Unit Two - NotesThese anatomy notes are for question 7, the extended question. You will be asked a question that has 2 parts- an anatomy section and a skill section. Your answer will be marked by an examiner using banded marking. The more responses you give from the mark scheme, the higher the band will be. The anatomy question will be based around fitness and training. It could ask you:

Principles of training Calculation of workload intensities Fitness testing Benefits of a warm-up or cool down Training methods

Training and fitness testing

Principles of Training

S FP IO TR TT

Exam Question:

Describe how you would apply the ‘FITT principles’ and ‘specificity’ to improve fitness

FITT

Frequency-train more often Intensity-train harder Time/duration-train for longer Type-use different forms of exercise Overload-work/train harder than normal

Specificity

Use same energy system Use same muscle fibre type Use similar skills/movements Use similar intensity to activity Use similar duration to activity

Calculating working intensities for optimal gains

Make sure you can explain:

Heart rate training zones (Karvonen’s principle)

Heart rate training zones can be used to gauge how hard you are working. Most training zones are calculated from your maximum heart rate. Remember this is

220-age

So if you are 17 it would be calculated as follows:

220 – 17 = 203

You then need to work at a certain percentage of this maximum heart rate. One way of doing this is by using the ‘Karvonen principle’ which is more accurate than other methods. This is because it takes into account individual fitness levels as resting heart rates are used to work out an individual’s training zone. He suggests a training intensity of between 60-75% of maximum heart rate, using the following calculation:

60% = Resting heart rate + 0.6 (max heart rate – resting heart rate)75% = Resting heart rate + 0.75 (max heart rate – resting heart rate)

Perceived exertion eg Borg scale

The Borg scale is a simple method of rating perceived exertion (RPE) and is used to measure a performer’s level of intensity during training. Perceived exertion is how hard you feel your body is working. During exercise you use the Borg scale to assign numbers to how you feel. If you feel you are working too hard you can then reduce the intensity. There are numerous RPE scales but the most common ones are the 15 point scale and the 9 point scale. The 15 point scale is illustrated below

67 - very, very light (30% effort)89 - very light (50% effort)1011 - fairly light (60% effort)1213 - moderately hard (70% effort)1415 - hard (80% effort)1617 - very hard (90% effort)1819 - very, very hard ((100% effort)20 - exhaustion

1 rep max (1RM)

When weight training you need to work out your one repetition maximum for each exercise that you plan to do so that you can then decide on the correct intensity that you wish to train at. There are different types of strength and you need to decide which one you wish to improve. Depending on which type this is you need to work at a certain percentage of your one repetition max.

Key Term: perceived exertion is how hard you feel your body is working during exercise

Exam Question:

Explain how you could calculate individual workload intensities for a continuous training programme

Use heart rate to measure intensity Heart rate training zone (must use exact wording) Max HR = 220 – age Karvonen principle stated Karvonen formula Use Borg scale to measure intensity Rate of perceived exertion/RPE Subjective/opinion Scores 6-20

Training Methods

Make sure you can explain the following training methods

Continuous Training

Fartlek Training

This is slightly different method of continuous training where the word ‘fartlek’ means speed-play. Here the performer varies the pace of the run to stress boththe aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. This is a much more demanding type of training and will improve an individual’s VO2 (max) and recovery process. A typical session will last for approximately 40 minutes with the intensity ranging from low to high.Typical session:

10 minutes jogging6 x (20 seconds fast running with 80 seconds recovery)5 minutes walk5 minutes jogRun uphill for one minute, jog down, repeat twice.3 minute jog2 minute walk

Interval or intermittent training

Interval training can be used for both aerobic and anaerobic training. It is a form of training in which periods of work are interspersed with recovery periods. Four main variables are used to ensure the training is specific:

