Unit 1 Chapters 1-2 - Weeblymsscheible215.weebly.com/uploads/4/2/2/0/42205921/unit_1...Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography 2 The Geographic Inquiry Process Geography is a very old

6th Grade Social Studies

Unit 1 – Text Packet

Chapters 1-2

Unit 1: The Geographer’s World

Ch. 1 – The Tools of Geography

Ch. 2 – A Spatial Way of Thinking

Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography

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Introduction to Geography Alive - Regions and People

Welcome to Geography Alive! Regions and People. You have just begun an active, hands-on journey into the

world around you.

The Field of Geography

Geography is the study of Earth and its people. It helps us understand how people, places, and environments

came to be and how they affect each other.

When geographers look at something on Earth, they ask questions. Where is it? Why is it there? How did it get

there? How does it affect the people who are living there? How does it affect the natural environment in this

area? That “something” could be as ordinary as a nearby factory. Or it could be as extraordinary as a distant,

fire-belching volcano.

To answer such questions, geographers look at the

world in spatial terms. This means they look at how

things are arranged in space relative to each other.

Look at the photograph of the camels below. The first

question to pop into a geographer’s mind about this

photograph would be a spatial one. Of all the places

on Earth, where were these camels when this picture

was taken? Why were they there?

Physical Geography Geographers divide their field into two broad

branches: physical and human. The word physical

means relating to things that can be seen, tasted, or felt. Physical geography is the study of natural features on

the surface of Earth. These are things that can be seen (and sometimes tasted), such as mountains, plants, and

animals. They also include things that can be felt more than seen, such as temperature, wind, and weather.

Physical geographers looking at the camel photograph below would be interested in its desert landscape. They

would wonder how this place got to be so very dry and what might live in this sea of sand.

Human Geography

Human geography is the study of people as they have spread across Earth. Human geographers seek to

understand who lives where, how, and why. They are also interested in human-made features such as towns,

farms, dams, and roads.

Viewing the same camel picture, a human geographer would wonder who is driving those camels. Where did

the people come from? Where are they going? And why are they traveling through such a harsh, dry land?


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The Geographic Inquiry Process

Geography is a very old field of study. Around 450

B.C.E., a Greek scholar named Herodotus created the

first map of the known world. You can see a modern

version of it at the bottom of this page. Looking at this

map, you may notice two things. First, how much of

the world it shows. Second, how much of the world is

missing. What you cannot see is how Herodotus

created his map. He followed a series of steps known

as the geographic inquiry process.

Asking Geographic Questions Herodotus began by asking geographic questions. What is the world like? What lands and seas cover Earth?

What peoples does the world contain? Where do they live?

Acquiring Geographic Information To answer his questions, Herodotus needed geographic information. He traveled widely to see the world. He

interviewed other travelers and traders. They told him many tales, some true and some tall, about distant lands.

In this way, Herodotus learned about peoples and places he would never see.

Geographers today still travel in search of geographic information. Those travels may take them to nearby

places or to distant lands. Like Herodotus, they also look for information gathered by others. This information

can often be found in books and on the Internet.

Organizing Geographic Information Once Herodotus had collected his information, he needed to organize it in some way. There are many ways to

organize geographic information. The most common, however, is the one he chose to organize information

about all of the places he had learned about: a map.

A map is a way of showing how things are arranged in space. On his map, Herodotus showed what he had

learned about the locations of lands, seas, and peoples.

Analyzing Geographic Information To analyze means to examine something in detail in order to discover more about it. Analyzing geographic

information involves seeing patterns and making connections.

As Herodotus analyzed his information, he compared different ways of life. He noticed that Egyptians, for

example, did many things “backward” from a Greek point of view. They wrote from right to left, instead of

from left to right. They ate outdoors but washed indoors, while the Greeks did just the opposite.

Answering Geographic Questions At the end of his inquiry, Herodotus tried to answer the questions he had started with. He wrote down all that he

had learned. He also recorded conclusions about peoples based on his analysis. People still read his books

today.

Throughout this course, you will be engaged in the geographic inquiry process. You will ask questions and

gather information. You will organize and analyze that information. Finally, you will try to answer your

questions. You may find, however, that each answer leads to new questions. When that happens, you are

thinking like a geographer.


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Section 1 - Introduction

In the early 1800s, the United States was just starting to expand across North

America. No European Americans had ever crossed the land that lay west of the

Mississippi River. This vast area was mostly a huge blank space on their maps.

To find out about this land, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led a team of

explorers on a journey to the Pacific Ocean. Lewis and Clark mapped mountains

and rivers as they crossed them. They collected samples of wildlife and plants.

