Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
HISTORY 12
UNIT 2 PROMISE AND COLLAPSE 1919-1933
NOTES
Ben LeporeOctober 4, 2016 Version 6
Stalin and the U.S.S.R.
Stalin’s Rise to Power
The Power Struggle
a power struggle occurred within the Communist Party after Lenin’s death in 1924 and three groups or ideological positions emerged: left, right, centerLeft they believed that socialism depended on worldwide revolution; they believed
that Russia must be industrialized more rapidly than the NEP would allow and wanted to abandon it; they believed that capitalist nations would try to destroy Russia so their survival depended on the international revolutionary movement bringing communists to power in industrialized nations in the West > group included Trotsky, Grigori Zinoviev, L.B. Kamenev
Right they supported the need for world revolution but did not feel the same sense
of urgency as the left; they wanted to continue with the NEP which they saw as a stop-gap measure to save socialism; they thought any attempt to force the peasants to give up their surplus crops would lead to rebellion in the countryside and starvation in the cities > group included Nikolai Bukharin and A.I. Rykov
Center they believed that whether or not there was a world revolution socialism could
be built in one country; Joseph Stalin saw the practicality of this approach and called for the Soviet Union to develop socialism within its borders, “socialism in one country”, and take a leading role in the spread of communist ideology
1923-1927 Stalin supported the right or moderates because he needed their support to defeat his rivals in the left especially Trotsky who was his most serious challenger for the leadership
Stalin was the General Secretary of the Party, a member of the Politburo, the Party’s policy making body, and member of the Orgburo which ran the Party organization while Trotsky had been Lenin’s chief assistant, Commissar of War and Minister of Foreign Affairs
as General Secretary Stalin was able to appoint his supporters as full time Party officials which mean he could call upon his supporters to vote against Trotsky’s initiatives; in the Politburo and meetings of the Party Central Committee Stalin’s supporters would make sure Trotsky’s proposals were always rejected
as Stalin’s control of the Party increased Trotsky’s power and prestige decreased; 1925 Trotsky was forced to give up his position as Commissar, 1927 Trotsky, along with Kamenev and Zinoviev, was removed from the Politburo and expelled from the Party, 1928 Trotsky was forced into exile, 1940 Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico
by the end of 1927 Stalin had won the power struggle and embarked on his program of socialism in one country
2
Stalin and the U.S.S.R.
Factors that contributed to Stalin’s Rise to Power
General Secretary of the Communist Party
Stalin used it to appoint his supporters to important positions in the party
Lenin’s last will and testament
Lenin advised the Central Committee/Politburo to replace Stalin General Secretary because he abuses his power but the committee did not act on it
Stalin’s personality/ background and image
Stalin’s poor background and image as man of the people made him popular with many members of the party
Trotsky was an intellectual and arrogant which did not enamor him with many members of the party; he was new to the Party and resented by veteran Bolsheviks
Stalin’s alliances
Stalin formed alliances with members of the Central Committee against other members and then abandoned the alliance when it no longer was needed
1924-26 he allied with Zinoviev and Kamenev against Trotsky 1926-1928 he allied with Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky against Zinoviev and Kamenev 1928-1929 he opposed the NEP and Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky and severed his
alliance with them when they were no longer needed or useful
Trotsky’s “World Revolution” vs. Stalin’s “Socialism in one country”
Trotsky’s idea of “world revolution” was not popular as most members of the party were tired of revolution and feared it would ruin Russia
Stalin’s idea of “Socialism in one country” was very appealing to many members of the party
Stalin’s political ruthlessness (schemer and tactician)
Stalin was a master schemer and tactician he played one side of the Central Committee against the other 1924-26 he allied with Zinoviev and Kamenev against Trotsky 1926-1928 he allied with Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky against Zinoviev and Kamenev 1928-1929 he opposed the NEP and Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky and severed his
alliance with them when they were no longer needed or useful
3
Stalin and the U.S.S.R.
The Modernization of Russia
Economic Planning
Stalin believed it was necessary for Russia to rapidly industrialize to catch up to other industrialized nations and become stronger to resist being crushed by them (refer to 1931 Stalin speech TCH p.133)
Stalin would accomplish this goal through a series of five-year plans that implemented a command economy, collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization that emphasized heavy industry
1928-1938 Stalin forced the people of the Soviet Union through the most rapid changes in their ways of life than any people in history
Collectivization of Agriculture
the peasants would be forced to join their land together into collectives (kolkhoz) to make farms large enough to use modern machinery and advanced agricultural techniques; the collectives were under the control of a collective farm committee that was controlled by the Party
production of crops would increase to feed the workers in the cities and also release large number of farm workers for labour to work in industry
the peasants’ crops would be used to feed the cities and sold to other countries to pay for the heavy industry
1929-1933 peasants’ resistance to collectivization took the form of wholesale slaughter of livestock
the kulaks, rich peasants, were deemed unfit for collective farms because they were independent and unlikely to contribute to socialist production
Stalin wanted to destroy the kulaks (refer to December 1929 speech TCH p.131) the kulaks were forced into concentration camps, deported to Siberia or Central Asia or
allowed to stay but given the poorest land to farm; approximately 5 million kulaks "disappeared"
the treatment of the kulaks frightened other peasants into submission February 1930 half of the peasant population was collectivized (60 million); July 1931 53%
collectivized, July 1932 62% collectivized the chaos caused by collectivization, smaller harvests and excessive procurements
(obtaining crops) led to famine; droughts during 1931-1932 compounded the agricultural problems and famine swept the Ukraine
by 1938 food was more plentiful but the peasants rarely met production quotas 24 million people left the countryside half of them went to cities while the other half
remained unaccounted for
Industrialization
Gosplan structured the Five Year Plans that began in 1928 because the NEP was unable to promote the rapid industrialization essential to move the Soviet Union into the ranks of modern industrial nations
1926 over 75% of the population was employed in agriculture so collectivization not only gave Stalin control of food production but also the ability to direct workers to industry; by 1940 51% of the population was employed by agriculture
the First Five Year Plan 1928-1932 was a blueprint for a command economy which established production targets; in a command economy the government controls the production, distribution and consumption of goods
Stalin wanted to force the development of heavy industry to allow the Soviet Union to build the infrastructure that would be the weapons they needed to defend themselves
the goals of the first Five Year Plan were staggering as total industrial output was to increase by 250%; heavy industrial production was to increase by 333%, pig
4
iron by 300%, coal by 200%, electrical power by 400% and agricultural production by 150% (refer to targets TCH p.130)
