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Unit 7 – Cognition – 8-10%
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Terms Students Make Mistakes On Unit 7
z Retroactive Interference
z Chunking
z Observation – Most Critical to learning
z Flashbulb Memory – Release Stress Hormones
z Framing
z Semantics
z Mnemonic Device
z HM – Hippocampus Removed
z Episodic Memory – Like an episode of TV
z Algorithm – Like Computer
z Difference between Recall & Recognition
z Proactive Interference
z Length of different types of Memories
z What Critical Thinking is associated with
z Misinformation Effect
z Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
z Difference between Availability and Representative Heuristic
z Syntax
z Phoneme
z Prototype
z Confirmation Bias
z Cortex – Long Term Memories storied
z Spacing Effect
z Primacy-Recency Effect 2
Unit 7 “Confusing Pairs”
z Primacy Effect (first items remembered) v. Recency Effect (last items remembered)
z Proactive Interference (loss of the new info) v. Retroactive Interference (loss of the old info)
z Implicit Memory (non-declarative; skills) v. Explicit Memory (declarative, facts)
z Recall Memory (no cues) v. Recognition Memory (some hints)
z Algorithms (step-by-step) v. Heuristics (rule-of-thumb)
z Representative Heuristics (stereotypes) v. Availability Heuristics (based on available info)
z Phonemes (basic sound units) v. Morphemes (basic units of meaning) 3
Terms Students MUST KNOW for AP Exam
z Long Term Memory
z Working Memory
z Semantic Memory
z Episodic Memory
z Chunking
z Implicit Memory
z Proactive Interference
z Retroactive Interference
z Procedural Memory
z Anterograde Amnesia
z Encoding
z Explicit Memory
z Retrograde Amnesia
z Sensory Memory
z Flashbulb Memory
z Memory
z Mnemonic Devices
z Retrieval
z Elaborative Rehearsal
z Storage
z Serial Position Effect
z Priming
z Recognition
z Declarative Memory
z Primacy Effect
z Heuristic
z Algorithms
z Functional Fixedness
z Prototypes
z Concepts
z Morpheme
z Phoneme
z Syntax
z Insight
z Availability Heuristic
z Mental Set
z Representativeness Heuristic
z Language
z Semantics
z Confirmation Bias 4
People from Unit 7 You MUST KNOW
z Noam Chomsky
z Hermann Ebbinghaus
z Howard Gardner
z Alfred Binet
z Elizabeth Loftus
z Charles Spearman
z George Sperling
z Robert Sternberg
z Benjamin Whorf
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Memory
●Memory
●persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
●Flashbulb Memory
●a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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Memory
●Memory as Information Processing
●similar to a computer
●write to file
●save to disk
●read from disk
●Encoding
●the processing of information into the memory system
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Memory
●Storage
●the retention of encoded information over time
●Retrieval
●process of getting information out of memory
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Memory
●Sensory Memory
●the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
●Working Memory
● focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
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Encoding
● Automatic Processing
● unconscious encoding of incidental information
● space
● time
● frequency
● well-learned information
●word meanings
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Encoding
●Effortful Processing
●requires attention and conscious effort
●Rehearsal
●conscious repetition of information
●to maintain it in consciousness
●to encode it for storage
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Encoding
● Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
● TUV ZOF GEK WAV
● the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
● Spacing Effect
● distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice
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What Do We Encode?
●Semantic Encoding
●encoding of meaning
● including meaning of words
●Acoustic Encoding
●encoding of sound
●especially sound of words
●Visual Encoding
●encoding of picture images13
Encoding
● Imagery
● mental pictures
● a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
● Mnemonics
● memory aids
● especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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Encoding
● Chunking
● organizing items into familiar, manageable units
● like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941
● often occurs automatically
● use of acronyms
●HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
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Encoding
● Hierarchies
● complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
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Storage-
Retaining Information
● Sensory Memory
● the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
● Iconic Memory
● a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
● a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
● Registration of exact representation of a scene
● Echoic Memory
● momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli17
Storage-
Short Term Memory
●Short Term Memory
● limited in duration and capacity
●“magical” number 7+/-2
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MEMORY STORES
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FeatureSensory
Memory
STM/Working
MemoryLTM
Capacity Unlimited 7±2 ChunksVery
Large/Unlimited
Duration 0.5-4 seconds 20 sec. Years/Lifetime
Storage-
Long Term Memory
● How does storage work?