They also learned about the Native Americans of the West and how they lived.

In many ways, today’s geographers are explorers like Lewis and Clark. They study

the natural features of the land, the sea, and even the sky. They try to understand

the way people interact with the world around them. For example, they look at where people choose to live and

why. They study the way people use Earth’s resources, such as forests, water, and minerals. They explore the

advantages that come with living in cities or in the country. Often they use maps as a basic tool for recording

information and making new discoveries.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use different kinds of maps. You will see how maps can show information

about people and places on Earth. You will use these tools throughout your own study of geography.


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Section 2 – The Geographic Setting

In September 1805, Lewis and Clark crossed the Rocky Mountains on their way to the Pacific Ocean. They

wanted to find the Columbia River, which could take them to the ocean. But they didn’t know how to find it. A

Native American chief named Twisted Hair came to the rescue. He drew a map on a white elk skin that showed

how to reach the Columbia. The river, said Twisted Hair, was “five sleeps” away.

Today we still use maps to find the locations of places and how far apart they are. Like Twisted Hair’s drawing,

the most basic map is a diagram that shows what is where.

Locating Things on Earth: The Main Purpose of Maps For geographers, maps are tools that show where

things are on Earth. With these tools, we can find the absolute location [absolute location: the precise point

where a place is located on Earth] of any place in the world. Every feature is located at a precise, or absolute,

point on Earth. There are many ways to describe this precise point. Your street address, for example, indicates

the absolute location of your home. Later in this chapter, you’ll learn how a grid, or system of lines, can be used

to show the absolute location of places on a map.

Maps also show the relative location [relative location: where a place is located in relation to another

place] of places on Earth. This is the location of one place compared to another. For instance, one place might

be located east or west of another one. You probably use relative location when you give directions. Suppose

you want to tell a friend how to find the street where you live. You might tell her to go down a main street and

turn right one block past the park. You would be telling her your street’s location relative to a place she knows

well.

Distortion: The Big Problem with Maps Maps are great tools, but they’re not perfect pictures of Earth’s

surface. Maps are two-dimensional, or flat. Earth is three-dimensional and shaped like a sphere, much like an

orange. The only way to show a round Earth on a flat map is by stretching some parts of it. This changes the

shape, size, and position of its features. These changes are called distortion [distortion: a change in the

shape, size, or position of a place when it is shown on a map]

. The picture at the right shows how severe this distortion can be.

One way geographers deal with the problem of distortion is to

use globes. Because they are spheres, globes are better models of

the whole Earth than maps. They show the size, shape, distance,

and direction of places on Earth very accurately. Unfortunately,

globes cannot show a lot of detail without becoming huge. Maps

can show smaller areas of Earth and include much more detail.

In addition, maps are much easier than globes to carry around.

Flattening a Sphere Distorts Features A person’s head is shaped almost like a sphere. If you try to flatten a head, its features stretch and change shape. As a result, the person becomes almost unrecognizable. In a similar way, flat maps can distort information about Earth’s features.

A second way to deal with distortion is to use map projections [map projection: a way of representing the

spherical Earth on a flat surface] . A map projection is a particular way of showing Earth on a flat surface.

All map projections have some kind of distortion. For example, a projection that accurately shows the sizes of

places will distort their shapes. One that shows accurate shapes will distort sizes and distances. Geographers

choose the projection that best suits the kind of information they want the map to show.


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Section 3 – Map Titles and Symbols

Like Lewis and Clark, early explorers often had no maps to guide them on their journeys. Lewis Carroll, the

English author of Alice in Wonderland, made fun of their situation in a poem called The Hunting of the Snark.

The poem tells of sailors in search of an imaginary creature called a snark. To assist them, the ship’s captain

unrolls a large map of the sea without a trace of land. The snark-hunting sailors, Carroll wrote,

were much pleased when they found it to be

A map they could all understand . . .

“A perfect and absolute blank!”

Luckily for us, maps are not blank. Instead, they are filled with

information.

The Top of a Map Doesn’t Always Point North On most maps, the top of the map points north, but not all maps work this way. This map turns our usual view of Earth upside down. The map isn’t right or wrong. After all, Earth does not have a “right” side up as seen from space. When you look at any map, be sure to check the compass rose so you know which direction is which.

The Title Tells What a Map Shows A map’s title gives us our first clue about its content. It usually describes

the area shown on the map. It also identifies the map’s main topic. The topic might be gold mining, politics,

farming, or even the night sky. Often the title lists a date. The date tells us that the map shows the locations of

places at a certain time.