although the only industry to reach its target was oil (refer to production figures TCH p.132) the plan did improve production; the output of electricity had more than doubled, while the output of oil, coal and pig-iron almost doubled
by the end of 1929 food rationing was introduced and rationing was also applied to consumer goods; conditions were awful in the cities with overcrowding in spartan apartment buildings
failure of the plan to reach its targets were blamed on subversives or saboteurs the Cheka and OGPU would root out and destroy opposition and terrorize people
into silence and obedience; the OGPU would execute people sentenced to death or would imprison those sentenced to exile or forced labour camps called the gulag
many projects were dependent on slave labour and an estimated 10 million political prisoners were held in concentration camps
the second Five Year Plan 1933-1937 introduced ambitious production targets but it had to be modified as a result of opposition amongst party officials against the harshness of the first plan
targets were modified at the 17th Congress of the Communist Party in 1934 the Soviet Union's industrial output surpassed France, Japan, and Italy however agriculture was plagued with problems and the government was less
able to feed its people than before WW I; industrial systems were primitive and the system of planning imposed by the government made innovation and adjustments difficult
1937 Soviet Union redirected its resources toward armament production in response to the Nazi build up of power and even though a tremendous number of military goods were produced the quality of these goods lagged far behind that of other industrialized nations especially Germany and Japan
Stalin’s Economic Policy: Collectivization and Industrialization
Collectivization
individual plots of farm land joined together into collectives (called kolkhoz) use modern machines to increase production increase grain production will feed workers in the cities less peasants required to farm thus peasantry to provide the labour for industry surplus grain to be sold to other countries to earn money to purchase machinery
and technology for the development of heavy industry Kulaks opposed collectivization and were targeted by Stalin to be eliminated as a
class
Industrialization
Five Year Plans to focus on the development of heavy industry production targets or quotas established in electricity, coal, oil, pig-iron, steel build infrastructure to defend themselves against attack from the West “socialism in one country”
Stalin and the U.S.S.R.
5
Stalin’s Economic Policy
Success Failure
Collectivization
a quarter of a million kolkhoz were established as 99% of Russia had been collectivized by 1939
agriculture was more modern with the introduction of new methods, tractors, fertilizers, large-scale production
97 million tons were produced by 1937 plus cash crops for export
17 million peasants left the countryside to work in the cities between 1928-1937
the noble landlords were gone the Communist Party controlled
agricultural production
Industrialization
the USSR was transformed into a modern state
there were significant achievements: 4new cities were built 4dams were built and provided hydroelectric power 4improvement in transportation and communications 4the Moscow subway system was built 4production increased in oil, steel coal, electricity there was no unemployment heath care was available with access
to doctors and medicine education was provided with
emphasis on literacy and science
Collectivization
production of grain and livestock declined between1928-1937
the Ukraine famine killed approximately 5 million people 1932-1933
the Kulaks were eliminated and approximately 4 million liquidated
Industrialization
it was poorly organized as there was inefficiency and duplication of effort and waste
workers were subjected to extreme discipline
OGPU/NKVD (secret police) terrorized the population and created fear
labour camps were established and operated by the OGPU/NKVD
major building projects (canal) used slave labour
consumer goods were scarce and poor quality
housing was poor and limited in the cities
workers had no rights
Stalin and the U.S.S.R.
6
The Purges
the purges were designed to eliminate his real, potential and suspected opposition and thus secure his power as leader of the Soviet Union
there were two major periods of purging under Stalin 1929-1933 the purges focused on rank and file opponents such as the Kulaks 1934-1938 the purges focused on old Bolsheviks still powerful within the
Communist party, intelligentsia (writers, artists, etc.), and the Red Army December 1, 1934 the chief of the Leningrad Communist Party Sergei Kirov was
murdered most likely on Stalin’s orders; Kirov criticized the brutality of Stalin’s Five-Year Plan and was a popular member of the party
Kirov’s murder gave Stalin an excuse to eliminate the remaining old Bolsheviks in the party and other opponents and started the Great Purges
Kamenev and Zinoviev were arrested for Kirov’s murder and placed on public display in show trials where they confessed to plotting with Trotsky to overthrow Stalin and were executed in 1936
Kamenev and Zinoviev confessed to save the lives of their families or they were tortured
other old Bolsheviks were also placed in show trials such as Bukharin and Rykov and were executed in 1938; Trotsky was murdered in Mexico in 1940
Stalin was the only member of the Bolshevik government to survive as 10 had been executed or imprisoned and 4 had died
June 11, 1937 Marshal Tukhachevsky and seven other senior generals were arrested for treason and subsequently executed which started Stalin’s purge of the Red Army
1937-1939 35,000 army officers were executed including 90% of the army’s generals, 80% of its colonel’s , 3 of 5 marshals, 13 0f 15 army commanders, 57 of 885 corps commanders, 167 of 280 division commanders, 11 vice-commissars for war and 75 0f 80 members of the Supreme Military Soviet
the air force and navy were equally purged
Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
7
Fascism
Fascism
fascism was an extreme right-wing, militaristic European-wide phenomenon that developed from the social, political, and economic problems caused by WW I
fascist movement developed in Italy, France, England, Belgian, Romania, Spain and Austria
during times of social dislocation, political instability and economic difficulties, people look to a demagogue (stirs up people by appealing to their emotions and prejudices) to restore order and bring back stability to government
fascism does not have an ideological doctrine that defines it like Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto on communism or the many philosophers such as John Locke's Two Treatises of Government on democracy
fascism was mostly defined by the actions rather than thoughts of its proponents
Characteristics of Fascism
totalitarian militaristic nationalistic dictatorship supported by the armed forces and police racial superiority war and conquest state/government more important than individual use of violence against it opponents or enemies of the state single-party state capitalist economy use of propaganda, posters, slogans, uniforms, rallies, parades to play on the
pride, loyalties, fears and hatred of their followers
the leader is exalted, praised and presented as a hero and father figure > personality cult
anti-labour, anti-communist, anti-liberal, anti-democratic
Communism and Fascism: Compare and Contrast
Differences
8
communism claimed to be creating a society of equals whereas fascism declared that some individuals and races were superior
communists believed that the state should control all business whereas fascists allowed private business to make big profits as long as they supplied the state’s needs
Similarities
fascism and communism are both totalitarian systems in which the state is supreme over everyone and everything
communism and fascism appealed to people impatient with democracy
