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Unit III Learning and IntelligenceChapters 9-11,13
Psychology
Unit 3: Learning and Intelligence
Critical Vocabulary
Classical Conditioning
• A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
Operant Conditioning
• Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence
Social Learning
• Form of learning in which the organism observes, explores, and imitates the behavior of others
Cognition• Cognition is the
scientific term for "the process of thought".
• Thought depends on several processes & components: images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules
Short-term Memory
• Memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items for a short period of time
Sensory Memory
• Very brief memory storage immediately following initial stimulation of a receptor
Long-term Memory
• Refers to the storage of information in the human mind over extended periods of time
Recall
• The type of memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material without the aid of or with very few external cues
• E.g.—What year was the Declaration of Independence written?
Recognition
• The type of memory retrieval in which a person is required to identify an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has experienced before
• E.g.—What year was the Declaration of Independence written? A. 1774 B. 1776 C. 1970 D. 1965
Language
• A system of communication that involves using rules to make and combine symbols in ways that produce meaningful words and sentences
Creativity
• The ability to use information, invent new solutions to problems, or create original and ingenious materials
Learning
• A Relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience
– 1)Inferred from a change in behavior or performance
– 2)Results in an inferred change in memory
– 3)The result of experience
– 4)Relatively permanent
Classical Conditioning
• Mental associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
– Associating one stimulus with another
– In classical conditioning a person’s or an animal’s OLD response becomes attached to a NEWstimulus
Classical Conditioning
• IVAN PAVLOV—Does the name Pavlov ring a bell??
• While studying the digestive patterns of dogs, Pavlov noticed that just the sight and smell of food made the dogs salivate, so he began to study this and theorized CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Dogs:
– A tuning fork is struck
– Food/meat powder is placed on the dog’s tongue
– Dog’s salivate
– Repeat several times
– Tuning fork is stuck
– Dog’s begin salivating at just the sound of the bell with out the presence of the food
Pavlov’s Dogs
Classical Conditioning
• General Principles:– N: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response,
but can cause a formally unrelated response
– UCS: an event that elicits a certain, predictable response without previous training
– UCR: an organisms natural or automatic response to a stimulus• REFLEXES!!!
– CS: the stimuli that causes the reaction/response after conditioning
– CR: the learned reaction
Classical Conditioning
• How does an animal or person acquire a conditioned response??
• A CS is paired with an UCS multiple times so that the CR is acquired and strengthened
N + UCS = UCRCS + UCS = CR
Classical Conditioning
• Sooo….how then were Pavlov’s Dogs conditioned???
UCS CS UCR CR
Presentationof the food or meat powder
The Tuning fork or bell
Salivation: food causes the dogs to
salivate regardless of
any conditioning
The dogs hear a bell and instantly salivate
N (bell) + UCS (food) = UCR (salivation)
CS (bell) + UCS (food) = CR (hear bell, salivate)
Classical Conditioning• Common Conditional Responses:
Can you think of more from your own experience???!?!???!!
(1)N + UCS = UCR (2)CS + UCS= CR
Fear of the Dentist’s Drill
Sound of the Drill
Drilling into Teeth
Tension/Pain
Sound of Drill/Sight of Dentist
Drill into Teeth
HearDrill/See Dentist, Feel Tension and Pain
Advertising Slogan/ Song
Catchy Jingle or Slogan
Product Favorable Feeling
CatchyJingle or Slogan
Product Hear Song or Slogan,Get a Favorable Feeling
Loathing for the Police
Flashing Police Lights
Speeding Ticket
Anger/Fear Flashing Police Lights
Speeding Ticket
SeeFlashing lights, fell anger and fear
Classical Conditioning
• If I am trying to condition say…MY STUDENTS, how can I create the strongest association between the CS and the UCS?!?!
• The Strongest associations are made when the UCS is presented ½ second before the UCR
WHY?!
Classical Conditioning
• Say you wake up daily to the same alarm sound on your phone daily…this sound soon becomes very unpleasant and brings about a feeling of dread. What happens when you hear a similar sound throughout the day?
– You shutter and have that same feeling of unpleasant dread
• GENERALIZATION
Classical Conditioning
• Generalization: An animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS without prior training with the second stimulus
• EX. Pavlov’s tests with circles and ovals
• Can you think of ways this process is used in everyday life?!
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus DISCRIMINATION: the ability of an animal to respond differently to different stimuli—The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not
EXAMPLES?!
Classical Conditioning
• If a response can be learned or conditioned, can it become EXTINCT?!
