In cooperation with: Rhode Island Department of Environmental ManagementDivision of Forest Environment

United StatesDepartment of Agriculture

Northeastern Research StationNE-INF-155-02September 2002

Forest Service

The Forests of Rhode Island

EDITED BY Brett J. Butler and Eric H. Wharton

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS:• Charles J. Barnett, USDA Forest Service• Brett J. Butler, USDA Forest Service• Paul Dolan, Rhode Island DEM• Thomas A. Dupree, Rhode Island DEM• Marla Emery, USDA Forest Service• Andrew Lister, USDA Forest Service• Tonya W. Lister, USDA Forest Service• Paul Ricard, Rhode Island DEM• Catherine Sparks, Rhode Island DEM• Eric H. Wharton, USDA Forest Service• Richard H. Widmann, USDA Forest Service

FUNDING for this report was provided by theUSDA Forest Service, Northeastern ResearchStation, Forest Inventory and Analysis programin cooperation with the Rhode Island Departmentof Environmental Management, Division of For-est Environments.

THANKS TO Carol Alerich for assistance with datacompilation and interpretation, Jay Aron for shar-ing his insights and expertise, Ted Drozdz and the Rhode Island Airport Corporation, Department ofAeronautics for providing a unique view ofRhode Island forests, and Tom Abbott, Hans Ber-gey, Chris Modisette and Marc Tremblay forcomments on earlier drafts of this booklet.

PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS:Front and back cover: Brett J. Butler, USDA Forest ServicePage 3, red maple: Kenneth M. Gale, Mosaic Tile Co.,

http://www.forestryimages.org/Page 10, northern red oak: Paul Wray, Iowa State Univer-

sity, http://www.forestryimages.org/Page 12, white oak: Paul Wray, Iowa State University,

http://www.forestryimages.org/Page 16, gypsy moth larvae: USDA APHIS PPQ Archives,

USDA APHIS PPQ, http://www.forestryimages.org/Page 16, hemlock woolly adelgid: Michael Montgomery,

USDA Forest ServicePage 21: USDA Forest Service Archives, USDA Forest

Service, http://www.forestryimages.org/All other photographs: USDA Forest Service

FRONT COVER: View from Wickaboxet Rock,Wickaboxet Wildlife Management Area.

BACK COVER: Sunset over Bowdish Reservoir,George Washington Management Area.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohib-its discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion,age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited basesapply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of pro-gram information (Braille, large print, audiotape,etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA,Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W,Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW,Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964(voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunityprovider and employer.

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PPPREFACEREFACEREFACE

In his first annual report to the Rhode Island General Assembly in 1907, Jesse B. Mowry, Rhode Island's firstState Forester, penned the following:

It is a fact well known to most of you that the timber which once covered our hillsides, ameliorating our climate, beauti-fying the landscape, protecting the watersheds, and constituting one of the most valuable natural resources of the state, has now nearly all disappeared before the woodsman's axe. It follows, therefore, that the protection and rapid growth of the succession of sprout and seedlings is a problem of interest and importance to the people.

These statements mirror earlier statements from Bernard Fernow, Chief of the U.S. Division of Forestry (nowknown as the USDA Forest Service) who in 1887 noted:

Forests in the strict sense of the word can hardly be said to exist in this state (Rhode Island), although 24 percent is re-ported covered with wood, mostly coppice and white pine and pitch pine, which here and there may be said to rise tothe dignity of forests.

These words imply that forest sustainability was not in the hearts and minds of the citizens. It would take a gov-ernment effort focused on improving the forest condition, to bring about change. Mowry was a true visionary,setting the stage for forestry efforts through the 20th century. He understood the value of forests and how thoseforests connect to other critical resources. Mowry wanted to change public attitudes and rehabilitate the land-scape.

Now, at the turn of the 21st century, Mowry would be impressed. The state has maintained an active forestry ef-fort which he pioneered, and, through the 20th century, his seminal ideas have born fruit. Forest land in RhodeIsland covers 59 percent of the land and has matured beyond a point thought possible by early foresters. Thevolume of wood in the Rhode Island forest has increased almost eightfold over the past 50. Equally important is the return of forest-dwelling animals that disappeared from the landscape centuries ago. Deer, coyote, fisher,beaver, wild turkey, and even bears are now found throughout the state.

While this report highlights a success story, it also emphasizes a need to continue forestry efforts. As in earlier times, we stand to lose our forests as pressures of urban sprawl and unchecked development surpass the pio-neers’ efforts to clear the landscape for agriculture. Unlike the agrarian landscapes of the past, shopping malls,suburban neighborhoods, and highways will not provide opportunity for forest regeneration. Consequently, for-estry interests must work towards improving the planning scenarios within communities and fostering businessopportunities through sustainable forestry activities. We need to forge new cooperative partnerships in futuredecades if we wish to maintain our healthy forest capital.

Mowry also had strong opinions on “cooperation.” As he was closing out his career, Mowry wrote in 1924 :Cooperation has become a favorite catchword so incessantly stressed these days that one is led to inquire where in the boundless maze of sociological therapy the limitations of its worth may be set.

He entrusts to the reader the following philosophy that today is the most critical tool for forestry organizations:It is desirable for various interested organizations to assist the forestry department, particularly in the wide distribution of the most useful information on forestry, so far as different organizations can work together without too much fric-tion and duplication. Their efforts, in order to be guided in right directions, should be correlated under the leadership of the forestry department.

We need to maintain our focus on the forests of this state now more than ever. We need to enlist true partners and work cooperatively to manage, sustain, and wisely use this critical resource.

Thomas A. Dupree, State ForesterRhode Island Department of Environmental ManagementDivision of Forest Environment

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EEEXECUTIVEXECUTIVEXECUTIVE S S SUMMARYUMMARYUMMARY

• This report summarizes a 1998 inventory of the forests resources of Rhode Island.

• In 1998, forests covered 393,000 acres, or 59 percent, of the land in Rhode Island. This is adecrease from 1985 when there were 411,800 acres of forest. Historically, the forest coverhas ranged from more than 90 percent prior to European colonization to around 25 percent atthe height of agriculture in the mid-1800s.

• Since the 1960s, Rhode Island has been losing forest area. The only exception is that the area of urban forest land has been increasing. Not only has the area of forest land been decreasing, but the forest that remains is fragmented, or increasingly being divided into unconnectedblocks. In addition to the land becoming more fragmented, the 75 percent of the forest landthat is privately owned is becoming increasingly parcelized. The average parcel of forest land decreased from 26 acres per private landowner in 1973 to 13 acres in 1993.

• The major forest type in Rhode Island is oak/hickory. The next most common forest types are maple/ash, maple/birch, and oak/pine. The 10 most common trees in that state are red maple, eastern white pine, scarlet oak, white oak, northern red oak, yellow birch, black oak, sweetbirch, black gum, and black cherry.

• The area of the oak/hickory forest type has been diminishing during the past 25 years as theareas of maple/birch and oak/pine have been expanding. At the same time, the forests lackstructural and compositional diversity with most of the forest in the state being around 60years old. In the past, natural disturbances and forest management have fostered diversity.

• Native insects and diseases are a normal part of healthy forests, but the introduction of foreign insects and diseases can have devastating effects on forests. During the past 100 years, theforests of Rhode Island have been impacted by gypsy moth, chestnut blight, Dutch elm dis-ease, and more recently, hemlock woolly adelgid.

• The forests provide important benefits to Rhode Island citizens. Rural and urban residents ap-preciate the scenery that forests provide. Although forests provide important benefits like rec-reational opportunities and wildlife habitat, one of the most important roles is the supply ofclean and copious water. The forests also supply timber products, firewood, and non-timberforest products, such as witch hazel and floral greenery.