1. The duration of the work interval2. The intensity or speed of the work interval

3. The duration of the recovery period4. The number of work intervals and recovery periods.

It is possible to adapt interval training to overload each of the three energy systems. Anaerobic intervals would be short distance, high intensity and aerobic intervals would be long distance, submaximal intensity. This can be summarised in the table below:

Energy system

Duration/distance of work

interval

Intensity of work

interval

Duration of

recovery

Number of work intervals/recover

y periods

ATP-PC 60m(10 secs)

High intensity

30 seconds

10

Lactic acid

200m(35 secs)

High intensity

110 seconds

8

Aerobic 1500m(6 mins)

Submaximal

5 minutes

3

Strength training

Strength can be improved by doing the following types of training: weights, circuits and plyometrics.

Weights.

Weight training is usually described in terms of sets and repetitions. The number of sets and repetitions that you do and the amount of weight you lift will depend on the type of strength you wish to improve. Before you can design a programme it is important to determine the maximum amount of weight that a performer can lift with one repetition. Then if maximum strength is the goal, it will be necessary to lift high weights with low repetitions, for example, 4-5 sets of 2-6 repetitions at 80-100% of maximum strength. However if muscular endurance is the goal it will be necessary to perform more repetitions of lighter weights, for example, 3 sets of 10 repetitions at approximately 50% of maximum strength.

The choice of exercise should relate to the muscle groups used in sport, both the agonists and antagonists. The exercises are usually classed into four groups

Shoulders and arms, eg. Bench press, curls, pull downs Trunk and back, eg., sit-ups, back hyper extensions Legs, eg., squats, calf raise, leg press All body exercises, eg., Power clean, snatch, dead lift.

Circuit training.

In circuit training the athlete performs a series of exercises in succession. These exercises include press-ups, sit-up squat thrusts to name a few. The resistance used is the athlete’s body weight and each exercise concentrates on a different muscle group to allow for recovery. A circuit is usually designed for general body conditioning and it is easily adapted to meet the needs of an activity. An example of a circuit can be seen below:

Running

Running

Running

Tricep Abdominal Step-ups Shoulder press dips curls

Skipping ‘Crunchies’

Dorsal Bicep curl Single leg squats press-upsraises

Running

In pairs, A runs while B completes the exercises. After two complete running circuits the partners change over activity so that A now completes the exercises and B now runs. After two minutes the whistle blows and whoever is completing the exercises moves onto the next one. The duration of the circuit is 20 minutes but can be adapted to use more time.

Plyometrics.

If leg strength is crucial to successful performance, for example, long jump and 100m sprint in athletics or rebounding in basketball, then plyometrics is one method of strength training that improves power or elastic strength. It works on the concept that muscles can generate more force if they have previously been stretched. This occurs in plyometrics

when, on landing, the muscle performs an eccentric contraction (lengthens under tension) followed immediately by a concentric contraction as the performer jumps up. A line of benches, boxes, hurdles is made and the performer has to jump, hop, leap from one to the other. Recovery occurs as you walk back to the start line and repeat the exercise

Flexibility/Mobility Training

Static stretching

Active. The performer works on one joint, pushing it beyond its point of resistance, lengthening the muscles and connective tissue surrounding it.

Passive. This is when a stretch occurs with the help of an external force, such as a partner or gravity or a wall.

Ballistic Stretching

This involves performing a stretch with swinging or bouncing movements to push a body part even further. It is important that this type of stretching should only be performed by an individual who is extremely flexible such as a gymnastic or a dancer.

PNF

This stands for proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation where the muscle is isometrically contracted for a period of at least 10 seconds. It then relaxes and is stretched again, usually going further a second time.

When performing a stretch, make sure you adhere to the following guidelines:

Make stretch sports specific (Begin) slowly Hold stretch for few/no more than (30) seconds Never hold a painful stretch – injury No bouncing/ballistic movements

Exam Question:

Describe the various ways that flexibility can be improved and, using examples, explain the benefits to the performer of improved flexibility.