• YES—EXTINCTION occurs when the CS is presented over time without the UCS causing a Disappearance of the CR
• Can it come back?! YES– Spontaneous Recovery: when a CR has become extinct, it does not mean it is completely gone, it may reappear but NOT at its original strength
Classical Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior:
– 1)Emotional Responses
– 2)Fear Responses
– 3)Taste Aversions
Little Albert
By: John Watson
Classical Conditioning
In what areas can humans benefit from classical
Conditioning?!
Classical Conditioning
How are we Classically Conditioned in our
Everyday lives?!
Classical Conditioning in TV
• The Office
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfZfMIHwSkU
• The Big Bang Theory
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4&feature=related
• Super Size Me
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpRQhVd63Y8
Operant Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning: Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence
• How to control one’s environment to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment
• Learning from the consequences of Behavior!
• Will the subject operate or respond the same way in the future??
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning• The process in which a
person’s NATURALresponses become attached to a new stimulus
• Reacting to a person’s environment
• Natural to salivate at food, this becomes attached or associated with the bell
Operant Conditioning• The study of how
VOLUNTARY behavior is affected by its consequences
• Learner operates on their environment
• NO stimulus
• Learning from the consequences of behavior choices
Operant Conditioning• REINFORCEMENT: Stimulus or event that
follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Occurs when something the animal wants is ADDED after
the action
Teach a dog a trick with treats!
Occurs when something Unpleasant
is TAKEN AWAY or AVOIDED if the animal
performs the action
Punish a dog with yelling
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement MUST occur BEFORE there is a CHANGE in Behavior
BEHAVIOR
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
CHANGED Behavior
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner1950
The Skinner Box: Taught a rat to respond to lights
and sounds in a specially enclosed box
A rat, placed in the Skinner box, must learn how to
solve the problem of how to get food to
appear in a cup.
Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcers
• Satisfies a biological need
–Hunger
– Thirst
– Sleep
Secondary Reinforcers
• One that has been paired with a primary reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforced
– MONEYMORE EXAMPLES?!?!
What is a reinforcer for one person is not necessarily the same for another person
Operant Conditioning
CHIMP-O-MAT• WOLF– to get food, chimps
must 1st get a poker chip to place in a slot to get food. Soon chimps begin to save, spend, and steal chips like humans do with money
• Poker chips become conditioned reinforcers for the chimpsPoker chips as a Secondary
Reinforcer
Operant ConditioningContinuous
Reinforcement Schedule
• Behavior that is reinforced EVERY time it occurs
• To get the best behaviorreinforcement every time
• Quick extinction is the reinforcement stops
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
• Positive behavior occurs only intermittently
• Acquired more slowly, but more persistent
• Behavior lasts longer
• Animals respond differently to each Partial reinforcement schedules **Reinforcement is dependent
on FREQUENCY and TIMING
Operant ConditioningSchedules of Reinforcement—The Skinner Box
Fixed-Ratio: behavior is reinforced after a set number of
responsesFood given after a fixed number of responses
Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement is provided after a variable
number of responsesNumber of responses required to get food changes each time
Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement is based on a time schedule
Food given after a certain amount of time elapses
Variable-Interval: Reinforcement is provided from time to
time at a variable rateAmount of time required to get food changes each time
Operant Conditioning
• FIXED RATIO: getting paid per jobs done; sell this much, get this much; 5 fouls= ejection from basketball
• VARIABLE RATIO: slot machines; telemarketing—never know when response will happen next; the more you try, the more you get
Operant Conditioning
• Fixed-Interval: test cycle of 9 week course about one test per week: study really hard right before the test, but not as much afterwards; pay-check cycle
• Variable-Interval: calling a friend, but getting a busy signal and calling back until they answer; Slow, but Steady
Operant Conditioning
• INTERVAL SCHEDULES = TIME
• RATIO SCHEDULES = # of RESPONSES
• Variable Less extinction; most human relationships reinforced this way
Operant Conditioning
• A painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed
• Follows and negates a behavior Takes away
• Escape or avoidance
• behavior is repeated and increases in frequency
• 2 Types: ESCAPE CONDITIONING: training and organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus & AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING: prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it starts
Negative Reinforcement
OPERANT CONDITIONING
PUNISHMENT
• An unpleasant consequence occurs after a behavior, decreasing the frequency of the behavior
• Behavior that is punished decreases or is NOT repeated
• CONS: 1) unwanted side effects 2) avoidance of punisher 3) may only suppress, but not diminish behavior 4) must be paired with positive coaching and modeling to truly work
Operant Conditioning
Negative Reinforcement
1. Unpleasant stimulus
2. Removal of unpleasant stimulus
EX: Loud noise in study area, move to a new study area and from now on avoid the loud place
Punishment
1. Introducing an unpleasant stimulus
EX: shocking
2. Withholding a pleasant stimulus
EX: Not allowed to have dessert
Operant Conditioning
What are some reasons to avoid punishment situations, and instead
rely on positive reinforcement?