• At the turn of the 21st century, the greatest threat to sustaining healthy forests in Rhode Island is the expansion of urban and suburban areas. In the coming years, the role of forests in pro-tecting water supplies, as places to recreate, and as components of urban environments will be increasingly important. Education of the public and landowners and sound forest manage-ment are keys to sustaining the forest. To ease the expense of forest management, it is impor-tant that markets exist for timber and nontimber products.

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IIINTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTION

Forest Inventory and Analysis personnel collecting field data.

Red maple (fall colors)Acer rubrum

Red maple is Rhode Is-land’s state tree

Forest Environment, completed an in-ventory of Rhode Island forests. Thisreport summarizes the findings of thisand previous inventories conducted inthe state and examines the underlyingfactors of the major changes.

The Forest Service could not countevery tree in Rhode Island. Instead, itused a scientifically designed samplingmethod. First, aerial photographs forthe state were studied. On these photosa grid of more than 2,000 points wasoverlaid. For each point, land use and,if forested, size of trees were deter-mined. From this information, a sample of 103 plots representative of all of thestate’s forested areas was selected formeasurement by field crews. More than 80 percent of these plots were remeas-ured from the previous survey con-ducted in 1985. By remeasuring plots,data were obtained on the growth of in-dividual trees. Some plots were first es-tablished in 1952 and were measured for the fourth time during this inventory.Field crews collected information on the number, size, and species of trees, aswell as other forest attributes. From thedata, estimates were made of the forestresource – its condition, health, andchanges over time.

Forests cover 3 out of every 5 acresof Rhode Island. These lands pro-

vide citizens with scenic backdrops forrecreation and homes, a clean and per-petual supply of water, wildlife habitat,fuelwood, and timber and nontimberforest products.

But these forests are always changing!Spend a day in a Rhode Island forestand different sights and sounds willgreet you at night, dawn, day, and dusk.The effects of the seasons emerge afterwatching the forests for a year – leavesbloom and decay and birds and otherwoodland creatures come and go. Ob-serve the forest for a decade and treeswill grow, trees will die, and maybe theforest will change altogether.

Understanding the changing nature ofRhode Island forests requires timely and unbiased information about this impor-tant resource. To fulfill this need for in-formation, the USDA Forest Service ini-tiated the Forest Inventory and Analysisprogram to systematically inventory for-ests throughout the United States. In1998, the Forest Service’s NortheasternResearch Station in cooperation withthe Rhode Island Department of Envi-ronmental Management, Division of

4

Stone WallsIt is difficult to walk in a Rhode Island forestwithout encountering a stone wall. Thesewalls are relics of the state’s agricultural past.For centuries, farmers used the stones un-earthed while plowing their fields to buildwalls to keep animals out. Under the open-pasture system that existed, it was the respon-sibility of the farmer to protect his or her crops from both wild and domestic animals. Today, these abandoned fences are often in disrepair,but their abundance is a testament to the abil-ity of a forest to reclaim abandoned farm land.

TTTHEHEHE H H HISTORYISTORYISTORY OFOFOF R R RHODEHODEHODE I I ISLANDSLANDSLAND F F FORESTSORESTSORESTS

When the first people arrived inRhode Island more than 10,000

years ago, they encountered a climatethat was much colder than today and alandscape that had recently been cov-ered by massive sheets of ice. The for-ests that developed subsequent to theseconditions resembled the spruce and firforests that now occupy northern NewEngland and southern Canada. As theclimate warmed, the forests slowlyevolved into what we see today. Thechanging forests have influenced thepeople who live in and nearby it, and inturn, the people have influenced thechanges of the forest.

The Native Americans of Rhode Is-land – the Narragansett and Wampanoag and parts of the Nipmuc, Pequot, andNiantic tribes – were mobile people who followed the bounties of the land andwater through the seasons. During thespring and summer months, they fre-quented the shores of the bays and rivers catching fish and shellfish. The forestswere their homes beginning with thehunting of game in the fall through thelean winter months. Along with asource of game, forests also provided

foodstuffs such as acorns and chestnuts,raw materials for canoes and houses,and fuelwood to stave off the cold andto cook.

These people intentionally changed theforests by using fire to both enhance and clear the forest. Ground fires were setas often as twice a year to clear under-brush and facilitate hunting and travel.This practice resulted in the park-likeforests encountered by the early Euro-pean colonists. To clear land for plant-ing maize, beans, and squash, fire alsowas used to girdle trees. In the shadows of these standing dead trees or snags,crops were planted until the soil lost itsfertility. Then the land would be aban-doned and the sequence would be re-peated elsewhere.

Beginning in the 17th century, RogerWilliams and other European descen-dents began to colonize Rhode Island.The religiously tolerant early settlerslived in harmony with the NativeAmericans, and until King Philip’s War, the Native Americans in Rhode Islandwere spared many of the travesties in-flicted on other tribes. But one set of

Arcadia Management Area

Eastern White PinePinus strobus

5

travesties that could not be avoided bygoodwill was the diseases of Europeanorigins that devastated many NativeAmerican villages, often killing 80 to 90 percent of the inhabitants.

The early colonists lived similarly to the Native Americans – relying heavily onfish for sustenance, growing the samecrops, and depending on the forest forshelter and warmth. One major differ-ence was that the Native Americanswere mobile while the colonists fol-lowed the European tradition of settlingon a fixed parcel of land and assigningto individuals exclusive rights to usethat land and all its bounties. The moreintensive land use by the colonist re-sulted in more forest area being clearedand brought under cultivation withmuch of the remaining forest used aspasture and as a supply of fuelwood and building supplies.

The Native Americans’ winter villageswere determined by, among otherthings, the availability of firewood.Colonists and their descendents lived infixed locations and had to continuallyventure further for the necessities thatthe forest provided. Close to farms andvillages selective harvesting practicesmodified the forest with oak, chestnut,

and hickory trees preferentially har-vested. The forest dwindled to about aquarter of the state’s area prior to the In-dustrial Revolution just as another im-portant forest function became appar-ent – water. Rhode Island’s streams and rivers began to silt up resulting in therivers alternating between flooding andrunning dry. Some species of wildlifebegan to disappear with few deer re-maining by the mid-1800s.

The Industrial Revolution brought sig-nificant changes to all New England:people migrated to the cities, food wasincreasingly imported from the Mid-west, and relationships with the landwere profoundly changed. As the farms were abandoned, the forests began togrow again. In 1938, a destructive hur-ricane was followed by widespread for-est fires destroying many of the trees inthese “old-field” forests. The foreststhat regrew compromise much of whatwe see today. But these forests are verydifferent than those observed by the first colonists. Due to selective harvestingpractices, invasions of forests diseasesand pests, and changes in forest firepractices, important components of thepresettlement forest have changed ordisappeared.

Figure 1. Percentage of land that was forested in Rhode Island in 1630, 1767, and between1887 and 1998.

Selected Native American Words

for Forest FoodstuffsWenomeneash GrapesWompimineash ChestnutsAnauchemineash AcornsWusswaaquatomineug

WalnutsSasaunckapamuck

SassafrasQussuckomineanug

CherryWuttahimneash StrawberriesWuchipoquameneash

BarbarySautaash Currants

Source: A Key into the Language oAmerica by Roger Williams (1643published by the Rhode Island anProvidence Plantations Tercentenary Committee, Inc., Providence.

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

1630 1767 1887 1907 1938 1953 1963 1972 1985 1998

6

LLLANDANDAND U U USESESEThe fragmenting forestDuring the past 300 years, forest

has covered between 90 and 25percent of the land in Rhode Island (Fig. 1). The maximum forest coverage oc-curred prior to European colonizationand the minimum corresponded with the height of agriculture in the state. Be-tween the mid-1800s and mid-1900s,forest land* reestablished to cover about 65 percent of the state’s land. But sincethe 1960s, forest land has been slowlydecreasing. Forests now cover 393,000acres or 59 percent of the land in thestate (Fig. 2). Forests are being lost tourban, suburban, and commercial landuses at an average rate of 6 acres perday. Most of these acres will never be-come forested again unlike the agricul-tural fields that were abandoned a cen-tury ago.

