Unit Two: Research Methods!

Todays Goals:• I can describe how research is

conducted in psychology!

>>>On a sheet of notebook paper, write down what you know about the scientific method!

Your Thoughts On The Scientific Method

This Video Also Explains The Scientific Method• Generate a Question• Form a Hypothesis• Test Your Hypothesis• Analyze Results• Draw Conclusions• Replicate• Form A New Question

Steps of the Research Method

Generate a Question• Before researching, you must come up with

a QUESTION to answer• Questions in psychology often come from

personal EXPERIENCES

• It is best to ask questions that involve BEHAVIORS, not CONSTRUCTS• Construct – something that exists, but

cannot be DIRECTLY MEASURED• Examples: • INTELLIGENCE, MOTIVATION

Our Experiment:NINE SWAP CELL RING LAMPAPPLE TABLE SWAY WORM

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Form a Hypothesis• Once you have a question, you must form

an educated guess, or HYPOTHESIS, about the answer to the question• Hypotheses are best written in IF-THEN

form• Example:

Test Your Hypothesis• A hypothesis is no good on its own, you

need to TEST your hypothesis to determine if it is correct• Testing Method Examples:

Analyze Results• After testing a hypothesis, you must look

at the findings and search for PATTERNS and RELATIONSHIPS in the data• Analyzing results often involves looking for

a CORRELATION between variables

Draw Conclusions•When results have been analyzed,

psychologists draw conclusions to form THEORIES

Replication• One experiment is not enough, results

must be repeated, or REPLICATED• Results should be THE SAME every time

research is conducted

Form New Questions• The researching process is not over after

completing an experiment and replicating it• Psychologists, like any scientists, are

always asking NEW, more DETAILED questions about their research topics

Now with a partner…Write down how you would go about testing a hypothesis about HUMAN BEHAVIOR! I want you to apply the scientific method to psychology

You have ten minutes to write down all of the steps for your groups question! Then I will call some groups to share their ideas

Todays Goal:

• I can explain what the survey method is• I can explain the different ways to pick

samples of populations• I can determine if survey questions are

good or bad

To Begin:

• Lets share some of our experiments that we applied the scientific method to!• Don’t forget to put the hypothesis in IF-

THEN form

The Survey Method• Survey – research method in which people

are asked to respond to a series of questions about a given topic• Populations and Samples• Target Population – the ENTIRE group

you want to research about• Example:

• Sample – the PART of the population that you actually send the survey to• Example:

• Selecting Samples• If a sample does not represent its

population, no conclusion can be made• Random Sample – a sample in which

members of a population are selected RANDOMLY• Each person in the population has an

EQUAL chance of being chosen• Example:

• Stratified sample – a sample in which EVERY GROUP in a population is represented PROPORTIONALLY • Example:

• A large STRATIFIED sample is likely to be a RANDOM sample

• Convenience Sample – a sample that is chosen based on a specific quality that is convenient, such as LOCATION• Example:

Generalizing Results • After looking at the results of a survey,

the goal is to use the SAMPLE to make conclusions about the POPULATION• This process is known as GENERALIZING

results for a population• One of the largest obstacles when trying

to generalize is BIAS

Bias• Bias is a PREDISPOSITION to a certain

point of view and comes in many forms• Volunteer Bias – this is created when

surveys are only completed by those who choose to do so• Examples:

• Nonresponse Bias – this is created when some individuals choose not to return a survey• Examples:

• Other Potential Biases:

Analyzing the Survey Method• PROS

• CONS

Goals For Today:

• I can describe the different types of research methods• I can compare and contrast the research

methods and give examples of all of them

Methods Of Observations

• Survey Method (Yesterday)• Testing Method• Case Study Method • Longitudinal Method• Cross Sectional Method• Naturalistic-Observation Method• Laboratory-Observational Method

The Testing Method

• Psychologists sometimes use PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS to learn about human behavior

• Examples: Personality Test, IQ Test

Case Study Method

• A CASE STUDY is an in depth investigation of an individual or a small group• Case studies learn about the people who

are being studied by observing or speaking with them, interviewing people who know them, or look into their backgrounds and histories.

• Although case studies can sometimes offer great insight, psychologists are cautious about generalizing from case studies, especially the case studies that CANNOT BE REPLICATED • Since case studies are based on interviews,

there tend to be GAPS OF INFORMATION and INNACCURACIES

Examples:

Longitudinal Method• The longitudinal method selects a group of

participants and then observes them OVER A PERIOD OF TIME, OFTEN YEARS OR DECADES• Longitudinal studies answer questions about

development OVER TIME• Usually the observations are conducted at

INTERVALS• These studies are TIME CONSUMING,

EXPENSIVE and RISKY

Cross Sectional Method • Cross sectional method are similar to

longitudinal method but instead the select a SAMPLE THAT INCULDES PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT AGES. • Information in cross sectional studies are

LESS RELIABLE than information from LONGITUDINAL STUDIES• Examples:

Naturalistic-Observation Method• This method observes people in their

NATURAL HABITATS •While observing, psychologists do not

INTERFERE with their subjects• Examples: Food or Security

Laboratory-Observation Method •When observing someone in their natural

habitat is not available, we then observe them in a lab• B.F. Skinner and the rat box are a good

example of a laboratory • Psychologists use a lab to CONTROL the

environment of a study• EXAMPLES

Todays Goals:

• I can describe correlation graphically and determine by the correlation coefficient if it is a strong correlation• I can describe what “correlation does not mean

causation” means in terms of our experiments

To Begin Class

• WITHOUT NOTES…• Write down all of the different methods of

observations! Try to remember as many as you can. Then write down a few key words that relate to each method of observation

Correlation!

