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Unit 2 1648-1815. Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Power. Big Picture. 1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political PowerPower
1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious
wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change.
States are struggling with political questions, rapid economic change, growing secularism, and nationalism.
Continuing to question what had once been basic assumptions about life
Big Picture
Absolutism Enlightenment redefines government’s role
Political
Industrialization creates a new standard for
econ “leader” nations
Economic
Scientific knowledge spreads Emphasis on rationalism
Popularity of Scientific Revolution/Enlightenme
nt
Big pop. Spike in 16c
Population Change
Chapter 8: Consolidation Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Powerof Political Power
What is Happening?
centralized states. constant competition Church has lost power
Monarchs had complete control over kingdom- no
limits to power Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia
Two Models: Absolutism and Constitutionalism
Absolutism: Where?
Characteristics Philosophy of
The King IS the country, not subordinate to nobles or an assembly.
The king appoints/controls the bureaucracy. Large standing army.
Totalitarian
Jean Bodin/Thomas Hobbes wrote during civil wars in Fr and Eng- both believed the state (king) needed to be strong to protect the people from themselves
Bishop Bossuet- “divine right of kings”
Inquisition Trade fell 60% Eng and Dutch Taxes very high for peasants “price revolution”
Decline of Spain
In Book
Economic Difficulties
Defeat of Spanish Armada lost Netherlands Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict
from 30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands)
Political and Military Decline
Portugal - independent 1668 rebellions in Spanish holdings
Revolt and Secession
Absolutism in FranceHenry IV Louis XIII
Bourbon dynasty Navarre Weakened nobility by
not allowing feudal nobility (nobility of sword) to hold bureaucratic positions- created new noble titles (nobility of robe) for those- therefore those nobles loyal to king
R. 1610-1643 Richelieu
Cardinal Richelieu
Rebuilt royal treasury
created intendant system for collecting revenue
A politique (like Henry IV)
Began to push down Huguenots
taking their rights to fortify towns and have independent armies
Duke of Sully Intendant System
Defined Mercantilism- use colonies to create favorable balance of trade (use colonies for raw materials/markets- don’t allow them an ind. Econ.)
Reformed tax system- encouraged gov’t to improve transportation system to improve trade
Civil servants (not noble- bourgeoisie) who report directly to king. Created greater efficiency in gov’t- more centralized control
The Fronde
In Book
Used army against population made him (and king) unpopular
Cardinal Mazarin
Golden age of France French Culture dominated Europe France had the largest population in Europe big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille-
head tax)
The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV
In book
Divine Right
Continued and expanded intendant system-
applied it to regional/local gov’t. Blocked power of noble assemblies
(parlements- which had been created in Fronde) by refusing to allow them to meet- never called Estates General
Building a Centralized Bureaucracy
Forced labor for king work 1 month of the year on royal projects. peasants conscripted into the royal army
Corvee
Often called a “theater state” of formalized
ritual. Also a “pleasure prison” for nobility- kept so entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they had lost their power
Versailles
Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister Mercantilism
Mercantilism
Goal of country is as much gold/silver as
possible. Originated French trading companies (French
East and West India Co) to make $$ and a French Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad. Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream
Bullionism
Created poor peasant conditions- and high
taxes Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no
navy Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for
new world
Weaknesses
60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on
building and maintaining Versailles
Court Culture at Versailles
A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of
order and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand and restrained at same time)
Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of Versailles
Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did the first French Operas
French Classicism
Revocation of Edict of NantesEdict of Fontainebleau
Jansenists
200,000 Huguenots left France-
French middle classes declined
Catholics who either sympathized with or had some Calvinist ideas
This was a professional army
Louis XIV’s Wars
Balance of Power System
Alliances shifting Start of 2nd 100 years of Conflict between Eng and Fr
Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French got to keep towns on border of Spanish Netherlands
War of Devolution 1667-1668
French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country.
Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy
Dutch War 1672-78
France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty Ended in tie
Nine Years War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688-1697
Philip of Anjou, French, became ruler of Spain Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France
(Grand Alliance) Peace of Utrecht 1714- most important since
Peace of Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne- but neither he nor successors can ever claim throne of France. Britain gets Asiento (slave trade) from Spain- as well as Gibraltar and Majorca.