Between 1990 and 2000, the populationof Rhode Island increased 4½ percent.Population growth means more land be-ing used for residential and urban pur-poses. There is much concern about the effects of this urban expansion on forestland. Forest fragmentation—the divi-sion of contiguous or adjoining forestland into smaller or more complexpatches—is a growing concern becauseit has the potential to change local water cycles, reduce critical wildlife habitat,increase disturbances, and foster the in-vasion of exotic plant species.

In Rhode Island, areas of contiguousforest land, or forest patches, varygreatly in size and shape (Fig. 3A). The largest forest patches are concentratedalong the western edge of the state andcorrespond to state-owned forest andwildlife management areas. KentCounty in west-central Rhode Island has the greatest percentage of forest cover,more than 62 percent. These forests are also the least fragmented forests in thestate. These large, contiguous, nonfrag-mented forest patches provide uniquehabitat for many animals and plants.

Nonforest land and smaller forestpatches predominate in the area sur-rounding Providence and bordering Nar-ragansett Bay, Block Island Sound, andRhode Island Sound. The area aroundBristol and Barrington has the least for-est cover, with nearly 40 percent of theland in residential uses and a populationdensity of more than 2,000 people persquare mile. Forests in the eastern shore area, Bristol and Newport Counties, oc-cur in relatively small patches, withmuch of the forest in patches of 2½acres or less. Small forest patches haveless interior forest habitat and may in-crease the forest’s susceptibility to cer-tain diseases and the spread of invasive,

Mountain laurelKalmia latifolia

Forest land

Developed land

Agricultural land

Other land

Water

Source: U.S. Geologic Survey, National Land Cover Data

Figure 2. Land cover in Rhode Island, 1992.

* Words in italics are defined in the l 24

7

dynamics, may be affected by the non-forest land uses surrounding a forestpatch. These and other factors affect the forest composition and forest structureof the patch. Studies have shown thatforests in urban areas are less diverse,have lower tree densities, and greaterproportions of non-native plant speciesthan similar forests in rural and agricul-tural areas. Research is currently underway to better define the relationship be-tween land use, forest fragmentation,and forest structure and health.

exotic plants.

The majority of forest land is within aquarter-mile of some other land use(Fig. 3B). This is true especially inBristol County where most of the forestis within an eighth of a mile of anotherland use. The potential effects of thisadjacent nonforest land on forest com-position and structure depends, in part,on the type of land use encountered atthe forest/nonforest interface.

Residential land was the most commonland use found adjacent to forest areasand agriculture was the second mostcommon. Urban and agricultural landscan influence bordering forest patches in different ways. The shape and abrupt-ness of the forest/nonforest interface of-ten is related to the type of adjacent land use. Seed dispersal by animals andwind, and local climate and moisture

Figure 3. To assess forest fragmentation in Rhode Island, fragmentation statistics were measured atmore than 2,000 points using aerial photographs. Two statistics that were measured at each pointwere (A) the size of the forest patch and (B) the distance to the nearest nonforest land use.

Clearing forest for a house lot in northwestern Rhode Island

A. Forest Patch Size B. Distance to Nonforest Land Uses

Nonforest pointDistance (miles)

Nonforest pointPatch Size (acres)

8

WWWHOHOHO O O OWNSWNSWNS THETHETHE F F FORESTORESTOREST???

Three out of every four acres of forest in Rhode Island are privately owned.There are about 27,000 private forestowners in the state (Table 1) rangingfrom individuals with 1-acre home lotsto conservation groups that own thou-sands of acres.

Between 1973 and 1993, the number ofprivate owners in Rhode Island nearlydoubled while the area that these peopleowned decreased. The average areaowned decreased from 26 to 13 acresper owner. Holdings of less than 10acres exhibited the greatest increase innumber. Although the average size offorest holding in the state is decreasing,there are some landowners – primarilyland trusts and conservation groups –that are acquiring larger tracts. Basedon what has happening over the pastcouple of decades, medium-sized landholdings, between 20 and 200 acres, aremost vulnerable to being lost.

Private forest land owners

Forest ownerships in Rhode Islandrange from the large public landholders,such as the State which controls morethan 75,000 acres of forest land, to indi-viduals with an acre of forest as part oftheir home lot (Fig. 4). The Rhode Is-land Department of EnvironmentalManagement manages most of the state-owned forest through the Forest Envi-ronment and Fish and Wildlife divi-sions. Watershed protection, wildlifehabitat, and recreational opportunitiesare all important objectives of theState’s land management. County andmunicipal governments own manysmall- to medium-sized forest parcelsoperated mainly as public water supplywatersheds and parks. The smallamount of federally owned forest land is wildlife refuges managed by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service .

The major changes that are currently affecting Rhode Island forests are

the result of people. It is people whodecide where to clear land for housesand people who intentionally or uninten-tionally decide to allow land to revert to forest. If people were not present inRhode Island, almost all of the statewould be forested. But there are people here – more than 1 million people andgrowing.

Flowering dogwoodCornus florida

Size of Forest Land Holding

(Acres)

Number of Owners

Area(Acres)

1-9 20,900 47,00010-19 2,100 31,00020-49 2,500 79,00050-99 400 23,000100-199 500 63,000200-499 300 63,000500+ < 50 32,000Total 26,700 338,000

Table 1. Number of private forest landowners and area of forest land ownedin Rhode Island.

These trends of parcelization—moresmall parcels of land—and consolida-tion—more large parcels of land— arecaused by pressures from a growingpopulation.

Other4%

Businesses12%

PrivateIndividuals

59%

Municipalities4%

State20%

Federal1%Figure 4. Ownership

of Rhode Island forests, 1998.

9

The home and property of a typical forest owner in Rhode Island

Smaller forest parcels are being created,in part, because of increasing population densities, escalating land values and de-velopment pressure, and high propertyand inheritance taxes. Initiated in 1968,Rhode Island’s “Farm, Forest, and Open Space Act” was passed to help privatelandowners retain their forest, farm, orother open space by taxing the land ac-cording to its current use instead of its“highest and best use” as is common un-der many property tax systems.

Land Investment12%

Recreation7%

Aesthetic Enjoyment/Part of Residence

46%

Other9%

Part of Farm/Farmand Domestic Use

14%

Estate12%

Figure 5. Reasons why private owners own forest land in Rhode Island, 1993.

A 1993 landowner survey found that the main reasons for private ownership offorests are that the forest is a part of the owner’s residence and for them to enjoythe beauty that forests afford (Fig. 5).Other common reasons given for own-ing forest land are: to supply firewoodor other products for the owner’s farmor home; the forest occupies an unusedpart of their farm; the forest is a part of

the family's estate; is owned as a landinvestment; or provides recreational ac-tivities for the owner, family, andfriends. Owners of parcels of 10 acresor less commonly report that they ownforests for two reasons: the forest is part of their residence, and for aesthetic en-joyment. Owners who cite other rea-sons for owning forests typically ownparcels of 50 acres or more.

Reasons for forest ownership

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TTTHEHEHE F F FORESTORESTOREST L L LANDANDAND

One common characteristic thathelps describe the forest is the dis-

tribution of forest types. The forests ofRhode Island contain a remarkable vari-ety of these forest types. The forest type distribution is determined by how wellthe species are suited to particular siteconditions and past disturbances.