communism and fascism were revolutionary movements aiming to break with the past and create a new society
communist and fascist leaders made constant use of propaganda, posters, slogans, uniforms, rallies, parades, and festivals to play on the pride, loyalties, fears and hatreds of their followers
communist and fascist states built personality cults where the leader was presented to the people as a genius, deep thinker, man of bold action, a brilliant commander of armies, loving father to the nation, the perfect model of strength, wisdom, courage, and compassion
communism and fascism ignored the rule of law in favor of the leader’s orders; the law is just another tool to control people; the police arrested political opponents and the secret police tortured and murdered people
Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
Mussolini’s Rise to Power
9
Italy after the First World War
Italy was a new nation (unification completed by 1870), an elected parliament was a recent development as universal suffrage (right to vote for adult males) was provided in 1912 and thus its democracy was immature
some of the territory that Britain and France promised to Italy for entering the war in 1915 was not provided at the Paris Peace Conference and many Italian nationalist felt betrayed by the Allies (refer to TCH p.51 or MHMW p.39); Italians referred to these regions in the north as Italia Irredenta (regions with ethnic Italian populations living outside of Italy)
following WW I Italy was experiencing social and economic problems in the industrial northern cities workers organized to improve conditions and went
on strikes to increase wages eaten away by the inflation of the war years in the agricultural south tenant farmers refused to pay their rents and attacked
the landowners demanding land reform on the edge of economic collapse and social revolution successive Italian
governments had been unable to stabilize the volatile situation a socialist revolution seemed imminent and landowners and industrialist were
concerned about the possible loss of property and power
The Rise of the Fascists
March 1919 Mussolini established a new political party called the Fascisti with the purpose of stopping the forces tearing Italy apart
as did many other leaders Mussolini recruited unemployed war veterans in a quest for political power and established the fasci di combattimento (combat units) that included the unemployed war veterans as well as middle class youths and anti-communists who were referred to as the Blackshirts because of their uniform
he promised to stabilize the economy, end unemployment, and restore Italy's national prestige lost at the Paris Peace Conference
according to the Fascists democracy was responsible for Italy's problems because the government was ruled by the ignorant masses and they would put an end to disorder with the power of a totalitarian state (refer to Mussolini’s quote TCH p.52)
the political doctrine of the fascists evolved from taking action; once in power the political doctrine would develop but first the fascist would get rid of any opposition and secure power
fascism presented itself as the solution to the liberal and democratic ideas that caused so many problems in Italy
April 1919 the fasci di combattimento fought in street brawls with strikers and communists and as a result industrialists financed Mussolini's movement to restore order and get workers back to work
Mussolini's rise to power was fast and violent: 1920 there were 88 Fascist groups with 20,615 members but a year later
there were 834 Fascist and over 250, 000 members in the first few months of 1921 Fascist attacks on their opponents
resulted in 207 deaths and 800 injuries the police and army did not interfere as they tended to share the same
opponents as the Fascists
the Liberals in government did not stop the Fascist partly because they were more concerned about a possible communist revolution than the violent activities of the Blackshirts and they thought that they could control Mussolini if he agreed to join in a coalition government
10
May 1921 elections Fascists won only 35 seats from the 535 seats in the Chamber of Deputies
as chaos continued in Italian society in late October Mussolini threatened to march on Rome with 26,000 armed Fascists if the government did not immediately restore order and if not his men would seize the government
the government asked King Emanuel III to sign a decree declaring an emergency but he refused fearing a civil war
October 29, 1922 the king appointed Mussolini Prime Minister and asked him to form a government; he was given emergency power for a year to restore order to the nation
Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
Factors that contributed to Mussolini’s Rise to Power
11
World War I and Paris Peace Conference
some of the territory Italy was promised by Britain and France to join the Triple Entente during the war was not awarded during the Paris Peace Conference (Austrian-Hungarian territory along the Adriatic coast, refer tomap p.51 TCH)
Italian nationalist felt betrayed by the Allies and blamed the Italian government for failing to obtain the territory they were promised
Attitude towards Democracy
democracy was weak and lacked a democratic tradition like England or France Italy was a new nation established in 1870, an elected parliament was a recent
development thus Italy’s democracy was immature
Economic Problems World War I adversely effected the economy causing inflation and after the war
many soldiers/veterans were unable to find employment several governments were unable to deal effectively with the economic problems
Italy experienced after World War I
Fear of Communism
Italy was on the verge of a revolution or civil war industrialist, landowners, liberals in the parliament were concerned about a
communist revolution
Support of the Industrialist and Landowners
landowners and industrialist feared a communist revolution and concerned about the loss of property, factories and power
industrialist financed Mussolini and the Fascist to restore order
Fasci di Combattimento/Blackshirts
Mussolini established a private army composed mostly of ex-soldiers and veterans who intimidated, threatened and attacked (and in some cases killed) political opponents especially the communists
the Blackshirts fought with striking workers and communist to break up strikes and as a result gained the support of the industrialist
Fascist Program
the Fascists were staunch nationalists which appealed to many people especially those who resented the territory that was promised to Italy for entering the war but not awarded at the Paris Peace Conference
the Fascists represented discipline, order, strength and stability which many longed for in Italy which appeared to be on the verge of anarchy or civil war
Mussolini
Mussolini was charming and an effective speaker Mussolini came across as a strong and capable leader who could bring order and
stability to Italy
12
March on Rome October 27-29 1922
October 24, 1922 Mussolini threatened to march on Rome with 30,000 Blackshirts and overthrow the government if the government did not immediately restore order
as a result October 29 the King appointed Mussolini Prime Minister and asked him to form a coalition government
King Emanuel III
the king refused a request by the government for a decree declaring a state of emergency to deal with the Fascists threat (March on Rome) because he feared a civil war and thought Mussolini could restore order
the king appointed Mussolini Prime Minister of a coalition government believing Mussolini could be controlled in a coalition government
Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
Mussolini’s Consolidation of Power and Dictatorship
Mussolini
13
Mussolini was not yet in complete control as he was the leader of a coalition government made up of Fascists and representatives from other parties
Mussolini makes several steps to consolidate power in his own hands and establish a dictatorship
Consolidation of Power 1923-1925
Acerbo Law June 1923 Mussolini introduced an electoral law that gives the party that receives 25% of