● Karl Lashley (1950)● rats learn maze
● lesion cortex
● test memory
● Synaptic changes
● Long-term Potentiation● increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
● Strong emotions make for stronger memories
● some stress hormones boost learning and retention
● (Flash Bulb Memories – stress hormones released like Acetylcholine {Amygdala}) 20
Storage-
Long Term Memory
● Amnesia- the loss of memory
● Explicit Memory
● memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
● hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
● Implicit Memory
● retention without conscious recollection
● motor and cognitive skills
● dispositions- conditioning
● Cerebellum - neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories. 21
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Storage- Long Term
Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositions-
classical and
operant
conditioning
effects23
Retrieval- Getting
Information Out
●Recall
●the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
●Recognition
●the ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test
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RETRIEVAL CUES
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Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like
anchors that help retrieve memory.
Fire Truck
truck
red
fire
heatsmoke
smellwater
hose
PRIMING
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To retrieve a specific memory from the web
of associations, you must first activate one of
the strands that leads to it. This process is
called priming.
Retrieval
●Relearning
●amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information
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Retrieval Cues
● Deja Vu- (French) already seen
● cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
● "I've experienced this before"
● Mood Congruent Memory
● tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
● memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
● State Dependent Memory● what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state 28
Forgetting
● Forgetting as encoding failure
● Information never enters the memory system
● Attention is selective
● we cannot attend to everything in our environment
● William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing
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Retrieval
● Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
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ODD AP TERMS! …. SAY WHAAAA?
Prospective Memory Retrospective Memory
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Involves remembering to
perform a planned action or
intention at the appropriate
time
Remembering to put the
toothpaste cap back on
remembering to reply to an email
remembering to return a red-box
movie
remembering to take medication
Involves memory of
people, events and words
that have been
encountered in the past.
Events that have
PREVIOUSLY
OCCURRED (RETRO
BABY!)
Forgetting
● Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
● As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
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Forgetting-
Interference
● Motivated Forgetting
● people unknowingly revise history
● Repression
● defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
● Positive Transfer
● sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information
● knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French33
MEMORY EFFECTS
1. Next-in-line-Effect: You cannot remember what
the person in line before you said because you
were thinking about your own answer.
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better
for first and last items on a list, but poor for
middle items.
Primacy effect—better recall of items at the beginning
of a list
Recency effect—better recall of items at the end of a
list
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Memory Construction
● We filter information and fill in missing pieces
● Misinformation Effect
● incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
● Source Amnesia
● attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
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Memory Construction
● Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction36
Memory Construction
● People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions
● Imagining events can create false memories
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Memory Construction
● Memories of Abuse
● Repressed or Constructed?
● Some adults do actually forget such episodes
● False Memory Syndrome
● condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
● sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
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Memory Construction
● Most people can agree on the following:
● Injustice happens
● Forgetting happens
● Recovered memories are commonplace
● Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable
● Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
● Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
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Thinking
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What is thought?
● There are basically two types of thought…
1.Concepts(schemas)…usually based on prototypes.
2.Images
Our concept of men may include all of the following guys….
But they are based on our prototype (ideal) male….. 41
Heuristics
● A rule of thumb that generally, but not always, can be used to make a judgment to solve a problem.
● It is fast, but is…
● Prone to errors
● Two major types of heuristics….
42
Representativeness Heuristic
● Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind.
● Like thinking someone with glasses is nerdy, or a blonde is not smart.
•If I tell you that Sonia Dara is a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model, you would make certain quick judgments (heuristics) about her…like about her interests or intelligence.•She is an economics major at Harvard University.
Who went to Harvard?
Jim Walton founder of Wal-Mart. Bachelor of science from University of Arkansas. Still worth 20.7 billion dollars.
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Availability Heuristic
● Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.
● Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic.
Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered?
The Bronx, NY
Gary, Indiana
The crime rate of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher than the Bronx. But when you think of crime, which town comes to mind?
I realize the Bronx picture is misleading. 44
Heuristics can lead to Overconfidence…
● Our confidence is not a good indicator of how right we are.
● Belief Perseverance-maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong.
● Belief Bias- People will tend to accept any and all conclusions that fit in with their systems of belief, without challenge or any deep consideration of what they are actually agreeing with.
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Mental set
● a.k.a. rigidity
● The tendency to fall into established thought patterns
Example one:
Complete the pattern,
O-t-t-f-__-__-__
Answer: (f)ive, (s)ix, (s)even.