Operant Conditioning
How could a therapist using classical or operant conditioning help cigarette
smokers quit smoking?
Operant Conditioning
Describe two TV or radio commercials and how they use classical or
operant conditioning.
Social Learning
Social Learning: The 3rd type of Learning
What are the 1st and 2nd?
Explain them!
Social Learning
• Social Learning, consisting of cognitive learning and modeling, involves how people make decisions and act upon the information available to them
Social learning is the Process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the
behavior of others
Social Learning
The Bobo Doll
Albert BANDURA’s experiment with modeling
An adult modeled extreme aggression towards the doll, and when left alone the children who observed this did as well
Social Learning
BOBO DOLL
Bandura
• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4586465813762682933#
Social Learning
• There are 2 types of Social Learning
Cognitive Learning
Modeling
Social Learning
• Cognitive Learning: is a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation
• How our brain and biological makeup enables us to learn
Social Learning
• Edward Tomlin’s Cognitive Map of Mazes
• A rat was placed in a maze with food at the opposite side, the rat began to learn how to take the quickest path to the food every time, even when the route was altered.
• The rat had developed a cognitive map of the maze
Social Learning
Cognitive Maps
A mental picture of spatial relationships
or relationships between events
What do you have a cognitive map of?!
Draw on your COGNITIVE MAP of Marcus to draw a
physical map with a partner!
Social Learning
• Behavioralism deals mostly with OBSERVABLE behavior, however…
• LATENT LEARNING is learning that is NOT demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior
• This is learning that may occur in the absence of reinforcement, but is only seen when a reinforcer is present….EXAMPLES?!
Social Learning
Think back to Operant Conditioning, learning is based on our reactions to the
consequences of our behaviors…What if however, our actions and behaviors have no
effect? What would happen to our behavior?
Social Learning
• Learned Helplessness [Laziness]: a condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable
• If rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work!
Social Learning
What would a person’s response likely be to learned
helplessness?!
Social Learning
1) Stability—Helplessness that results from a permanent characteristic
1) Temporary—I did bad because I was tiered
2) Stable—I always do bad
2) Globality—I am just dumb; I am bad at everything
1) Internality—Thinking or blaming the problem on yourself, rather than external factors
Social Learning
MODELING—The 2nd type of Social Learning
Modeling is learning by imitating others; copying behavior
3 types: Modeling, Observable Learning, and Disinhibition
Social Learning
3 Types of Modeling Wall Chart:
In 3 groups, we will create a chart that illustrates the three types of Modeling
Define the type, give an example, and demonstrate it
Social Learning
• Modeling– the behavior of others simply increases the chances that we will do the same thing
• No new learning is really occurring, we just use old responses in new situations based on trends, peers, etc.
Social Learning
• OBSERVABLE LEARNING– imitation; watch someone do something and then you are able to reproduce it again when you could not before
• Each person is affected differently by their observations—violent games/movies elicit different responses from different kids
Social Learning
• DISINHIBITION—when an observer watches someone else engage in a threatening activity without punishment, the observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior later
• How can this be both good and bad?!
Memory and Thinking
FLASHBULB MEMORY
9/11/01Where were you? What were you doing?
Memory
What is Memory??
–Memory-storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced.
INPUT-Information coming IN.
Memory En
cod
ing the
transforming of information so the nervous system can process it
Sto
rage the process
by which information is maintained over a period of time
Ret
riev
al the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory
Memory
• Encoding: using the sense to remember information: ACOUSTIC CODES, VISUAL CODES, SEMANTIC CODES
• Storage: maintaining info over time; information can be stored for a life time or just a few seconds depending on the effort put into encoding it
• Retrieval: bringing the stored info back to mind
CENTRAL PROCESSING
• Sensory Storage-information is held for a second or two.
• Short term memory-information is kept in the mind as long as you repeat it. [limited in capacity]
• A. rehearsal-repeat information to keep in memory.