Site conditions include soil type, wateravailability and drainage, terrain, andcompetition from other plants. Condi-tions also vary by the numbers and types of animals present. Animals can beboth beneficial and detrimental to treegrowth. When deer, mice, and squirrelsbrowse seedlings or eat seeds, it is detri-mental. But when animals disperse theseeds to new locations, it is beneficial.Disturbance is caused by natural eventsand human activity and can includewind storms, fire, insect outbreaks, har-vesting, and land clearing. These andother factors acting over time haveshaped Rhode Island’s forests.

Of the 393,000 acres of forest land, 61percent is classified as oak/hickory for-est type. Other forest types, by order of

abundance, are: maple/ash, maple/birch,pine, and oak/pine (Fig. 6). All otherforest-type groups account for 3 percentof Rhode Island’s forest land.

The oak/hickory forest type is domi-nated by northern red, white, and otheroaks, and red maple. This forest type is the most common forest type throughout the state and is most dominant in thenorthern portion of the state. Here, oak/hickory forests account for 68 percent of the area, while maple/birch account for19 percent – the highest proportion ofthis forest type in the state.

Most of the pine forest type, which iscomprised mainly of eastern white pine, is found in the southern part of the state.This region also has the highest concen-tration of the maple/ash forest type.

The central part of Rhode Island is thetransitional zone between the oak-dominated forests of the north and thepine-dominated forests of the south.Going from north to south, the abun-dance of oak/hickory forest types de-creases and the abundance of pine forest types increase. The transitional foresttype, oak/pine, is found in greatestabundance in the central part of thestate.

Oak-pine forest in central Rhode Island

Northern red oakQuercus rubra

Figure 6. Distribution of forest types in Rhode Is-land.

Oak/hickory61%

Maple/ash12%

Maple/birch11%

Pine6%

Oak/pine6%

Other3%

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Changes in forest productivity

The composition of the timberland inthe state has shifted dramatically (Fig.7). The oak/hickory forest type has en-tered a period of decline. Between 1985 and 1998, the area of timberland classi-fied as oak/hickory forest type de-creased from 73 to 63 percent.

Though some oak/hickory forest hasbeen lost to development, a significantportion has transitioned to the maple/birch and oak/pine forest types. Maple/birch increased from 3 percent of thetimberland in 1972, to 8 percent in 1985 to 13 percent in 1998. Red maple andyellow birch dominate this forest type,but oaks—especially white oak—alsoare important components.

The areas of both oak/pine and pine for-ests are apparently increasing. Some ofthis increase has been due to the deathof many oak trees in the state during the 1980s following gypsy moth infestai-tons. The openings created by the deadoak trees allowed pines to acceleratetheir growth and become a more visiblecomponent of the forest. Also highgrading (see sidebar) has favored theconversion of oak/hickory forests tooak/pine forests.

Quaking aspen regenerating following the removal of red pines that were infested by

red pine scales.

Another way to categorize forests is byproductivity, or how much wood a for-est can grow. Timberland and noncom-mercial forest land are two categoriesthat are commonly used. Timberland isforest land that is capable of producingcommercial crops of timber and can beused to compare difference between in-ventories. Noncommercial forest landincludes reserved forest land, unproduc-tive forests, and urban forests.

In Rhode Island, timberland accountsfor 86 percent of all the state’s forestland. In 1972, there were 372,000 acres of timberland. That increased to380,000 acres by 1985, but by 1998 had declined to 340,000 acres. In almost aquarter century, the amount of timber-land had decreased by 32,000 acres.

Changes in forest type groups

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Oak/hickory

Maple/ash

Maple/birch

Pine

Oak/pine

Other type groups

Area (Thousands of Acres)

1985

1998

Figure 7. Changes in the area of forest types be-tween 1985 and 1998.

High grading occurswhen a timber harvest re-moves the highest qualitytrees in a forest. This isdetrimental because thetrees that are left behindare of poor quality and itcould take decades to re-verse the damage done.High grading can beavoided or, if it has al-ready occurred, correctedthrough proper forestmanagement and consul-tation with a professionalforester.

High Grading

12

Rhode Island’s forests are inter-woven by a rich tapestry of bio-

logical diversity. This diversity supplies food and shelter for not only forest-dwelling wildlife, but also wildlife thatinhabit the forest-dependent aquatic sys-tems. Diversity provides the invaluableedge characteristics that exist betweenforest and other land uses.

Species richness is evident in the num-ber of different species encountered.The forest inventory identified 51 differ-ent tree species (listed on page 24).Eastern white pine is the most commonsoftwood tree species followed by east-ern hemlock and pitch pine. Rhode Is-land’s forests are flush with a variety ofhardwood tree species that bring rich-ness to the forest landscape, the mostcommon of which is red maple (Fig. 9).The abundance of other hardwood spe-cies follows distantly, but if all oakswere combined, they would follow aclose second.

FFFORESTORESTOREST C C COMPOSITIONOMPOSITIONOMPOSITION

Eastern white pine

The highest concentrations of easternwhite pine can be found growing in thesouth-central part of the state (Fig. 8). It grows best on the deep, well drainedsandy soils where competition from

hardwoods is limited. Eastern whitepine has played a prominent role in theconversion of abandoned agriculturalfields to forests. It is often one of thefirst trees to occupy old fields. Thoughtree growth is relatively slow in the first few years, eastern white pine can growmore than 3 ft a year after they are wellestablished. Left undisturbed, an east-ern white pine tree can live for morethan 200 years and grow to more than 3ft in diameter.

After farm abandonment and the 1938hurricane, many eastern white pine hasflourished. Between 1985 and 1998, the volume of eastern white pine increasedby 61 percent.

White oakQuercus alba

Aerial view of forest abutting Block Island Sound

Red maple

Red maple is an appropriate state treefor Rhode Island since it is found socommonly throughout the state. Thelight weight, wind-dispersed seeds ofthis tree make it well suited for occupy-ing newly abandoned lands or otherplaces where there is little competitionfrom other trees. Though red maple will grow across a wide range of sites, it ismost prolific in swampy areas where itcan form pure stands.

Red maple seeds provide a source offood for wildlife and its vibrant fall col-ors are enjoyed by Rhode Island resi-dents and visitors alike, but the growthform and wood properties of red maplemake it less desirable for forest prod-ucts. Cutting practices that once re-moved more valuable species and leftthe less-valued red maple behind helped its volume increases more than anyother factor. The volume of red mapleincreased 4 percent between 1985 and1998.

Continued on page 14

13

Eastern White Pine

Other oaksNorthern red oak

White OakRed Maple

Figure 8. Relative importance of five common tree species across Rhode Island.

The 103 forested plots that were inventoried were used as known data. We predicted values at unknown locations using information found at these known locations. For example, an unknown area near a group of plots with large amounts of red maple probably has high amounts of red maple as well. Using this principle, we made pre-dictions at every location on the map. The values are actually relative importance, or the percentage of a stand’s basal area that is composed of that species. The categories used are low (less than 5 percent of a stand’s basal area), moderate (5-19 percent),high (20-49 percent), and very high (50 percent or greater).

How were these maps created?

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

Non-forest

Relative Importance

14

FFFORESTORESTOREST C C COMPOSTIONOMPOSTIONOMPOSTION ( ( (CONTINUEDCONTINUEDCONTINUED)))

White oak

Some of the oldest and largest trees inRhode Island are white oaks. Thesetrees can be found as relics in the forestindicating an abandoned pasture orhomestead and are common in thewoodlots of the larger estates. White

Scarlet oak, black oak, and chestnut oakare also found throughout much ofRhode Island. Other oak species, suchas swamp white oak, are present inRhode Island, but seldom encountered.

As with most oaks, these other oaksneed a lot of light to establish and reach maturity. The exception is scarlet oak,which is somewhat more shade tolerantthan other oaks. Scarlet oak, along withwhite oak, is one of the most commontrees on Rhode Island’s upland, welldrained soils. Black oak tends to growon moister sites. The abundance ofthese oaks has remained relatively sta-ble.