Ways in which flexibility can be improved, addressing points such as:

Active stretching – holding a stretched position by contraction of your own agonistic muscles

Passive (or relaxed) stretching – stretch position being held by something other than the agonistic muscles

Static/PNF stretching – stretching to limit of range and then isometrically contracting the stretched muscles

Ballistic stretching – using movement to ‘bounce’ in and out of a stretch position

Benefits to the performer of improved flexibility, addressing points such as:

Increased range of movement/reduce injury Adopt held or aesthetic positions in gymnastic activities/alternative example Can reach ball or player in games/alternative example Can apply more power/longer levers in athletic activities/alternative example

Fitness testing

Reasons for testing highlight strengths and weaknesses. Allow progress to be carefully monitored through re-testing and comparisons to

social norms Help to motivate the individual if improvements are made Monitor the success of a training programme. If no improvement has been made

then the training programme can be modified help in talent identification

Principles of maximal and sub-maximal testsMaximal tests are when the performer works at maximum effort, usually to exhaustion. They are usually very reliable, objective tests. Examples of anaerobic maximal tests are the 30m sprint and the Wingate test. Aerobic maximal tests include the multi-stage fitness test and Cooper’s 12 minute run. However the disadvantages of these types of tests are:

it is difficult to ensure the performer is actually working to a maximum it is hard to keep motivated when pushing yourself to exhaustion possible dangers of over-exertion and injury

Sub-maximal tests are not exhaustive and do not require the performer to work at maximal levels. Aerobic examples of theses tests include the Harvard step test and the PWC170 test. Motivation is no longer an issue. However these tests usually rely on data that is predictive or estimated and there are problems with accuracy and objectivity.

Validity and Reliability of TestingValidity – does the test measure exactly what it sets out to? For example, doing just the ‘sit and reach’ test to assess flexibility only covers the hamstrings and lower back. Therefore it is a valid test for the lower body but not for the upper body . Is the test sport specific? It is important to conduct a test so that it replicates sporting actions and uses the muscles in the same way they are used in the performers activity. For example, the ‘multi-stage fitness’ test involves running so it is a valid for a games player where a lot of running is involved, but less so for a cyclist or a swimmer,

Reliability – is the test accurate/can it be repeated? For example, in order for the ‘step test’ to be reliable it is important to ensure that the procedure is correctly maintained, ie. that everyone who completes the test does so at the same rate, height and cadence and that there is full extension between steps.

Factors to take into account when testing:1. Tester should be experienced2. Equipment should be standardised3. Sequencing of tests is important4. Is the performer motivated to complete the test to the best of their ability5. Repetition of tests to avoid human error.

Exam Question:

Identify the main reasons for conducting fitness tests and discuss the possible limitations of fitness testing

Main reasons: Identify strengths and/or weaknesses in a performance/success of a training

programme/show improvement Physiological potential/identifies (starting) level of fitness/some (maximal) tests

increase fitness/aid training Compared against norms of the group Helps motivate performer/sets goals Provides variety to training programme

Limitations: They are not sport specific/too general They do not replicate movements of activity Do not replicate competitive conditions required in sports Many do not use direct measuring/sub-maximal – therefore inaccurate/some need

motivation/some have questionable reliability Tests used often/may lack validity/eg Validity – test what they are supposed to test

Component Method of Testing

Test description Strengths Limitations

Cardio respiratory Endurance(stamina)

Multi stage fitness test

Coopers 12 minute run

Harvard step test

PWC170 cycle ergometer test

Progressive 20m shuttle run test. Performers must reach the line at the end of each shuttle before the beep. When they can no longer do this they record the level achieved

Performers run as far as they can in 12 minutes

This involves stepping up and down on a bench to a set rhythm for 5 minutes Recovery heart rates are then recorded

3 consecutive 4 minute workloads are completed on a cycle ergometer. Each have target heart ratesLoad 1: 115-130Load 2: 130-145Load 3: 145-165The HR for each workload is graphed and a line of best fit is drawn

Easy testing procedure Not time consuming as

large groups can be tested together

Standardised data that can predict VO2(max)

Easy testing procedure Little equipment Not time consuming as

large groups can be tested together

Standardised data

Easy testing procedure Little equipment Sub-maximal test

Sub-maximal test Weight of the performer is

supported in the saddle

Only a prediction of VO2(max)

Maximal test Involves a running

action (relevance for swimmers?)