A Compass Rose Shows Directions on a Map Have you ever used a magnetic compass to find your way in a

strange place? If so, you know that the needle of a compass always points north, or toward the North Pole.

Knowing where north is can help you decide which way to go.

Mapmakers use a diagram called a compass rose [compass rose: a diagram on a map that shows directions

such as north, south, east, and west] to show directions on a map. On early maps, these diagrams often looked

like a flower. For this reason, sailors called this direction-finding tool a compass rose.

A simple compass rose has two short lines that cross at right angles. The points at the ends of the lines are

labeled north, south, east, and west. These four directions are called cardinal directions [cardinal directions:

the four main directions on a compass rose: north, south, east, and west] . A more complicated compass

rose has lines between the cardinal points. These lines show the intermediate directions [intermediate

directions: the directions on a compass rose, such as southeast, that are located between the cardinal

directions] . They are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest.

A Legend Identifies Symbols on a Map A compass rose is one of many symbols used to show information on

a map. Some symbols use color to show features. Blue lines, for example, are symbols showing rivers. Lakes

and oceans are often colored blue as well. Other symbols use shapes to show information. A bold star is a

common symbol for the capital of a state or country. Tiny airplanes are often used to show the location of

airports.

The symbols used on a map are usually identified in a box known as the map legend [map legend: a box or

other display on a map that explains the meaning of the symbols used on the map] , or sometimes the map

key [map key: another name for map legend] . The map legend lists each symbol and explains what it shows

on the map.


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A Grid Organizes Space on a Map Mapmakers often use a system of

imaginary lines to divide up space on

their maps. This system of lines is

called a map grid [map grid: a

system of imaginary lines that

divides up the space on a map] . You

can see an example of a grid on the

map above. To form this grid, the

mapmaker drew horizontal lines and

vertical lines that meet at 90-degree

angles. (Remember that horizontal

lines go straight across. Vertical lines

go up and down.)

Geographers make map grids useful by

giving each line a label. For instance,

on some maps horizontal lines have

letters, and vertical lines have

numbers. Once the grid is labeled, any

location on the map can be indicated

by a letter and number combination,

such as C3 or H7. The letter and

number indicate where a horizontal

and vertical line meet. Find this point,

and you will have found the place you

are looking for close by.

One very useful type of grid is the

system of latitude and longitude. This

global grid [global grid: the system

of imaginary lines (called parallels of

latitude and meridians of longitude)

used to divide the surface of Earth

on maps and globes] allows you to

locate any place on Earth with a simple

number code. You’ll learn more about

the global grid in the next section.

Using a Map’s Title, Compass Rose, Legend, and Grid You can use this map to tour a historic site. The map title tells which site you will be exploring. The compass rose shows which way north is on the map. The map legend tells you what the symbols on the map mean. Once you know what you want to visit, the map grid will help you locate it on the map.


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Section 4 – The Global Grid: Latitude and Longitude

In early November of 2003, a hiker set up camp high in the Adirondack

Mountains of New York. Heavy snow trapped him there with no way to hike out.

Luckily, he had a Personal Locator Beacon. He pressed a button to call for help. A

helicopter soon flew him to safety.

How did the rescuers find the stranded hiker? His locator beacon showed his

location on the global grid. Geographers use this same global grid to show the

absolute location of every place on Earth.

32° North, 4° West Any place on Earth, no matter how lonely, has an exact address on the global grid. This lonely spot lies 32° north of the equator and 4° west of the prime meridian.

Lines of Latitude Parallel the Equator The global grid system is made up of two sets of imaginary lines. The

first are called parallels of latitude [parallels of latitude: an imaginary line around Earth that runs parallel

to the equator] . These lines run east and west around the globe.

The equator [equator: the line of latitude that

circles Earth exactly midway between the North

and South Poles] is the most important parallel of

latitude. It circles Earth exactly midway between the

North and South poles. All other lines of latitude are

parallel to the equator. Parallels of latitude are

measured in degrees (°). The equator is 0° latitude. It

is a reference for measuring other parallels of latitude.

Lines of Longitude Run from Pole to Pole The other lines in the global grid are half-circles that run from the

North Pole to the South Pole. These lines are called meridians of longitude [meridians of longitude: an

imaginary line between the North and South poles that crosses the equator at right angles] . They are not

parallel to each other, so the distance between them varies.

The most important of these north-south lines is the

prime meridian [prime meridian: the meridian of

longitude labeled 0 degrees, from which all other

degrees of longitude are measured. The prime

meridian passes through Greenwich, England.] . It

runs through Greenwich, England. Like parallels of

latitude, meridians are measured in degrees. The prime

meridian is 0° longitude. It is a reference for

measuring other meridians of longitude.