Other oaks

Figure 9. Number of trees, 5 in or greater diameter at breast height, of the ten most common tree species in Rhode Island.

Northern red oak

Since northern red oak and easternwhite pine are commonly found grow-ing together in Rhode Island, their dis-tributions are similar (Fig. 8). Northernred oak is a major component of theoak/hickory forest type that dominatesthe state and is also an associate of theexpanding maple/birch forest type.

Northern red oak is highly prized by the furniture and other forest product indus-tries for its rich grain and durability.The best stands of northern red oak arefound in northwestern Rhode Island onmoist soils. After 25 to 50 years, north-ern red oaks start to produce acorns, that along with the acorns of other oaks, arean important food source for many wild-life species. Though these trees can live beneath other trees, they need fullsunlight to thrive and reach maturity. In addition to reproducing by acorns, oakscommonly reproduce through stumpsprouting where the trees have been cutor otherwise damaged.

oak also is found as part of the currentforest throughout most of the state.There is a decreasing number of whiteoaks in the smaller size classes and usu-ally, this species forms only a minorcomponent of Rhode Island forests.

White oak grows well throughout Rhode Island, especially on moist, well drained sites. These trees also are valuable forthe high quality wood and as a foodsource. In the past, white oaks havebeen particularly affected by the gypsymoths that have sporadically reachedepidemic levels.

0 20 40 60 80

Black cherry

Blackgum

Sweet birch

Black oak

Yellow birch

Northern red oak

White oak

Scarlet oak

Eastern white pine

Red maple

Millions of Trees

15

FFFORESTORESTOREST S S STRUCTURETRUCTURETRUCTURE

Aging forests

Another approach to measuring theamount of wood in the forests is to in-clude the trunks, roots, branches, andleaves of all trees and other woodyplants—biomass. The total weight offorest biomass is useful in considering a forest’s ability to store carbon to poten-tially offset fossil fuel emissions andhelp mitigate global climate change. In1998, Rhode Island forests containedalmost 25 million dry tons of trees andshrubs and the forests have the potentialto produce much more.

The total resource

Forest structure refers to the physical attributes of a forest, such as the

size and spacing of the trees. Structureis significant because it influences many of the characteristics that are importantto people, plants, and wildlife. A forestof widely spaced trees of similar sizeappears and functions very differentlythan a forest of small trees that arepacked tightly together, even if the spe-cies present are similar.

Forest volume

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

20 40 60 80 100

Age Class (Years)

1985

1998

In the absence of disturbances, woodwill continue to accumulate in forests.The volume of wood in Rhode Islandforests has increased by 11 percent since 1985 and 45 percent since 1972. Cur-rently there are nearly 500 million cubic feet of wood in the forest that are nowor will be suitable for commercial uses.Barring any large-scale disturbances, the volume of wood will continue to in-crease until the forests become “over-mature” and the volume stabilizes.

Figure 10. Age distributionof Rhode Island forests

One factor greatly affecting both thestructure and composition of Rhode Is-land forests is that the forests are getting older. As a result of low harvesting lev-els and few disturbances, the averageforest age class increased from 40 to 60years between 1998 and the previousforest inventory. Now more than half of the forest is in the 60-year age class.

The tendency for the forests to be con-centrated in a single age class limits for-est diversity. Younger forests, whichrepresented a significant portion of thecompositional diversity across the land-scape are disappearing. This lack of di-versity increases the forests susceptibil-ity to catastrophic damage and limitswildlife diversity.

Black birchBetula lenta

Perc

ent o

f Fo

rest

Lan

d

16

FFFORESTORESTOREST H H HEALTHEALTHEALTH

Hemlock woolly adelgid egg masses

Gypsy moth

A healthy forest is not necessarilyone without stresses. Rhode Island

forests have been and continue to bechallenged by an array of diseases, in-sect pests, and other factors, but theability of the forests to overcome thesechallenges has been well demonstrated.That is not to say that the forest has notbeen altered over time. Except for theinfluence of humans, it has been the in-vasive agents (non-native insects anddiseases) that have had the most wide-spread impacts on the forest resource ofthe state.

After its introduction into the UnitedStates in 1869, the gypsy moth arrivedin Rhode Island in 1901 and is now well established. Periodic outbreaks havecaused thousands of acres of defoliationleading to large losses of growth and ex-tensive tree mortality. White oaks seemparticularly vulnerable to mortality. But abundant high quality trees continue togrow here. As one tree dies or becomes less vigorous, other trees take advantage of new opportunities. The extensive oak mortality of the early 1980s is at leastpartially responsible for observed in-creases in eastern white pine.

During the past two decades, outbreaksof gypsy moths have been less frequentand less widespread. In 2001, about8,000 acres were defoliated by gypsymoths in Rhode Island. But before thecaterpillars could mature, they were al-most entirely wiped out by an infectionfrom a fungus, Entomophaga maimaiga,that has become established within

SassafrasSassafras albidum

much of the gypsy moth’s range. A dis-ease complex that includes a virus andthe aforementioned fungus appears to be providing an effective, if not complete,measure of control. With these patho-gens in place, the gypsy moth may havea future more akin to a native insectthan a conquering invader.

The same cannot be said for the chestnut blight. This disease effectively elimi-nated the American chestnut in RhodeIsland and the nation in the early 1900s.Prior to the blight, American chestnutwas a dominant species in the state andwas highly prized for construction andfurniture making. Its growth was rapid,its wood durable, and its nuts were animportant food source for people andwildlife. In recent years, there has beenprogress developing a variety of Ameri-can chestnut that is resistant to theblight.

More recently, the hemlock woollyadelgid is causing widespread mortalityto Rhode Island’s eastern hemlock trees.Initially identified in 1924 as an insectnative to Asia, the adelgid was discov-ered in southern Rhode Island in 1985and within 10 years established itselfthroughout the state. Chemical spraying is an effective treatment, but is not prac-tical in forests that contain extensive ar-eas of hemlocks. There is currentlypromising research on a biological con-trol agent, but extensive mortality hastaken place and more hemlocks will belost before a solution can take effect.

17An eastern white pine killed

by an unidentified agent

Methods for Monitoring Forest Health

The USDA’s Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) program was established to monitor the long-term status and trends in the health of forest ecosystems. It is a national program implemented with the cooperation of individual states. Rhode Island has participated in the program since it began in 1990. Measurements have been taken annually and include a wide set of indicators that reflect forest conditions. Three of these measures are tree damage, crown dieback, andcrown transparency.

Between 1998 and 2001, measurements were made on eight FHM plots in Rhode Island and adjacent portions of Con-necticut and Massachusetts. These adjacent plots were included because the forest conditions were similar to thosefound in Rhode Island and the increased number of plots allowed for a greater accuracy in interpreting the results.

Crown dieback occurs in the upper andouter portions of a tree and representsrecent branch mortality, which begins atthe tip of a branch and proceeds towardthe trunk. Low dieback ratings are con-sidered to be an indicator of good health because the tree has been able to support foliage and growth in the outer portionsof its crown. Very few trees measuredin Rhode Island had significant crowndieback. Dieback ratings were low on84 percent of the trees, moderate on 15percent, and high on 1 percent.

Dutch elm disease, butternut canker,dogwood anthracnose, beech bark dis-ease, red pine scale, other pathogens,and a host of insect pests are common in the forest, but the forest continues tosurvive and thrive. However, stress iscumulative. Times of stress from envi-ronmental conditions, such as drought,tend to exacerbate the effects of insectsand pathogens resulting in measurabledamages.