• All of our types of observations are great, but now we have to analyze our data that we put together from our observations.

Correlation• CORRELATION is a measure of how closely one

thing is related to another. The stronger the correlation, the closer two things are related.

Types of Correlation:• If two variables have a POSITIVE correlation,

then as one variable goes up, the other tends to go up.

• We would say that SALARIES and NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT are positively correlated.

• If two variables have a NEGATIVE correlation, then as one variable goes up, the other tends to go down.

• We would say that IMMUNE SYSTEMS ABILITY TO FUNCTION and STRESS are negatively correlated

What Does Correlation Look Like?• Correlation can be given as a number, r, called

the correlation COEFFICENT that is between ZERO and ONE. • The larger r is (either close to POSITIVE ONE or

close to NEGATIVE ONE), the stronger the correlation. The closer r is to 0, the smaller the correlation. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is NO RELATIONSHIP between the two variables.

• When looking at an x-y graph, two variables that are correlated will form a LINEAR pattern.

Why Do We Care About Correlation?• When performing observations, unlike

experiments, we CANNOT come to conclusions about one variable CAUSING another variable to change.• A correlation between two variables is the

closest thing psychologists have to confirming that two variables are related if they cannot design an experiment to test the cause-effect relationship.

• We must be extremely CAREFUL when looking at data because CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION.• It is possible that there is a cause and effect

relationship, BUT, there could be an extra VARIABLE that is causing the correlation we see.• Example(s): INCREASED SALES OF ICE CREAM

LEAD TO AN INCREASE IN MURDERS. THEREFORE ICE CREAM COMSUMPTION CAUSES MURDERS

The Experimental Method

• An experiment is a research method in which participants go through a specific treatment in order for the researcher to investigate a specific cause and effect relationship.

• Variable: FACTORS THAT CAN VARY OR CHANGE• Independent Variable: THE FACTOR THAT

RESEARCHERS MANIPULATE SO THAT THEY CAN DETERMINE ITS EFFECT. • Dependent Variable: DEPENDS ON SOMETHING,

THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE• Experimental Group: MEMBERS OF THE

EXPERIMENT THAT RECEIVE THE TREATMENT

• Control Group: MEMBERS OF THE EXPERIMENT THAT DO NOT RECEIVE THE TREATMENT• Controlled Experiment: EXPERIMENTS THAT USE

CONTROL GROUPS AS WELL AS EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

• Describe a possible psychology experiment below. Then, define and give an example from that experiment of each of the following terms: variable, independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, control group, controlled experiment.

• Example: Does eating breakfast really boost academic performance?

Other Experimental Variations and Concepts• The Placebo Effect• A placebo is a substance or treatment that has

no effect other than the participants’ belief in it.• Example: Penn and Teller Placebo Effect

• Single-Blind Studies• In a single-blind study, the PARTICIPANT does not

know if they are in the control group or the experimental group.• Single-blind studies eliminate effects of

participant bias based on which group they are in.

• Double-Blind Studies• In a double-blind study, neither the

PARTICIPANTS nor the EXPERIMENTERS knows which participants are in which groups.• Double blind studies eliminate bias in both the

participant and the researcher.• These are commonly found in drug testing. The

Food and Drug Administration requires double-blind studies to prove that a medicine is effective.

Todays Goals:

• I can understand the ethical debates that surface in psychology• I can form my own opinions on what I think is

ethical and unethical

• Ethics are standards for PROPER and RESPONSIBLE behavior. • By following ethical practices in research,

psychologists try to:• Promote dignity of the individual• Maintain scientific integrity• Foster human welfare• Lessen harm and human suffering

Research With People• Many possible studies could REVEAL very useful

information, but it would be unethical to perform such experiments• Example: A psychologist might wonder about

the effects of being separated from a parent soon after birth. However, one could not go out and force children to separate from their families and then see how they respond.• Milgram’s Obedience Experiment

• Alternative Research: In place of these unethical studies, psychologists can seek out people who already meet the qualifications they are looking for. For example, they could look through records and find children separated at a young age from their parents.• Disadvantages of this alternative approach:

Two Ethical Standards

• Confidentiality• Psychologists much keep records of research

participants and clients a SECRET• Confidentiality would only be broken if the

psychologist was trying to protect another’s SAFETY (ex. if a client said they were going to kill someone)

Applebees Example

• Informed Consent• Participants must sign a form giving

INFORMED CONSENT to be in an experiment• Participants verify that they understand the

experiment and WANT to participate

• While psychologists try to be straight forward and honest, sometimes it is necessary to DECEIVE participants in order to achieve results• The special conditions required to be able to use

deception are:• When psychologists believe BENEFITS of the

research outweigh potential HARM• When psychologists believe individuals would

have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research • When participants receive an explanation for

the study after it has occurred

Animal Research

• Many studies that are not permissible on humans have been conducted using ANIMALS• Animal research provides great insight into

topics like the BRAIN and mental disorders• Animals are only used when there is NO

ALTERNATIVE and psychologists believe that benefits outweigh the harm

Ethics In Using Data

• Psychologists are responsible for ACCURATELY reporting all of their data and not simply discarding data that does not support their original hypothesis