War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714
Results of Wars
Destroyed the French economy
France is bankrupt 20% of French
population injured/killed in battle- or starved
Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central
and Eastern Europe All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia
most centralized in terms of royal power
Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe
Different from France
powerful nobles, and serf population
Austria all that’s left of Hapsburgs
Prussia growing Russia growing
French middle class nobility decreased
power E. E.-little
centralization multi-ethnic multi-religious Not Prussia warfare pretty
constant
Revival in East Majority of peasant population Econ stays agricultural few large towns/cities to promote new ideas
Serfdom
Held together by Hapsburg Lots of land Not a lot of power
Consolidation of Austria
Catholic Schoenbrunn Siege of Vienna 1683.
Leopold I 1658-1705
Charles VI 1711-1740
“Pragmatic Sanction” asking rulers of Europe to respect his heir, and saying Hapsburg possession could never again be divided
Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate
areas (2 of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come to be dominated by Prussia
Rise of Brandenburg Prussia
Frederick William- The Great Elector 1640-1688
Taxes created a professional
army
Calvinist religious tolerance Involved with
Sweden/Poland over control of northern territory in Europe
Prussian militarism- heavy taxes to pay for strong military
Prussian nobility Dominate officer corps of new military trade/industry
Junkers
Frederick I 1688-1713
1st “king” of Prussia. Very popular
Frederick William I 1713-1740 Thrifty Army “Sparta of the North”
army with a state. 80% of gov’t revenue
went to military deterrence to avoid
actual war. Very efficient
bureaucracy- could come from any class, rise based on merit
Frederick the Great 1740-1786
Silesia- which doubled Prussia’s population
“Enlightened Despot”
Outside of “normal” European sphere seen as “backwards” and odd Europe feared the size, but always looked
down on Russia.
Russia: Emergence of an Absolutist State
Princes of Moscow became leading Russian
nobles- Mongols use them as their tax collectors
As Mongol rule collapses, they will step in to lead Russia
Expansion of Russia before 1650
“Tsar” of Russia Acquired land through war and marriage Cossack class of free peasants by giving them
freedom and land to settle in new Ivan the Great
Ivan III 1442-1505
Ivan IV 1533-1584
Russia was feudal- Boyars were Russian nobility- much more traditional style- with military obligations etc…
Ivan sought to control nobles by creating a new aristocracy Oprichniki- and killing boyars.
Killed son’s wife- and son/heir- Ivan the Terrible
Boyars resented newly created royal power. Ivan came to throne @ 3- they rebelled and threatened his life many times (killed mom)
Created 1st version of Russia’s secret police for reign of terror.
Gained territory in black sea (taking land from Poland- a Russian theme)
Increased serfdom to keep peasants tied to noble lands- also bound merchants to particular towns- limited capitalism
Time of Troubles Romanov
Dynasty 1584- 1600ish Ivan died w/o an heir- so
competition, quasi war broke out between boyar families for who would control throne
Michael Romanov elected Tsar in 1613 (Romanovs favored keeping power in hands of boyars in return for their support)
Expanded Russia to East 1689 Russia is largest
country in World- 3x the size of Europe- most of Empire not IN Europe
Peter the Great 1682-1724
Tsar primarily responsible for transforming Europe into a western power. Understood that changes were happening in Europe- wanted to get on board
Not all boyars/peasants liked the idea of change- he didn’t care
Peter was a giant- literally- nearly 7 ft tall, could bend a horseshoe barehanded.
Russia is Feudal- Tsars technically “own” all the land- there are no representative political bodies.
Old Believers: people who resisted (severely persecuted)
Big focus on creating a modern military (75% of budget) each village had to send a certain # of troops for a 25 year enlistment.
St Petersburg
Wanted a warm water port for navy and trade. Gained access to Baltic Sea (through Great Northern War against Poland/Denmark)
Built a new capital as showplace of modernization- his “window on the west”
Copied Amsterdam (soggy territory) built Winter Palace to rival Versailles
Created a cosmopolitan city by inviting the people he needed (artists, musicians, philosophers) to live there
Program for Westernization
As a young man, Peter travelled (incognito) to Europe to observe and study other countries.
Imported western technicians and artisans to bring new industries (like shipbuilding) to Russia.
State controlled industry- not really capitalistic (Tsar gave monopolies) but had huge resources- but end of reign Russia out produced Eng in iron
Military
Built army by drafting peasants- created soldiers by offering them an alternative to serfdom (pay etc…) Royal army 200,000.