• B. chunking-organize information into a collection or category…makes it easier to remember
Mnemonics: Chunking
• phone number sequence of 4-7-1-1-3-2-4 would be “chunked” into 471-1324
Mnore MnemonicsMusic Mnemonics: singing your “A-B-Cs!”
Name Mnemonics: ROY G. BIV = colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.)
Expression or Word Mnemonics: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add, and Subtract = Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.
Model Mnemonic:
Mnany Mnore MnemonicsRhyme Mnemonic: for the number of days in each month is:30 days hath September, April, June, and November. All the rest have 31Except February my dear son.It has 28 and that is fineBut in Leap Year it has 29.
Note Organization Mnemonics: note cards, outlines, Cornell style notes
Image Mnemonics: Visualize an image to help you remember.What is a numismatist? Visualize a new mist rolling onto a beach from the ocean and beach is made of coins. Silly? Of course, but sillyography makes it is easier to remember that a numismatist is a coin collector.
How about using a bad joke to help you remember? Picture two numismatists having a drink for "old dime's sake." Corny? Yes, but cornography often makes things easier to remember.
And one more. . .
Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
WORKING MEMORY
Can you remember this?• Long term memory-storing for future use;
contains representations of countless facts, experiences, and sensations
• Semantic memory-knowledge of language, of meanings
• Episodic memory-events from our own life.
• Declarative memory-knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed
• Procedural memory-learned skills that does not require conscious recollection
Memory
• Sensory Memory
attention
• Short-Term (Working) Memory
Encoding/Maintenance Rehearsal
• Long-Term Memory
Retrieval
Let’s remember this forever!
• Output-retrieving items in memory.
• Recognition-identify something familiar.
• Recall-active reconstruction of info.
• Eidetic - photographic memory
• Confabulation – memories that are a confusion of imagined events with actual events
• Forgetting - info that cannot be retrieved from LTM (Long term Memory).
Just for Memory• Decay-fading away of memory over time
• Proactive interference- earlier memory blocks a new one.
• Retroactive interference- new memory blocks old one.
• Repression-forget unpleasant experience (defense mechanism)
Which is the correct penny? Do you RECOGNIZE it?
Chapter 11: Thinking and Language
Objectives: 1. Identify the units of thought and the kinds of thinking.2. Explain strategies for and obstacles to problem solving.
The Most Intelligent Prince
A king wants his daughter to marry the smartest of 3 extremely intelligent young princes, and so the king's wise men devised an intelligence test.
The princes are gathered into a room and seated, facing one another, and are shown 2 black hats and 3 white hats. They are blindfolded, and 1 hat is placed on each of their heads, with the remaining hats hidden in a different room.
The king tells them that the first prince to deduce the color of his hat without removing it or looking at it will marry his daughter. A wrong guess will mean death. The blindfolds are then removed.
You are one of the princes. You see 2 white hats on the other prince's heads. After some time you realize that the other prince's are unable to deduce the color of their hat, or are unwilling to guess. What color is your hat?
Note: You know that your competitors are very intelligent and want nothing more than to marry the princess. You also know that the king is a man of his word, and he has said that the test is a fair test of intelligence and bravery.
thinking
Changing and reorganizing information stored in memory to create new information
The Units of Thought and Language
Images, Symbols, Concepts, Prototypes, Rules
image
A visual representation of an event or object
symbol
An abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality
concept
Label for a class of objects or events that have at least one attribute in common
prototype
A representative example of a concept
rule
A statement of relation between concepts
3 Kinds of Thinking:
1) Metacognition
2) Convergent Thinking
3) Divergent Thinking
metacognition
The awareness of one’s own cognitive processes; “thinking about your thinking”
Convergent thinking
A systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal or answer; aka “directed thinking”
Divergent thinking
Free flow of thoughts with no particular plan and depends more on images; aka “nondirected”
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
Algorithm v. Heuristics
algorithm
A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
heuristic
A rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Mental Sets, Rigidity, Functional Fixedness
Mental set
A habitual strategy or pattern of problem-solving
Functional fixedness
The inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects
CREATIVITY—ENHANCING PROBLEM SOLVING
creativity
The capacity to use information and/or abilities in a new and original way
flexibility
The ability to overcome rigidity in thinking
recombination
Mentally rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution
insight
The sudden realization of the solution to a problem; “aha!” “Eureka!”
LANGUAGE STRUCTURE
language
The communication of ideas through symbols and sounds that are arranged according to rules
phoneme
An individual sound that is a basic structural element of language
syntax
Language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences
semantics
The study of meaning in language