the votes two thirds of the seats in parliament called the Chamber of Deputies
General Elections April 1924 the Fascists received 64% of the vote and gained control of the Chamber of
Deputies
Matteotti Murder June 1924 Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti was kidnapped and murdered by the
Blackshirts for his criticism of Fascists behavior during the election opposition parties withdrew from and boycotted the Chamber of Deputies and
demanded Mussolini’s dismissal the king refused to dismiss Mussolini fearing violence and civil war Mussolini uses this to assert his authority and establishes a dictatorship
Speech to Parliament January 3, 1925 Mussolini delivered a speech to the Chamber of Deputies accepting
responsibility for the violence committed by the Blackshirts Mussolini promised to restore order and stated that he will no longer work
with the other parties but instead establish a dictatorship the Matteotti crisis was the turning point between a parliamentary state ruled
by a Fascist party to a Fascist dictatorship
Dictatorship 1926-1939
End of Civil Liberties/Rights and Freedoms Mussolini abolished freedom of the press, speech, assembly, etc.
Political Opposition Parties Banned Mussolini appointed an all-Fascist government and eliminated opposition
parties making Italy a single party state
14
Grand Council of Fascism Mussolini appointed only Fascists to the Chamber of Deputies
Trade Union Abolished Mussolini banned trade unions and made strikes illegal
OVRA Mussolini established the OVRA the state secret police to spy upon, terrorize
and destroy suspected opponents of the Fascists who were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, and/or killed
Lateran Accords 1929 Mussolini signed the Lateran Accords with the Catholic Church in order to gain
support from the Vatican the Lateran Accord made the Vatican an independent state, gave the Church
control over religious education in schools, and recognized Catholicism as the nation's official religion
Education and Youth Organizations Mussolini took control of the curriculum in schools to indoctrinate the students
with Fascist ideas youth organizations established such as Balilla/Avanguardisti (boys) and
Piccole Italiane/Giovani Italiane (girls) to instill Fascist ideas
National Leisure System /National Agency for Maternity the National Leisure System promoted recreation while the National Agency
for Maternity encouraged couples to have children
Propaganda the Fascists subjected Italians to continuous propaganda which developed
Mussolini’s cult of personality
Economy/Autarky Mussolini wanted Italy to be economically self-sufficient and less dependent
on foreign imports which makes Italy vulnerable and weak Mussolini introduced agricultural policies such as the Battle for Wheat
Economy/Corporate System Mussolini organized industries into a series of corporations
Hitler and Nazi Germany
Weimar Republic 1919-1933
Germany after World War I: The Weimar Republic
15
prior to the armistice a series of strikes, revolts and mutinies swept the country and the kings and princes who ruled the German provinces were replaced by republican governments controlled by socialists
November 8 socialist politicians in Berlin forced Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate, declared a republic and established a provisional government led by Frederich Ebert > November 11 1918 the government signed the armistice to end the war
an election was held to create an assembly whose task was to create a constitution for the republic
political instability and labour unrest continuedWeimar Constitution a federal republic with national and state governments was established >
Reichstag was the legislature that represented the federal government and Reichsrat represented the states
members of the Reichstag were elected to four year terms via proportional representation which made it difficult for one party to achieve a majority
the executive included the president who was independently elected to seven year terms and the chancellor who was the leader of the largest party in the Reichstag and his cabinet
the president had the authority to appoint and dismiss the chancellor and cabinet ministers without approval from the Reichstag, the power to dissolve the Reichstag and call new elections, and emergency powers to rule by decree if the Reichstag failed to reach agreement
Weimar Republic Ebert appointed Philipp Scheidemann as the first chancellor and their immediate
tasks were to come to terms with the Treaty of Versailles, restore order, and arrange for reparation payments
1919-1924 were years of political instability for the republic as communists and right-wing groups tried to overthrow the government in a series of coups January 1919 the Spartacist wanted a communist-style revolution like Russia
and staged a putsch (rebellion or armed uprising) in Berlin that was defeated by the Frei Korps (war veterans) who were ant-communist
March 1920 the Frei Korps staged a putsch in Berlin but ultimately failed because of a general strike that paralyzed the city
the republic had difficulty dealing with reparation payments because Germany was not welcomed on the world markets and therefore arranged short-term loans from the U.S. which essentially tied Germany’s economic recovery to short-term American loans making Germany vulnerable to the slightest fluctuation in the American economy
the influx of large amounts of American money caused hyper-inflation in 1923 and destroyed the savings of pensioners, caused suffering for fixed income earners, lowered the salaries of wage-earners, and eroded the wealth of the middle class
1922 Germany defaulted on its reparation payments and the French occupied the Ruhr in January 1923
the government expressed a desire to meet the payments which provoked protests and demonstrations, street fighting resumed among rival political groups, and general civil unrest prevailed
the French occupation and economic conditions prompted Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party along with General Ludendorff to stage a putsch in Munich (aka Beer Hall Putsch) but it was not successful and Hitler was sent to jail
in middle of political and economic instability the U.S. intervened and persuaded the French to evacuate in return for a German promise to resume reparation payments > 1924 Dawes Plan provided over $30 billion in economic aid to Germany to assist in reconstruction and in return the Germans were to resume
16
reparation payments on a modified ability-to-pay scale > the Dawes Plan ushered in a five year period of relative stability and economic growth
Weaknesses of the Weimar Republic Germany did not have a democratic tradition like England, France or the U.S. >
some question Germany’s motives for becoming democratic was simply to receive better peace terms from the Americans after the war
the slowness and inefficiency of a democracy frustrated Germans who were used to the ability of authoritarian governments to appear efficient
the republic was associated with the Treaty of Versailles which Germans bitterly resented military leaders promoted the myth that certain politicians betrayed the army
and the state by agreeing to surrender when the army was on the point of victory
Hitler would use this “stab in the back” theory to condemn the treaty the republic was blamed for the inflation and devalue of the mark in 1923 that
financially ruined many people > this was especially so with the middle class who were the most significant source of electoral support for the Nazis
the system of proportional representation prevented a party from gaining a decisive majority and as a result coalition governments (several parties together) were necessary but were ineffective and often failed to maintain a majority > this reinforced the idea that democracy was weak and inefficient
Hitler and Nazi Germany
Hitler’s Rise to Power 1928-1933
The Great Depression
as a result of the war the world’s economic structure became tied to the U.S.