Introduced cannons and firearms to Russian combat- modern military technology
Built roads and bridges to transport army- and a navy from scratch (which decline after he died)
Peter required adoption of European cultural attitudes- styles of dress, cut the beards (by force if necessary) Women required to appear at court society Introduced French language to his court- required all
nobles to learn it and speak it exclusively. Kept taxes high (but not for nobles) used secret
police to enforce
Social
Reorganized bureaucracy for greater efficiency
in tax collection and industrial production. Set education standards for bureaucrats.
Table of Ranks: you gain gov’t positions based on merit rather than just aristocratic status. Eliminated many titles- issued new ones (loyalty)
Bureaucratic
Results
Significant conflict of Slavic culture vs. westernization. Peter imitated selectively- not interested in business or capitalism
Brought Russia into Europe- but not really mainstream yet.
Alternatives to AbsolutismConstitutionalism: what is
it?
The government (king) is limited by law- the law itself is the supreme power in the country.
Implies a balance between power of gov’t and rights of citizens
Used in Sweden, Poland, England, and the Netherlands
Opportunities for other voices/powers will allow capitalistic growth- allowing econ to grow particularly strong in Netherlands and England
Sweden
King Gustavas Adolphus (1611-1632) got Sweden involved in European affairs through 30 years war. Sweden dominated Baltic region (defeating Russia and Poland- until Peter...)
Riksdag: assembly of nobles, clergy, townspeople which had highest legislative authority. Shared power with king
Sweden began some Atlantic colonizing/trade (Delaware) then pulled back
Charles XII 1697-1718
Defeated by Peter the Great in Baltic. Nobles took advantage of that defeat (and king died in battle) to force Queen Ulrika to accept a constitution which gave nobles significant power.
Riksdag restructured to be more like Parliament (though with nobles in charge, not gentry)
In 16c was a Commonwealth bordered by Russia, HRE, Austria,and Ottoman Empire (included Belarus and Ukraine) Polish and Lithuania kingdoms united by treaty
of Lubin in 1569. Had a weak king elected by nobles- made country a “republic of nobles”
For a time was the most diverse, tolerant society in Europe. Eventually divided between Austria, Russia and Prussia
Poland Lithuania
A small country- but the Dutch ideasattitudes played a significant role inshaping the modern world view. Recognized as independent in the treaty of
Westphalia. Seven provinces- each with considerable autonomy
Religious tolerance- Calvinist- but not exclusive Amsterdam replaces Antwerp (in Sp
Netherlands) as banking/commercial center of Netherlands
The Netherlands
Greatest mercantile nation- went out in the
world to trade (not conquer) Carrying Trade- served as shipping company for many colonies- charged a fee and made a profit.
Center of scientific, literary, and artistic achievements.
Gov’t dominated by bourgeoisie- whose wealth limited power of king
Golden Age
Stadholders
Netherlands did not have ancient aristocratic families- they had oligarchies of merchants, financiers and traders, Burghers- town officials. “Regents” elected provincial “stadholder”- executive officer. House of Orange unofficial leader of stadholders (William the Silent)
In times of crisis (war) power of all 7 powers could be given to one stadholder- making him effective king.
Problems with England
During English Civil War Cromwell’s parliament passed Navigation acts- colonies cannot trade with anyone but Eng.
Seemed to target Dutch carrying trade
So Dutch begin to fight England (sometimes- also allies against Fr)
Had to rely on commerce b/c they have so few natural resources. Not big enough to create large colonies- but had largest fleet in Euro and Significant fishing trade.
Dutch East/West India Co.
Often preferred by native populations- seen as having less of an agenda
William II of Orange
War of League of Augsburg made him permanent head stadholder. In 1688 he became King of England (through his wife Mary- they were co-rulers) brought Eng. More into affairs of continent
Used balance of power to contain Fr. Ambition
Heavily involved in wars against Louis XIV- they fight all in (flooding countryside etc…) It was expensive – even when they were winning- they use up a lot of energy, never again quite as large a force in Euro politics
Constitutionalism in England
Began with Magna Carta. Kings willing to have a legislature, particularly if they could use it to legitimize their own ideas.
Really won POWER in English Civil War- they deposed (and beheaded) Charles I, reinstated Charles II
Capitalism played a significant role in constitutionalism- created social mobility. England had a larger middle class than anywhere in Europe (except Netherlands- also constitutional)
BeginningsGentry
One Parliament for the whole country (unlike France)
House of Lords- all hereditary nobles
House of Commons -> gentry
Wealthy landowners w/o significant noble title (knight at best) Many had made fortunes in commerce, then retired.