Maximal test

Relies on manual recording of heart rate-risk of errors

Have to keep to the stepping rate

Some have difficulty keeping up

Stepping is not sport specific

Cycling is sport specific

Human error when plotting the line of best fit

Manual recording of heart rate can lead to errors

Maximum

Strength

Hand grip dynamometer

The performer squeezes the dynamometer while lowering it from shoulder height to their side. The highest reading from 3 attempts is recorded

Easy testing procedure Little equipment needed

This test only gives an indication of the strength of the handgrip and forearm and is therefore limited

Power (Elastic strength)

muscular endurance

1RM max test

Wingate test

Vertical jump

NCF abdominal curl

The performer lifts the maximum weight they can just once. It may take a bit of trial and error to find this maximum so there should be ample rest between attempts

The performer pedals as fast as they can for 30 seconds. The resistance on the bike is related to body weight-75g per kg of body weight. The number of revolutions is then recorded for every 5 seconds of the test.

The performer’s standing reach is measured against a wall. From a squatting position they then jump up as high as they can marking the wall at the top of the jump

The performer does as many sit-ups as they can, keeping in time with a beep. The test finishes when the performer can no longer keep up with the beep and the stage reached is recorded

Easy testing procedure All muscle groups can be

tested Can be sports specific

Objective data

Easy testing procedureLittle equipment needed

Easy testing procedure Little equipment needed Large groups can be tested

at the same time

Risk of injury Need access to

multi gym

Maximal test Expensive

equipment Sports specific

for cyclists only

It is quite hard to time the jump so that a mark can be made when the performer is at full height

Different techniques are used so a lack of consistency

A maximal test Need to make sure

have the correct technique

Can place a lot of strain on the lumbar region of the spine

Flexibility

Sit and reach test

In a sitting position with legs straight and the sole of your feet touching the box, lean forward and push the marker along the measuring scale with the fingertips and hold for 2 seconds. Record the score

Easy testing procedure Little equipment needed

Only measures the flexibility of the ham strings and the lower back

Different leg lengths can make comparisons difficult

CoordinationAlternate hand wall

toss

The performer stands behind a line 2 metres away from a wall. They then perform an underarm throw with the right hand and catch the ball with the left. This is followed by an underarm throw from the left hand and caught in the right. The performer tries to do as many as these throws as they can in 30 seconds and compare their results to a table

Easy testing procedureLittle equipment needed

Not sport specific for sports such as tennis or hockey

Speed 30 metre sprint test

The time it takes to sprint 30m is recorded Easy testing procedure

Little equipment needed

There can be human error with the timing

If performed outside the surface could affect the result especially during wet conditions

Not sport specific in that there is no change in direction

Balance Stork stand

This is a test used to evaluate static balance. With hands on hips one foot is lifted and rests on the knee of the other leg. The heel of the straight leg then needs to be raised so the performer is balancing on their toes. The balance is then held for as long as possible and results compared to a standardised table

Easy testing procedureLittle equipment needed

This is a static balance test and is not sport specific. Dynamic balance is used in most activities

Agility

Illinois agility run

Mark out an area 10 metres in length

Place four cones 3.3 metres apart

Lie flat on the floor with your hands beside your shoulders

On ‘go’ run the course as fast as you can.

Get a partner to time the run and get your rating from a

standardised table

Easy testing procedure Little equipment needed There is a lot of data from

which to compare results

Could be human error with the timing If performed

outside the surface could affect the result especially during wet conditions

Not sport specific with those sports that require bats, sticks and rackets since you perform the test empty handed!