Insects, disease, fire, wind, ice, andother destructive agents have all contrib-uted to tree mortality in Rhode Island.But generally, the primary species ofRhode Island’s forests are healthy withthe exception of eastern hemlock. Some methods for assessing forest health in-clude tree damage, crown dieback, andcrown transparency (see box at the topof this page).

Crown dieback

Tree damage

Tree damage is one of the simpler indi-cators of forest health. Causes of treedamage in Rhode Island include wind,insects, diseases, and other plants suchas vines.

More than 80 percent of forest trees inRhode Island show no signs of damage.The species that showed the greatestdamage were red maple and white ash.Sixty percent of the damage observedwas due to decay with most other dam-age being either broken tops or vines.

Crown transparency

Transparency measures the amount oflight that passes through a tree’scrown. A low transparency ratingmeans that light was seen through lessthan 30 percent of the crown and indi-cates a healthy tree. Transparency rat-ings were low on 92 percent of all trees in the state.

18

FFFORESTORESTOREST P P PRODUCTSRODUCTSRODUCTS

In colonial Rhode Island, timber prod-ucts included white pine for ship masts,clapboards, and shingles, and oak forcasks, barrels, and building material.Many of these products were exportedto Europe and the West Indies. Heavytimber harvesting soon took its toll onthe forests and local timber shortagesbegan to appear.

Lumber production in Rhode Islandpeaked around the turn of the 20th cen-tury with 33 sawmills operating. Soonafter, the forest industry began to de-cline because of a lack of suitable treesand timber production shifting to theLake States and the southern UnitedStates. By 1984, there were 16 millsoperating in Rhode Island that producedprimarily hardwood pallets, using al-most four times as much hardwood assoftwood.

Today when trees are harvested, thehigh-quality lower trunk is used forlumber, while the upper stem, largebranches, small trees, and undesirablespecies are used for lower value-addedproducts and fuelwood. Parts of the tree that can’t be used and have no marketsremain in the woods. Sawlogs accountfor about a third of the volume of treesthat are harvested in Rhode Island (Fig.11). Fuelwood accounts for half of theharvest and the rest is logging residuethat is left in the forests.

Sawlogs remain the primary industrialuse of wood harvested in Rhode Island.Lumber produced from the Rhode Is-land's oaks are highly valued and is thebasis for more than half of Rhode Is-land’s timber-harvesting activities. Bythe mid-1980s, almost seven millionboard feet—a board foot is equal to apiece of wood 1 ft by 1 ft square by 1 in thick—of sawlogs were being harvestedevery year. Almost all of the hardwoodsawlogs were harvested from oak spe-cies. The volume harvested from theprimary softwood species – easternwhite pine – reached more than two mil-lion board feet per year.

Rhode Island forests have the potentialto contribute a much greater amount ofwood to the market than is currently be-ing realized. As a result of the forestsmaturing, there is an abundance of lar-ger trees that, if a buyer is found, would

A skidder hauling a tree. Once the tree reachs the landing it will be bucked (cut to length) and then hauled to the mill.

Timber products

Rhode Island forests provide manyproducts, from logs that will be cut

into lumber, to berries that are eaten asfast as they are collected. From an eco-nomic standpoint, traditional forestproducts provide the most to Rhode Is-land’s economy, but firewood and non-timber forest products have very highvalues for some people.

“True up the old wa-er mill, hoist the

gate, and saw up a lit-le clear stuff. Why ishe brook that runshe wheel smallerhan it used to be?” Jesse B. Mowry, preface

o "Forestation in Rhode sland”, 1917

Figure 11. Use of trees harvested in Rhode Island

BlueberryVaccinium sp.

Fuelwood50%

Sawlogs32%

Loggingresidue18%

19

Rhode Island’s Forest IndustriesPrimary processing industries

- Logging- Sawmill and Planer mills

Secondary processing industries- Yacht building- Lobster traps- Butcher blocks- Pallets- Cabinetry- Homes

Source: Wood Industry Directory, SouthernNew England Forest Consortium, Inc.

Nontimber forest products

There is an increasing interest in the col-lection and cultivation of nontimber for-est products in Rhode Island andthroughout the country. The develop-ment of an alternative forest productseconomy can provide revenue for forestlandowners and help people keep theirland. Landowner interest in edible andmedicinal products, as well as floral in-dustry products, has begun to developinto economic activities that are consis-tent with a rural character and lifestyle.Currently, witchhazel, ginseng, maplesyrup, mushrooms, and floral greeneryare cultivated and harvested in RhodeIsland. The growth and enhancement of businesses based on non-timber forestproducts can meet changing landownerand community needs and providemoney to help landowners maintainhealthy, sustainable forests.

Fuelwood

Fuelwood is a leading forest product inRhode Island. The oil embargo of the1970s and the desire for self-sufficiencyby many Rhode Island residents resulted in an increase in residential fuelwooduse. While it is not at the levels that itonce was, fuelwood remains a signifi-cant use today.

Many households in Rhode Island arestill dependant, to some extent, on wood for fuel. In 1995, there were more than126,000 cords of wood—a cord is astack of split wood 4 ft tall by 4 ft wideby 8 ft long—used for fuelwood, nearlyall of which came from hardwood spe-cies. About three-fourths of this wood,came from trees not suitable for com-mercial use because they were dead, de-caying, or poorly formed.

Fuelwood still provides the principal heating source for

some Rhode Islander's homes

command a premium price. Fragmenta-tion and parcelization has affected theability to conduct timber harvests.

The volume of wood in Rhode Islandforests increased by 11 percent between1985 and 1998. The quality of the hard-wood resource is high while the qualityof the softwoods is much lower. Within the hardwoods, northern red oak has thegreatest volume of high value wood inthe state. Although timber harvests ofhigh quality eastern white pine in Rhode Island are selling for very good prices,the majority of softwoods are of poor to moderate quality. Insects, such as white pine weevil and hemlock woolly adel-gid, are one reason for the poor qualityof the softwoods. Although red mapleis common in the state, its growth char-acteristics and wood quality make it un-desirable for most commercial uses.

Wood pallets ready to be shipped.

There is an increasing interest among private landownerin non-timber forest productsuch as witch hazel.

21

WWWILDLIFEILDLIFEILDLIFE

Many species of wildlife depend on forested habitats for their sur-

vival. From white-tailed deer tomigratory warblers, Rhode Island’sforests are home to a wide diversity ofwildlife . The streams and ponds thatthe forests protect are critical to manyspecies, as well as a home to an equallydiverse group of aquatic wildlife. Thediversity and abundance of all of thiswildlife changes as the distribution,composition, and structure of the forests change. The major trends that are af-fecting wildlife are the maturing/agingof the forest resource, a proliferation ofpoor quality edge habitat, and a lack ofyoung forests.

As a result of these conditions, the num-ber and variety of wildlife species cur-rently found in Rhode Island has beenchanging in unanticipated ways. It isincreasingly common to find animalsthat were once considered unthinkablehere, including moose, black bears, andfishers. Many of these animals are tran-sient visitors, but their sightings are be-coming increasingly common.

In addition to wildlife that are naturallyimmigrating into the state, wildlife bi-ologists are introducing other species.Reintroduction of once native species,such as wild turkey, has proved verysuccessful because these animals arewell suited to the habitats that RhodeIsland has to offer. But attempts to in-troduce some species, particularly gamebirds like ring-necked pheasant, havebeen less successful. The limited areaof agricultural fields and other grass-lands in which to feed and breed and anabundance of predators have been themain reasons why game birds have notbeen able to establish self-sustainingpopulations.

The aging and maturation of our forestsin the past 10-20 years has resulted in a

forest that is relatively uniform in com-position and structure. One advantageof the mature forest is the large amountof mast—nuts and fruit—produced bysome of the more common Rhode Island trees, such as the oaks. But mast pro-duction varies greatly from year to yearand wildlife can not live by mast alone.In addition, mature forests provide more snags—standing dead trees—and fallentrees that provide habitat for cavity-nesting animals and other animals thatneed dead wood.