Paid taxes (as did nobles) less stigma on making $$ than in other parts of Euro
Stuart dynasty had absolutist tendencies
(spent too much time in France!) Real issue of war- can king govern without
consent of parliament (as Charles I was trying to do)
Petition of Right 1628: Parliament attempted to settle this question before war began- said only parliament can levy taxes, said there had to be due process of law (Habeas Corpus)
Problems with Stuarts (not on outline- add to side)
The Protectorate/Interregnum
1653-1658 When Charles I executed
in 1649 parliament declared martial law- then a Commonwealth. (Parliament technically in charge- Cromwell really ruling as a military dictatorship- Lord Protector)
England at its most absolutist during this period- just Puritan absolutism. Censored press, closed theaters & entertainments. Crushed Ireland (feared royalist stronghold)
Pride’s Purge- 1653 all non puritans removed from gov’t.
Act of Settlement- 2/3 of land in Ireland taken from Irish and given to English Landlords
The Restoration Charles II 1660-1685 England got tired of
Cromwell and Puritanism. When he died parliament decided to “restore” Charles II to his father’s throne.
Charles always careful not to provoke parliament- avoided extremes. Kept a permanent council of 5 men who were his advisors as well as members of Parliament- kept communication going- Cabinet
Charles had an affable personality. Did not punish parliament or country for war/father’s death- seemed just as anxious as they were for a good time. Known as the “merry monarch”
Tension between religious factions remains
very strong in Euro during 17c. Stuarts nominally protestant- really very pro-RC (and pro French)
Whigs: (liberal) anti RC- did not want James II (openly RC) to inherit throne. Middle class, Calvinist, favored Business and Econ progress
Tories: (conservative) supported strong monarchy. Anglican. Nobility, clergy, favored status quo.
Political Parties
Charles II suspended laws against Catholics
and Protestant dissenters. Parliament responded by passing a law which
said you had to be Anglican (or at least take Anglican Communion) to hold gov’t office or military officership
Religious Issues: Test Act 1673
Final chapter in English struggle over
sovereignty. England doesn’t have a single document as
it’s constitution- significant acts join together as body of law- lots of them created here
Glorious Revolution 1688
James II
Charles II’s younger bro- became king in 1685 at 55 years old. Pro Catholic and Absolutist- and proud of it baby
Appointed Catholics to gov’t positions in defiance of law- passed Act of Indulgence: freedom of worship for RC
At first, parliament (and people) figure they will just hold on- he’s not a young guy, and his heirs (2 grown daughters) are both protestant
But he married again (20 year old daughter of Louis xiv) in 1686, she gave birth to a son 1688. Faced with a Catholic heir, and absolutist Fr. Regent- parliament decided they have to act
Complete the journey towards
constitutionalism Parliament offered throne to oldest daughter
Mary (married to William of Orange- who offered Dutch army to force James out if necessary) James leaves (he and heirs become “pretenders” to the throne) William and Mary are crowned as co-rulers
“Glorious” b/c there is no bloodshed
William and Mary
Bill of Right Toleration Act
1688 W & M agree not to keep standing army w/o parliament’s consent. Parliament will meet every year and have elections every 3 years, have sole power to tax.
Says king CANNOT be RC
Ensures no Cruel and Unusual punishment and trial by Jury
1689 All forms of protestants have freedom of worship and may hold office
Did not offer those same rights to Catholics or Jews, but did not punish them for their faith either.
Act of Settlement Act of Union
1701 If W & M, or Anne (other sister) die w/o heir (which they did)- throne does not revert to heirs of James II, but to grandchildren of James I- the Electors of Hanover. George I of Hanoverian dynasty will become king in 1714
1707 United England and Scotland (reconquered by Charles II w/o much fuss) into Great Britain. Union was to prevent Stuarts from using Scotland as launching spot for invasion of England (which is what they were doing in Ireland) Scots fine- wanted access to Eng’s trade empire
NOT Democracy
Bloodless revolution- but not “by the people” Parliament only represented the top of society- voting rights were strictly limited to large landowners
Parliament represents the upper 10% at this point- but that is still 10% more than have a voice in most of the countries of Europe
John Locke: wrote to defend the Glor. Rev- saying that people have the right to overthrow a gov’t that is not defending their rights