A partner holds a metre

Reaction time

Metre ruler test

ruler at the zero end. Place the index finger and

thumb of preferred hand on either side of the 50cm mark but not touching it

Without warning your partner lets go of the ruler and you must close your finger and thumb to catch it.

Compare your result with a rating table.

Easy testing procedure Little equipment needed

Could be humanerror with the measuring

Not sport specific

The importance of a warm-up and cool down

Warm-up

The warm-up helps prepare the body for exercise and should always be carried out before the start of any training session. The first stage of any warm-up is to perform some kind of cardiovascular exercise such as jogging, gently increasing your pulse. This will increase cardiac output and breathing rate and through the vascular shunt more blood is directed to the working muscles. Together these three factors will increase the amount of oxygen being delivered to the muscles.

The second stage is the performance of stretching/flexibility exercises especially with those joints and muscles that will be most active during the training session. Types of stretching are discussed later on under mobility training.

The third stage should involve the movement patterns that are to be carried out, for example, practising shooting in basketball or netball, or dribbling in hockey or football.

A warm-up can have the following physiological effects: The release of adrenalin will increase heart rate and dilate capillaries. This allows

more oxygen to be delivered to the skeletal muscles Muscle temperature increases and this will firstly enable oxygen to dissociate

more easily from haemoglobin and secondly allow for an increase in enzyme activity making energy readily available.

An increase in the speed of nerve impulse conduction will allow us to be more alert.

Greater elasticity of the muscle fibres occurs through the increase in muscle temperature. This will lead to an increase in the speed and force of contraction.

Efficient movement at joints occurs through an increased production of synovial fluid.

Cool-down

A cool-down consists of some form of light exercise to keep heart rate elevated. This keeps blood flow high and allows oxygen to be flushed through the muscles removing and oxidising any lactic acid that remains. Performing light exercise also allows the skeletal muscle pump to keep working which maintains venous return and prevents blood from pooling in the veins. A cool-down may also result in limiting the effect of DOMS (Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness) which is characterised by tender and painful muscles often experienced some 24 to 48 hours following heavy exercise. This muscle soreness occurs from the structural damage to muscle fibres and connective tissue surrounding the fibres. DOMS usually occurs following excessive eccentric contraction when muscle fibres are put under a lot of strain. This type of muscular contraction occurs mostly from weight training and plyometrics.

Principles of safe practice.As already discussed a warm-up and cool down are important in the prevention of injury and muscle soreness following exercise. However there are other factors that need to be considered:

What exercises you are going to do and in what order. It is important in circuits, for example, that muscle groups are rotated.

Dehydration. Always ensure that plenty of water is consumed during exercise Rest days or recovery periods. Don’t overdo things! Correct technique is adhered to, especially in stretching and weight training If you are using any equipment, is it safe? Are all on the collars on the bar in

weight lifting, for example and have they been sufficiently tightened? The environment you are training in. If it is cold, wear plenty of layers. Is the

sports hall clean and free from any potential dangers. Differences in performance due to gender, age. Generally males have more

strength than females but the opposite can be true in flexibility Are you fully fit or returning from injury? If so make sure training is progressive.

Exam Question:

Explain why a warm-up is needed to start the session.

Reasons for a warm-up, addressing points such as: Reduces possibility of injury/ increase flexibility/elasticity of muscle tissue Release of synovial fluid/elasticity of connective tissue Increases body/muscle temperature Better oxygen delivery/ blood flow/ vasodilation to muscle tissues; Better chemical reactions/higher metabolism Increased sensitivity of nerve receptors/ speed of nerve conduction/reaction time Allows for rehearsal of movement/ same skills as in activity; Mental rehearsal/stress or anxiety reduction/psychological preparation/

relaxation/alertness Supplies adequate blood flow to heart so increasing its efficiency