The proliferation of edge habitat – theinterface between different habitat typesor age classes – between forest and non-forest land uses has helped a limitednumber of wildlife species proliferate.In particular, species such as white-tailed deer and wild turkey are able toexploit these habitats and their numbershave increased dramatically over the last 100 years.

Though there is now an abundance offorest/nonforest edge habitat, there is ageneral lack of high quality edge habitat that will significantly increase wildlifediversity. To increase wildlife diversity, we need a greater diversity of habitattypes and age classes.

As the diversity of the forest increases, usually the diversity of the wildlifincreases. The absence of large-scale disturbances - such as fires, hurricanes, antimber harvests - means forest diversity will be lowered because of a lack of younforests and meadows. The continuing maturation of the forest and the lack of regenerating forest will continue to favor wildlife, such as white-tailed deer and raccoons, and does little for other wildlife, such as bluebirds and cedar waxwings.

Today, only a small percentage of the Rhode Island forest is actively managed, anof this amount, lesser still is managed specifically to provide wildlife habitaThrough their use of fire, Native Americans were the first to intentionally influencthe composition and structure Rhode Island forests. Widespread use of fire as means of forest management would not be tolerated today. But with sound, proactive management that may include prescribed burns and timber harvesting, RhodIsland forests can yield a rich diversity of habitat beneficial not only for wildlifebut also beneficial for watershed protection, aesthetics, and a full range of timbeand nontimber forest products.

Managing Forests for Wildlife

A young white-taileddeer or fawn

22

UUURBANRBANRBAN F F FORESTSORESTSORESTS

Rhode Island is one of the mosturbanized states in the United States.Urban forests—trees and associatedplants and animals in and around citiesand towns—provide one of the fewdirect links between urban residents andnature. Trees not only provide mentalsolace, but they also physically enhancecities and towns by lowering summertemperatures and helping to clean the air and water.

Urban forest land is the only category of forest land to have actually increased inrecent years from 1 percent of the forestland base in 1985 and to 5 percent in1998. Urban forests differ from ruralforests because growth and development of trees are limited by city structuresrather than natural forest processes. Ur-ban forestry involves the growth, man-agement, and care of trees of these for-ests.

Until recently, a plan for urban forestrywas viewed as unnecessary. Up untilabout 30 years ago, the majority ofRhode Islanders lived tightly packed to-gether in the major industrial cities of

the state. The cities of Rhode Island’spast, while gritty, were also green. Buthurricanes and Dutch Elm diseasechanged the look of the cities by killingmany stately trees. Another phenome-non changing urban forests was thecountless numbers of yard trees beingcut to provide space for off-street park-ing, garages, patios, pools, decks, andother manifestations of our rising afflu-ence. Street widening and utility pro-jects caused further tree loss.

Coincidently, as the trees were disap-pearing from our cities, so were the peo-ple. Development surged outward fromthe state’s urban centers into surround-ing suburbs and small villages, also im-pacting community tree resources. To-day, low-density residential develop-ment continues to proliferate in rural ar-eas throughout the state. Trees continueto be cut and land cleared to accommo-date fleeing urbanites seeking homesites in rural, wooded settings, often un-aware that their individual location deci-sions risk the very environmental fea-tures and rural charm that lured themthere.

In 1999 the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management, Division of Forest Environment, and the Rhode IslandTree Council established the Rhode Island Urban and Community forest plan. The aim of this plan is to improve urban andcommunity forest resources by influencing decisionmaking processes. The plan does not mandate any particular action, butrather seeks to foster recognition and offer options and tools. An underlying assumption of this is that, with careful planning,quality designs, proper management, and prudent investment, urban and community forests can be maintained and improvedwithout negatively impacting economic growth.

To guarantee that vibrant and productive urban and community forests are a component of Rhode Island’s future landscape, and to maximize the benefits that urban and community forests provide as green infrastructure, the State will seek to stabilize overall forest cover at or near the present level, and gradually improve the urban forests. Other recommendations are:• Seek a higher profile for the protection and management of urban and community forest resources in public and private com-

munity planning, development, capital investment, and infrastructure management decisions• Increase public awareness of the benefits provided by urban forests • Protect trees of environmental and cultural importance through educational and/or legal means• Monitor the status of Rhode Island’s urban and community forest resources• Encourage new development that respects forest resources as vital elements of the community and properly integrates trees

to create high-quality living and working environments• Maximize the impact of tree planting using trees appropriate to site conditions—“the right tree for the right place” • Encourage a high level of maintenance of community green infrastructure through adopted standards and adequate funding• Involve the public and the private sector in efforts to plant and maintain community tree resources, including public trees

The Rhode Island Urban and Community Forest Plan

Urban forest and other land uses in southeastern

Rhode Island

23

During the 20th century, mankind has witnessed the birth of a new land ethic born from a landscape devastatedby forest exploitation. We also have witnessed the power and resilience of nature as the landscape healed andforests again became our sanctuary. What will the future bring and how will Rhode Island's forests fair in thedecades ahead?

We are confident that forests in the public sector will continue to grow. Land trusts, non-profit organizations,and governments have been actively pursuing protection strategies that will stretch well into the 21st century.Conservation easements will allow lands to remain in private ownership and protect critical habitats while pro-viding a mechanism for continued forest use. While total forest cover will shrink because of the pressures offragmentation and parcelization, there should be a significant pool of willing landowners who will protect andmanage private forests. The percentage of publicly owned forest will increase, but government cannot andshould not own it all. Today 75 percent of the forested landscape is in private hands and the sheer number of de-cisionmakers allow for a rich diversity of management styles. We need to educate these landowners.

Industry needs to continue to adapt and we predict they will. Smaller lot sizes mean industry must use smaller,environmentally friendly equipment. Alternative nontimber forest products will gain in popularity.

The forest will continue to slowly convert to eastern white pine in southern Rhode Island where soils are sandywhile northern Rhode Island should continue to see a thriving hardwood forest. Within the next two decades, the trees planted by the Civilian Conservation Corps prior to World War II will be gone and almost all of Rhode Is-land's forest will be the result of natural regeneration. Average volume per acre will continue to climb and stand-ing volume should exceed 2 billion board feet by 2020.

Forest fires will play a minor role in the Rhode Island landscape; however, a drought period that coincides withthe spring fire season could prove especially problematic. Rhode Island's older forest will tend to burn less aslong as it stays healthy. Human development within the forest will result in an increased risk of fire starts al-though those fires should stay small.

First and foremost, the forest will be our playground. People will continue to use our forested landscape for rec-reational purposes and the public's primary interest will be vested in specific uses enjoyed by the recreating pub-lic.

Attention to the urban forest will accelerate our understanding of how trees benefit society. Programs designed to build, maintain, and enhance the urban forest will grow as will community commitments to protect the urban-suburban forests. A regard for trees as a valued element of the urban infrastructure will grow, resulting in a bet-ter managed resource that will improve the aesthetics and livability of our cities and towns.

Insect and disease problems will continue to impact our forests. Hemlock might disappear and insects associated with southern climates might play important roles in changing our forests. The forest health monitoring andmanagement strategies will adapt to the challenges that will include invasive, non-native pests, dramatic weather events, and political and social change.

The public value of forest management will grow as our society continues to learn and understand the integralrole our forest lands play in the protection of our water resources. The forest’s intrinsic tie to abundant clean wa-ter will lead to greater protection, preservation, and management of forest tracts. It is in forest management that options for future generations are preserved while present goals and needs are met.

In the future, Ralph Waldo Emerson's words should still ring true: “In the woods we return to reason and faith.”

