results are presented .

Also, presented in this chapter are the results of economical analysis by using

the present worth and annual worth methods to compare the TSICS system

with the conventional electrical water heater.

At the end of the chapter, the installation of the TSICS system on a flat and

pitch roof by using the floating method and the pocket method are described .

The related sketches and explanations are provided as well.

Conclusions and recommendations for further work are presented in Chapter 5.

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