17
England and France borrowed heavily from the American government during the war and at the end of the war the financial strength of the world shifted from Europe to the U.S. who became the financial center of the world
England, France were in debt to U.S., the German economy shattered, Russia in the middle of a civil war the U.S. was the only solvent nation among the great powers
it was American loans that financed the reconstruction and tied the world’s economies to the U.S.
October 1929 the New York stock market collapsed causing the collapse of the economies of other nations
as unemployment soared disorder emerged to challenge the existing political structure as people turned against governments for allowing the economic collapse to occur > anti-parliamentary, anti-democratic mood prevailed
the public wanted governments to take charge and end the disorders and wanted strong leadership to end the uncertainty of the times
weary of the chaos and uncertainty people turned to political leaders who promised a return to order and stability
Hitler’s Rise to Power
the civil disorders caused by the depression brought Hitler to power Hitler joined the German Workers' Party and became leader and renamed it the
National Socialist German Workers' Party or Nationalsozialistiche Deutsche Arbeiterparie (Nazis) in 1920 > it was anti-communist, aggressively nationalistic and anti-Semitic (hostile towards Jews)
in the post-war period of political violence the Nazis organized their own "private army" who were to serve as the party's political storm troopers called the Sturmabteiling (SA) referred to as Brownshirts because of their uniform
Hitler's Key Ideas November 9 1923 Hitler and the Nazis attempted to overthrow the government in
Munich (Munich putsch) but it was unsuccessful > Hitler was arrested and imprisoned in Landsberg Castle for nine months where he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle) that documented the story of his life and his ideas: he opposed the Weimar Republic ("abortion of filth"), democracy, Marxism,
liberals and pacifists, Christian moral values and the rule of law, and Jews he defined personal freedoms as "rotten liberalism" incompatible with a
strong and vigorous nation the racial superiority of the Aryans or Nordic people was a key component of
his philosophy and he promoted the Aryan myth > according to Hitler the Germans were the purest example of the Aryan superhuman race while Jews, Slavs, Africans, others were at the bottom of the human scale
an important aspect of the Nazis racial policies was the concept of Lebensraum (living space) which stated that inferior races neighboring Germany (especially to the East) would have to make room for the superior Germans > Lebensraum would become the foreign policy expression of the Aryan myth and Hitler's military action to the east (Poland, Russia) during World War II were the implementation of Lebensraum
after Hitler was released from jail in 1924 Germany was beginning her economic recovery and the political instability of the previous years was over leaving no room for political extremists so Hitler achieve political power democratically > he rebuilt the Nazi party into a tightly knit movement with branches throughout the country > 1926 he formed the black-shirted Schutzstaffel (SS), Hitler Youth, Nazi German Student League, Teachers' League, Women's League and Physicians' League
Electoral Growth
18
during times of political stability and economic prosperity the Nazi party achieved little election success > May 1924 the Nazis had 32 seats in the Reichstag and dropped to 12 seats in the May 1928 election
the Nazis ideas were more attractive to people during times of dissatisfaction because of economic problems > as a result of the economic problems caused by the Great Depression following the New York stock market collapse in October 1929 the Nazis gained 230 seats in the Reichstag in the July 1932 election and were the largest party in the Reichstag
Nazis Election Platform the Nazis promoted extreme nationalism and included in this nationalism was
the myth of Aryan supremacy and rabid anti-Semitism rejection of the Treaty of Versailles opposition to communism > manufacturers and landowners viewed Hitler as
their best defence against communism and he also appealed to the middle class who were concerned with the possible return of the chaotic conditions of 1923 that destroyed their wealth (most of the Nazis electoral support came from the middle class)
Hitler effectively used the radio, press and the airplane in national campaigning and hammered home a simple message: the problems of the German people could be solved by overturning the Treaty
of Versailles, reclaiming lost territories, canceling foreign debts, eliminating foreign elements and Jews from the country, and reaching full employment through government spending on public works and rearmament
1930 the coalition government split apart under the strain of mounting unemployment as the Social Democrats refused to accept cuts in unemployment benefits proposed by its partners in government
President Hindenburg, General Kurt von Schleicher and many prominent Germans saw the collapse of the coalition government as an indictment against democracy and thought it was an example of how parliamentary democracy was incapable of dealing with an emergency
March 1930 Hindenburg appointed Henrich Bruning (Centre party) as chancellor who formed a centre-right coalition government and stated that if the Reichstag opposed Bruning's policies he would approve them by decree and dissolve the Reichstag and call new elections > the Social Democrats refused to cooperate and a new election was called
September 1930 the Nazi party achieved greatest gain to date and received 107 seats (12 in 1928) and became the second largest party in the Reichstag
Hitler's support came from three main sources: middle class who were concerned about their businesses and jobs and the
Communists and Social Democrats small landowners who were concerned that their property and way of life was
threatened new young voters who saw no future in a weak democracy
Bruning was unable to get a majority in the Reichstag and as the depression deepened he was not able to get approval for his budgets and resorted to rule by decree
Bruning tried to use the depression the end reparations by proving Germany could no longer make payments so he reduced wages, cut unemployment benefits and increased taxes and as a result made conditions worse
1932 Bruning proposed land reform that would break up the aristocratic estates and Hindenburg fired him and appointed Franz von Papen as the new chancellor who ruled solely by decree