● Now try this one:
J-f-m-a-___-___-___
Answer: (m)ay, (j)une, (j)uly
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Functional Fixedness
● The inability to see a new use for an object.
Think of as many uses as you can for a …… quarter
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Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving.
An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
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The Matchstick Problem:
How would you arrange
six matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
What else can a paper clip
be used for?
OBSTACLES IN SOLVING PROBLEMS
Confirmation Bias
● We look for evidence to confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them.
● For example, if one believes that all Italians are in shape and go tanning, then they turn on MTV.
Look…I knew it was true!!!But is it really?
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Framing
● 90% of the population will be saved with this medication…..or
● 10% of the population will die despite this medication.
● You should not drink more than two drinks per day….or
● You should not drink more than 730
drinks a year.Look at the following question
and think about how the question is worded may effect the way it is answered.
● How can businesses become more socially responsible?
● The way a problem is presented can drastically effect the way we view it.
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THE BELIEF PERSEVERANCE
PHENOMENON
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to
our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
“Consider the opposite”
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For a student that is known to be “bad,” a teacher is
likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as doing
something wrong.
BELIEF BIAS
The tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort
logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions.
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God is love.
Love is blind
Ray Charles is blind.
Ray Charles is God.Anonymous graffiti
I am no one.
No one is perfect.
I am perfect.
CREATIVITY
● Almost impossible to define.
● Little correlation between creativity and intelligence.
● Convergent Thinkingversus Divergent Thinking
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Thinking
●Convergent Thinking -
the ability to give the
"correct" answer to
standard questions that
do not require significant
creativity
●Divergent Thinking -
refers to a way of
solving problems wherein
a variety of possible
solutions are proposed in
an effort to find one that
works
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Language
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Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves
and others.
Language transmits culture
Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a
spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
English language has about 40
All languages combined have close to 900
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Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries
a meaning. It may be a word or part of a
word. For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
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Structuring Language
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Phrase
Sentence
Meaningful units (290,500) … meat,
pumpkin.Words
Smallest meaningful units (100,000)
… un, for.Morphemes
Basic sounds (about 40) … ea, sh.Phonemes
Composed of two or more words
(326,000) … meat eater.
Composed of many words (infinite)
… She opened the jewelry box.
Grammar
Grammar is the system of rules in a language that enable us to communicate
with and understand others.
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Grammar
SyntaxSemantics
Semantics
Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words,
and sentences. For example:
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Semantic rule tells us that adding –
ed to the word laugh means that it
happened in the past.
Syntax
Syntax = ORDER of words; consists of the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible
sentences. For example:
61
In English, syntactical rule says that adjectives come before nouns; white house. In Spanish, it is
reversed; casa blanca.
Language Development
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Children learn their native
languages much before
learning to add 2+2.
We learn, on average (after
age 1), 3,500 words a year,
amassing 60,000 words by
the time we graduate from
high school.
Tim
e L
ife P
ictu
res/ G
etty
Images
When do we learn language?
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Babbling Stage:
Beginning at 4
months, the infant
spontaneously utters
various sounds, like
ah-goo. Babbling is
not imitation of adult
speech.
When do we learn language?
●One-Word Stage: Beginning at or around his
first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at
a time and is able to make family members
understand him. The word doggy may mean
look at the dog out there.
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When do we learn language?
Two-Word Stage: Before the 2nd year, a child
starts to speak in two-word sentences. This
form of speech is called telegraphic speech
because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go
car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the
car.
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When do we learn language?
66
Longer phrases: After telegraphic
speech, children begin uttering longer
phrases (i.e. Mommy get ball) with
syntactical sense, and by early
elementary school they are employing
humor.
You never starve in the desert because of
all the sand-which-is there.
Explaining Language Development
1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957,
1985) believed that language
development may be explained on the
basis of learning principles such as
association, imitation, and
reinforcement.
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Explaining Language Development
2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959,
1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and
suggested that the rate of language
acquisition is so fast that it cannot be
explained through learning principles, and
thus most of it is inborn. Deep structure –
wording a sentence different, but keeping its
meaning. E.G. – “I did the homework.” vs
“The homework was done by me.”
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Explaining Language Development
Childhood is a critical period for fully
developing certain aspects of language.
Children never exposed to any language
(spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually
lose their ability to master any language.
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Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism (Whorf Hypothesis):
Whorf (1956) suggested that language
determines the way we think. For example, he
noted that the Hopi people do not have the past
tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot
think readily about the past.
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