TTTHEHEHE F F FUTUREUTUREUTURE

24

GGGLOSSARYLOSSARYLOSSARY

Board foot—equal to a piece of wood 1 ft by 1 ft square by 1 in thickCord—a stack of split wood 4 ft tall by 4 ft wide by 8 ft longEdge habitat—the interface between two types of land uses, such as forest and nonforest, or age classesHardwoods—a group of tree species that are generally broad-leaved and deciduousForest land—land that is at least 1 acre in size and is at least 10 percent stocked with trees or that formerly

had such tree cover and is not currently developed for a nonforest useForest composition—the number and diversity of tree species within a forestForest structure—the physical attributes of a forest Forest type—a classification of forest land based upon the dominant trees in a standFragmentation—the division of contiguous or adjoining forestland into smaller or more complex patchesParcelization—the division of forest land owned by a single ownership into parcels owned by more than one

ownershipSoftwoods—a group of tree species that are generally evergreen and have needle shaped leavesStand—a group of forest trees growing on forest landTimberland—forest land capable of growing trees that can be used for forest products Urban forest—trees and associated plants and animals in and around cities and towns

RRRHODEHODEHODE I I ISLANDSLANDSLAND T T TREESREESREES --- C C COMMONOMMONOMMON ANDANDAND S S SCIENTIFICCIENTIFICCIENTIFIC NAMESNAMESNAMES

Eastern redcedar Juniperus virginianaTamarack Larix laricinaRed pine Pinus resinosaPitch pine Pinus rigida

Apple Malus sp.Blackgum Nyssa sylvaticaEastern hophornbeam Ostrya virginianaEastern cottonwood Populus deltoidesBigtooth aspen Populus grandidentataBlack cherry Prunus serotinaWhite oak Quercus albaSwamp white oak Quercus bicolorScarlet oak Quercus coccineaChestnut oak Quercus prinusNorthern red oak Quercus rubraBlack oak Quercus velutinaBlack locust Robinia psuedoacaciaWillow Salix sp.Sassafras Sassafras albidumAmerican elm Ulmus americanaSlippery elm Ulmus rubra

Softwoods (Conifers)

Red maple Acer rubrumSugar maple Acer saccharumServiceberry Amelanchier sp.Yellow birch Betula alleghaniensisSweet birch Betula lentaPaper birch Betula papyriferaGray birch Betula populifoliaAmerican hornbeam Carpinus carolinianaBitternut hickory Carya cordiformisPignut hickory Carya glabraShagbark hickory Carya ovataFlowering dogwood Cornus floridaAmerican beech Fagus grandifoliaWhite ash Fraxinus americanaBlack ash Fraxinus nigraGreen ash Fraxinus pennsylvanicaBlack walnut Juglans nigraYellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera

Hardwoods (Deciduous trees)

Eastern white pinePinus strobusScotch pine Pinus sylvestrisEastern hemlock Tsuga canadensis

20

FFFORESTORESTOREST A A AMENITIESMENITIESMENITIES

Most Rhode Islanders get financialgains from their forest lands only

when they sell their property. Butforests generate many benefits thatcannot be quantified in terms of dollarsand cents. From purifying the air andwater, to providing a place forrecreation and a setting for residentialproperties, the forests are vital to thehealth, welfare, and well-being of thepeople of Rhode Island.

“The returns from for-estry are too obvious for discussion. The beauty and glory of the earth as the home of man depends upon the forest. It is the businessof forestry to develop and perpetuate the for-est that it shall serve forever in the highest degree the manifold in-terests of humanity.”

- Jesse B. Mowry, 1913

Water and climate

From the shores to the rolling hills,forests create and help frame thebeautiful landscape that Rhode Islanders have come to expect. The people ofRhode Island have a long history of rec-reating in the forests.

The first Rhode Islanders hunted andfished in the forests to provide suste-nance for themselves and their families.Hunting and fishing are still commonpastimes, but are now done more forpleasure than out of necessity. Thereare many acres of public and privatelands in the state that are used primarilyfor hunting and fishing.

But there are a plethora of other activi-ties that Rhode Islanders pursue in thewoods. Many miles of trails and forestroads are used by hikers and horsebackriders. And nearly every Rhode Islander has appreciated the beauty of the forestduring the first flush of green in thespring or the explosion of color in thefall.

Recreation

The most important role forests play isin the regulation of climate and watercycles. Over the course of millennia,trees and other green plants havechanged the atmosphere. Through pho-tosynthesis, trees combine carbon diox-ide and water using the sun’s energy toproduce sugars. These sugars form thebase of the food chain. A byproduct ofphotosynthesis is oxygen; without pho-tosynthesis there would be too littleoxygen for us to breath. Trees also help control the temperature of the atmos-phere by removing carbon dioxide agreenhouse gas that helps trap warmthin the atmosphere. Many environmen-talists are looking at forests to help off-set our carbon dioxide emissions andmitigate global warming.

Forests are vital for clean, dependable

flows of water. More than 600,000Rhode Island residents depend onreservoirs for their water supply withthe remainder of the residents relying on wells. The reservoirs are surrounded byforest because the reservoir managersknow the importance of forests formaintaining water quality. By allowingwater to slowly infiltrate into theground, clean water enters streams andaquifers and is then available forextraction by homeowners andbusinesses. Once forests are removed,rain can cause soil erosion that depletessoil fertility, and muddies streams andponds, thus decreasing water quality.

Pulaski Pond, George Washington Management Area

Sugar mapleAcer saccharum

WWWANTANTANT MOREMOREMORE INFORMATIONINFORMATIONINFORMATION???

On the internetState of Rhode Island

Department of Environmental Management http://www.state.ri.us/dem/ USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station FIA http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/State and Private Forestry http://www.na.fs.fed.us/

Southern New England Forest Consortium http://www.snefci.org/Rhode Island Forest Conservators Organization http://www.rifco.orgRhode Island Tree Council http://www.ritree.org

Rhode Island forest statistics publications• Forest Statistics for Rhode Island: 1985 and 1998 by Carol L. Alerich (2000), published by U.S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Resource Bulletin NE-149.• Forest Statistics for Rhode Island-1972 and 1985 by D. R. Dickson and Carol L. McAfee (1988), published

by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Resource Bulletin NE-104.• Forest Statistics for Rhode Island by John R. Peters and T. M. Bowers (1977), published by U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Resource Bulletin NE-49.• FIA Photointerpretation in Southern New England: A Tool to Determine Forest Fragmentation

and Proximity to Human Development by Rachel Reimann and Kathy Tilman (1999), published by U.S. De-partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Research Paper NE-709.

• Private forest-land owners of the Northern United States, 1994 by Thomas Birch (1996), published by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Resource Bulletin NE-136.

Other books that may be of interest• Working with your woodland: A landowner's guide by M. Beattie, C. Thompson and L. Levine (1993),

published by the University of New England Press.• A Sierra Club Naturalist's Guide to Southern New England by Neil Jorgensen (1978), published by Si-

erra Club Books.• New England Wildlife: Management of Forested Habitats by Richard M. DeGraff and others (1992), pub-

lished by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station., General Technical Re-port NE-144

• Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England by William Cronon (1983), published by Hill and Wang.

• Reading the Forested Landscape: A Natural History of New England by T. Wessels (1997), published by Countryman Press.

Please contact:USDA Forest Service or Rhode Island Department of Environmental ManagementForest Inventory and Analysis Division of Forest Environment11 Campus Boulevard, Suite 200 1037 Hartford PikeNewtown Square, Pennsylvania 19073 North Scituate, Rhode Island 02857(610) 557-4075 (401) 647-4389

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest ServiceNortheastern Research Station11 Campus Boulevard, Suite 200Newtown Square, Pennsylvania 19073-3294

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