Papen wanted Nazi support rather than the Social Democrats so he arranged for Hitler to join the government
19
July 1932 election the Nazis received 230 votes and became the largest party in the Reichstag (refer to table in TCH p.93) and consequently Hitler demanded to be made chancellor but Papen refused
Papen's government planned to spend its way out of the depression with public works programs but the Nazis refused to cooperate unless they were given power so Papen asked Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and call another election hoping the Nazis would lose support
November 1932 elections the Nazi party dropped to 196 seats but still remained the largest party in the Reichstag but more importantly the Communists won 100 seats
the Nazi party was short of funds and starting to lose popular support but then came a turning point for the Nazi movement at a meeting on January 4, 1933 German industrialists promised to pay Nazi election debts in return for Hitler's promise of a hands-off policy toward German industry and to get rid of the socialist elements in the Nazi party
December 1932 Schleicher replaced Papen as chancellor but the industrialists were suspicious of Schleicher's attempt to gain support from trade unions for his government so Papen proposed to Hindenburg to bring Hitler into government while the Nazis still had significant support, the Social Democrats were losing support and before the Communists gained more support
Schleicher began an investigation into the misuse of public funds by landholders during land reform and landowners demanded his resignation and to be replaced by Hitler
January 30, 1933 Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor
Hitler and Nazi Germany
Factors that contributed to Hitler’s Rise to Power
Treaty of Versailles
20
the new democratic leaders of the Weimar Republic signed the Treaty of Versailles which Germans thought was harsh and humiliating
Germans blamed the leaders of the republic for accepting the treaty and they resented it and became bitter towards the government responsible for it as a result the treaty and democracy were associated with one another and undermined its credibility
Attitude towards Democracy
slowness and inefficiency of democracy frustrated many Germans who were used to the ability of an authoritarian (Kaiser) government to appear efficient
many judges, top civil servants, army officers disapproved of democracy and even conspired to overthrow the republic (1923 Munich Putsch)
proportional representation encouraged small parties and as a result prevent a party from gaining a majority of seats in the Reichstag
consequently coalition governments were necessary but were ineffective, unstable and frequently broke up which resulted in an election
the instability of coalition governments reinforced the idea that democracy was weak and ineffective
Germany had a militaristic tradition making it difficult to establish democracy
Great Depression
people wanted someone to blame and looked to extreme solutions and Hitler offered them both
during the economic crisis Germans voted for the Nazis because they were desperate > the number of Nazi seats in the Reichstag increased from 12 in 1928 to 107 in July 1930
the economic depression that started in 1929-1930 hit Germany very hard and resulted in massive unemployment and people lost their savings
the middle class blamed the political leaders of the Weimar Republic for the inflation and devalue of the mark in 1923 that financially ruined them and now they feared another financial disaster so they supported Hitler’s direct action approach
people looked for strong leadership to end the uncertainty and turned to political leaders who promised a return to order and stability which Hitler appeared to offer
Nazi Program
Nazi Party program offered something for everyone Hitler claimed the problems of the German people could be solved by overturning
the Treaty of Versailles, reclaiming lost territories, canceling foreign debts, eliminating foreign elements and Jews from the country, addressing unemployment through public works and rearmament Hitler’s message brought hope of an end to the economic crisis and renewal of pride and self-confidence in the German people
Hitler
Hitler’s energy and oratory attracted people to him as a political leader his message against his opponents was simple and delivered with passion
21
he appealed to the emotional, irrational side of human nature through mass rallies > Jews were to blame for Germany’s problems
Support of the Industrialists
after the November 1932 election the Nazi party was short of funds, bankrupt and starting to lose popular support (went from 230 seats to 196 seats)
January 1933 German entrepreneurs promised to pay the Nazi election debts in return for Hitler’s promise of a hands off policy toward German industry and weaken the unions
Hitler also promised to eliminate/purge the socialists elements from the Nazi party (Night of the Long Knives June 1934)
industrialists and landowners thought that Hitler was the only one able to defeat the communist
Sturmabteiling (SA)/ Brownshirts
SA attacked people who opposed Hitler opponents intimidated to remain quiet out of fear police and judges sympathized with the SA and did not prosecute them for their
crimes
Hindenburg
Chancellor von Papen could not get enough support in the Reichstag Hindenburg and von Papen had to govern by emergency decree Hitler offered Vice-Chancellorship but refused January 30, 1933 Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor of a coalition
government with Von Papen as Vice-Chancellor > they thought they could control Hitler
Hitler and Nazi Germany
Hitler’s Consolidation of Power and Dictatorship 1933-1939
22
Hitler’s Consolidation of Power 1933-1934
Reichstag Fire February 27 1933 the Reichstag is burned down by Communist Marinus van der Lubbe who was
arrested Hitler claimed it was the beginning of a Communist revolution and used it gain
emergency power from President Hindenburg and arrest Communists
General Election March 5 1933 the Nazis received 44% of the vote which gave them the most seats in the
Reichstag (288) but not a majority Hitler arrested the Communist members of the Reichstag which then gave
him a majority in the Reichstag
Enabling Act March 23 1933 Hitler forced the Enabling Act through the Reichstag by coercion and
intimidation the Enabling Act gave Hitler the power to rule by decree without the
Reichstag’s approval essentially making him a dictator
Gestapo/Concentration Camps April 26 1933 Hitler established the Gestapo the state secret police to spy upon and
terrorize suspected opponents of the Nazis opponents were arrested and sent to concentration camps to perform manual
labour > Communists, Jews, homosexuals, gypsies, etc.
Trade Unions Abolished May 2 1933 Hitler banned trade unions so workers did not have any rights; union leaders
were imprisoned the German Labour Front replaced unions
Political Opposition Parties Abolished July 14 1933 Hitler banned opposition parties by introducing the Law against the Formation
of Parties and imprisoning leaders of other parties Germany became a one party state
Night of the Long Knives June 30 1934 Hitler purged the SA killing many including the leader Ernst Rohm the SA challenged Hitler’s authority and the purge was also to fulfill his
promise to the industrialist to rid the party of its socialist elements
Hindenburg’s Death August 19 1934 following Hindenburg’s death Hitler merged the offices of President and
Chancellor and assumed the title “Fuhrer” (leader) Hitler was now leader of the army who swore an oath of loyalty to him
Hitler’s Dictatorship 1934-1939
Youth Organizations Hitler established youth organizations such as the Hitler Youth (boys) and
Bund Deutscher Mädel (girls) to instill Nazi ideas
23
Education Hitler took control of the curriculum in schools so as to indoctrinate the
students with Nazi ideas
Propaganda the Nazis subjected Germans to continuous propaganda which developed
Hitler’s cult of personality Joseph Goebbels was the Minister of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda
Religion Hitler signed the Concordat with the Pope agreeing to leave the Catholic
Church alone if it stayed out of politics Protestants were sent to concentration camps if they opposed the Nazis
Nuremburg Laws 1935-1939 the Nazis introduced a series of anti-Semitic laws that denied Jews rights such
as the Reich Citizen Act which denied Jews the right to vote (refer to TCH p.115-116)
Kristallnacht (Night of Crystal Glass) November 9-12 1938 the Nazis attacked Jews and destroyed Jewish shops, homes and synagogues
and arrested and sent 30, 000 Jews to concentration camps in response to the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by a Jew
Autarky (economic self-sufficiency) Hitler wanted Germany to be economically self-sufficiency and less dependent
of foreign imports which makes Germany vulnerable autarky would allow Germany to wage war
Public Works Hitler addressed unemployment by the construction of public works the National Labour Service administered public works programs
Rearmament Hitler addressed unemployment by reintroducing conscription and the
development of an air force conscription and an air force was also preparation for war
German Labour Front Hitler banned trade unions and replaced it with the German Labour Front the Strength through Joy program offered rewards to workers
The United States 1919-1941
The Great Depression: Causes and Effects
Economic Cycles
24
the history of the world economy in the 20th century is a pattern of periods of growth (boom) and decline (recession)
the 1930s was a severe period of decline when the world economy experienced conditions worse than a recession
1929 the U.S economy started to go bust and by 1932 so did the economies of other countries > Great Depression
Causes of the Depression
Collapse of the stock market
from June 1928 U.S. began to lend less money abroad to other countries because investment in the American stock markets became more profitableand thought to be safer than lending to foreign borrowers especially to borrowers effected by falling world prices
as less American money was available to Europe businesses started to decline and caused unemployment
NY stock market crash shook U.S. economy already unsettled by a decline in demand for manufactured/consumer goods and falling agricultural prices
1929 U.S. lending to other countries declined by more than half as the stock market crash help to stop the flow of money
Tariffs
European countries needed to earn money from trade (exports) to pay debts to each other and the U.S. and borrow money to help revive their economies > 1924-1928 majority of American loans were to Europe
every trading nation, except Britain, imposed protective tariffs but the most significant obstacle to the free flow of international trade was imposed by the U.S. with the 1922 Fordney-McCumber Act > it raised duties on imported goods so imports would be more expensive than goods produced in the U.S.
the tariff denied countries the ability to export their goods to the wealthy U.S. market and therefore they were unable to earn money to repay their American (or Western European countries) loans
June 1930 Smoot-Hawley Act raised American custom duties further which prompted other countries to raise their tariffs (Australia, Cuba, France, India, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland) > after Germany raised tariffs Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, France, Belgium and Switzerland raised their tariffs in late 1931-1932 > Britain established its Imperial Preference policy > consequently international trade was harmed more and restricted further
World War I debt
European countries needed to export their products to the U.S. and other nations in order to earn the money to repay loans to the U.S. and Western European nations > they also borrowed money to revive their economies
25
however as the U.S. and other countries established protective tariffs foreign nations were unable to sell their products and international trade was reduced and as a result the countries were not able to repay their loans
Overproduction of consumer goods and agricultural products
the industrial capacity of the U.S. expanded beyond the ability of the consumer to consume > workers’ wages were not rising fast enough to buy the consumer goods available (even with credit) and as a result there was a surplus of goods on the market
1920s agricultural prices dropped as foreign markets collapsed and the domestic market shrank > the world's farms and plantations were producing too much > overproduction
as the earning power of the producers of food and raw materials dropped so did their purchasing power and so did their purchases of manufactured/consumer goods
as the prices of goods (especially food and raw materials) continued to dropped in the fall of 1930 and early 1931 business profits and share prices dropped
in the U.S. one effect of the drop in prices and production was the failure of many banks as much of the money they lent was no longer there to be paid back by ruined farmers and businesses
Lack of Government Regulations
the American economy was unregulated American capitalism was very innovative but the lack of control by any regulatory
bodies led to financial instability (i.e. the Depression) agriculture, coal, iron, textile industries were experiencing problems 1920s
Uneven distribution of wealth
approximately 8.2% of U.S. families enjoyed 42% of the nation's total income while 59.5% of American families received only 2.7% of the total income
40% of the population was living in poverty many Americans did not earn enough money to buy consumer goods
Effects of the Depression
Unemployment
as the Depression deepened unemployment worsened and there was approximately 25% unemployment in industrialized countries
26
when the Depression occurred in the U.S. 13 million Americans were unemployed and social welfare benefits such as unemployment insurance or health insurance did not exist the effects of unemployment were severe
many had to stand in bread lines and sleep outside after they lost their homes because they could not pay for the mortgage
by 1932 one out of four American families was on relief and Hoover passed the Emergency Relief Act to assist cities in funding relief projects
Business and Bank Failures
in the U.S. one effect of the drop in prices and production was the failure of many banks as much of the money they lent was no longer there to be paid back by ruined farmers and businesses
if one large bank was seen to be unable to pay back what it owed to its creditors and went broke a panic started as everyone would want their money back knowing that not everyone would get it > when banks closed the supply of money available for lending to businessmen and traders was no longer available > approximately 6000 bank failures in the U.S.
approximately 9 million savings accounts were lost as a result of banks going bankrupt
Loss of farms and homes and drop in standard of living
the drop in agricultural prices lowered farmers earnings and they were unable to pay their mortgage and lost their farm > unemployed workers were unable to pay their mortgages and lost their homes
the standard of living dropped for farmers and workers resulting in poverty, illness, and death
Political consequences and changing role of government
in some countries like the U.S. the political system was severely tested by the effects of the Depression while in other countries like Germany the political system did not survive
as the Depression deepened governments started to take a more active role in caring for its people (unemployment insurance, welfare, etc.) and managing the economy (especially after World War II) > Keynes
The United States 1919-1941
The New Deal
Purpose the New Deal was intended to provide relief to the poor and unemployed,
recovery for the economy and reform to prevent another depression
27
New Deal March June 1933 – Major Legislation and Agencies
Emergency Banking Act March 4 Roosevelt declared a four-day bank "holiday" in an attempt to stabilize
the banking crisis > 4000 banks had gone bankrupt March 9 Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act which extended aid to the
stronger banks, forbade the export of gold and redemption of currency in gold, established government regulations for banks, and allowed the government to determine which banks were solvent enough to reopen
March 12 Roosevelt spoke to the American people on the radio in the first of many "fireside chats" and stated that there was no longer any reason for withdrawing money from the bank and it was safe to deposit money
March 15 approximately half of the country's banks were declared fit to reopen and people deposited more money than they withdrew
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) organized activity for unemployed young men 2.5 million young men participated and planted trees, stocked rivers, built
wildlife shelters, dug canalsAgricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) established to control growth of crops and livestock and guarantee prices farmers decided what total production of each crop should be and then set
an average quota for each farmerFederal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided immediate relief to those in need and public employment constructed or improved 5,000 public buildings, 7,000 bridges, cleared streams and dredges rivers, organized nursery schools for children of poor families, and helped 1.5 million adults to read and writeTennessee Valley Authority (TVA) government development of a poverty stricken region covering seven states built dams to control floods and generate cheap hydro-electric power Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) established to assist home owners unable to keep up mortgage payments refinanced one-fifth of all mortgaged urban housesNational Recovery Administration (NRA) established to stabilize prices of manufactures and assist organized labour established codes to guarantee minimum wages, maximum hours of work
and union rights of collective bargaining > it eliminated child labourPublic Works Administration (PWA) provided employment on large scale public works 1933-1939 built 70% of new schools, 65% of new courthouses, city halls, sewage
plants, 35% of new hospitals, bridges, tunnels and harbour facilities
New Deal April 1935-1938
Works Progress Administration (WPA) also known as the Wagner Act it replaced the banned NRA established to put as many unemployed people to work as soon as possible it provided employment for approximate 3 million of America's 10 million
unemployed by 1941 it invested 11 million dollars into the economy, built or improved
2,500 hospitals, 5,900 school buildings, 1,000 airport landing fields, and
28
13,000 playgrounds it established the National Youth Administration (NYA) which created part
time work for 600,000 college students and 1,500, 000 high school studentsResettlement Administration (RA) (replaced by FSA in 1937) attempted to deal with the problem of rural poverty it aimed at giving poverty stricken farmers and sharecroppers new starts
on good landNational Labour Relations Board (NLRB) established by the Wagner Act July 1935 protected workers who wanted to
bargain collectively with employers for better wages and working conditionsSocial Security Act 1935 established a national system of old age pensions for most employees and
unemployment insuranceSoil Conservation Act replaced the banned AAA allowed the government to continue subsidizing farmersNational Housing Act provided loans to buy houses and reduced excessive rentsFair Labour Standards Act set hours and conditions of work and fixed a minimum wage
Opposition to the New Deal
many companies, bankers, and Republicans thought that the programs, especially relief, were a wastes of taxpayers' money and saw government regulation of industry as a sure sign that communists were running the White House
May 1935, in the Schechter Brothers case, the Supreme Court ruled against the NRA's authority to impose codes on employment and regulate working conditions which had the potential to threaten the rest of the New Deal > however the Supreme Court reversed the decision in April 1937 as well as rule that old age pensions and unemployment insurance established by the Social Security Act were constitutional in May
Successes and Failures of the New Deal
Effective/Successes Not Effective/Failures
initial acts instilled confidence in the government and gave people hope(ex. Emergency Banking Act)
New Deal did not end the Depression as the war brought it to an end
many black Americans and immigrants
29
Emergency Banking Act helped to stabilize banking
alphabet agencies provided relief or help from hunger, unemployment, mortgages
FERA built or improved 5,000 buildings and 7,000 bridges
PWA provided employment and provided valuable economic and social infrastructures such as roads, bridges, airports, schools, hospitals, etc.
NRA eliminated child labour
WPA employed 3 million people and built or improved 2,500 hospitals, 5,9000 schools, 1,000 airports, 13,000 playgrounds
NLRB increased union rights and bargaining power and established a minimum wage
Social Security Act provided pensions and unemployment insurance
were laid off as a result of the NRA and NLRB’s attempt to give workers rights
opposition to New Deal came from businesses who did not support government interference and workers’ rights and from state governments who thought the federal government was infringing on their powers
AAA policy of destroying crops and livestock was unpopular when people were short of food and clothing; policy of reducing acreage under cultivation resulted in tenant framers/sharecroppers being evicted from their farms
NRA codes not mandatory and therefore were ignored; it did not stabilize prices of manufactures or improve wages and working conditions through organized labour
RA planned to settle 500, 000 poor farming families but resettled fewer than 5,000
PWA created only temporary employment
WPA provided employment for only one third of the nation’s unemployed
Socials Security Act did not set national rates of benefits for the unemployed or unemployable or insurance for workers who lost their jobs because of illness, pensions were not extended to all the elderly
opposition to the New Deal included companies, bankers, wealthy, who thought that it was a waste of tax payers money and government should not be involved in the economy and regulating it to this extent
1935 Supreme Court ruled NRA codes on employers and AAA were unconstitutional (illegal) because they took away the states’ power (court reversed its decision in 1937)
30