The next most important meridian is the International Date Line [International Date Line: the meridian of

longitude located at 180º. By international agreement, the date is one day earlier to the east of this line.] .

This line runs through the Pacific Ocean halfway around the world from the prime meridian. When travelers

cross this line, they cross over to a different day. Travelers moving west across the line go forward a day.

Travelers moving east across it go back a day.


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The Absolute Location of Cities Latitude and longitude mark the absolute location of cities. The coordinates of Rio de

Janeiro are 23°S, 43°W. To find this location, look for the parallel of latitude that is 23 degrees south of the equator. Move your finger along it until you come to the prime meridian. Now move west along the same line until you reach 43 degrees. You should be pointing to Rio de Janeiro.

Latitude and Longitude Mark Absolute Location The numbering system of this global grid makes it easy to

locate any place on Earth.

Moving north from the equator, the parallels of latitude increase in number from 0° up to 90°N (north) at the

North Pole. The same thing happens moving south of the equator. There the numbers of the parallels increase

from 0° to 90°S (south) at the South Pole. One degree of latitude covers about 69 miles, or 111 kilometers.

Meridians of longitude start from 0° at the prime meridian. Going east from there, the numbers on lines of

longitude increase until they reach 180° at the International Date Line. These numbers are labeled E (east). The

same thing occurs going west from the prime meridian. The numbers increase until they reach 180° at the date

line and are labeled W (west).

The absolute location of any place on Earth can be described as the meeting point of a parallel of latitude and a

meridian of longitude. The numbers of these lines are the geographic coordinates [coordinates: a set of

numbers that together describe the exact location of something, such as a place on a map] of a place.

These coordinates are like a street address for your house. They tell exactly where that place is located.


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Section 5 – Dealing with Distances: Map Scale

In Ithaca, New York, there is a winding path called the Sagan Planet Walk. The path takes people past models

of the sun and the planets. In less than a mile, walkers pass through a model of the entire solar system. The

model shrinks the vast distances of space to make them easier to understand. For instance, people can see that

the planet Mars is about one and a half times Earth’s distance from the sun.

A map does a similar thing for the area it shows. The scale on a map tells you how the distances on the map

compare to the actual distances on Earth.

How Scale Affects Details A map can be large scale or small scale. A large-scale map gives a close-up view of

a small area. It shows lots of detail. You could use a large-scale map to find a store in a mall or on a

neighborhood street. A small-scale map shows a larger area, but with fewer details. Small-scale maps are best

for finding your way between cities, states, and larger areas.

Estimating Distance with a Map Scale A map scale [map scale: an element of a map that shows how a

unit of distance on the map (such as an inch) relates to actual distance on the surface of Earth] appears on

most maps. The scale tells you how to read the distances on the map. For instance, an inch on a map might

equal 10 miles on Earth.

The map scale is usually made up of two short lines with notches on them. One line measures distance in miles,

the other in kilometers. The easiest way to use a map scale is to make a scale strip. Take a strip of paper and

place it under the map scale. Mark the scale’s notches on the paper, and label the marks with the numbers of

miles or kilometers. Then place your strip with the “0” mark at one point on the map. Line up the strip with a

second point. Now read the closest number on your strip to this second point. You’ve just figured out the

distance between the two points.

Maps with Different Scales The map on the left is a small-scale map. It shows where Washington, D.C., is located in relation to nearby cities. The map does not show details like city streets. But it does show larger features, such as major highways. The map on the right is a large-scale map. It focuses on Washington, D.C. You could use it to find your way through the city’s streets to the White House or other monuments.


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Section 6 – Hemispheres, Continents, and Oceans

“One of my favorite things to do when I have time off is to just watch the world

go by,” said astronaut Ed Lu about his time in space. In 2003, Lu watched Earth

go by from the International Space Station. “It isn’t exactly seeing the Earth like a

big blue marble,” he explained. “It’s more like having your face up against a big

blue beach ball.” On the “beach ball,” he saw Earth’s wide continents and blue

oceans.

Few of us will ever see Earth from an astronaut’s point of view. But we can use

maps and globes to get a view of our planet’s natural wonders. Geographers make

these features easier to understand by dividing Earth into different areas.

A Hemisphere Is Half a World Geographers divide Earth into halves. These

halves are called hemispheres [hemisphere: one half of a sphere. Earth can be

divided into eastern and western hemispheres or into northern and southern

hemispheres.] . The equator divides Earth into two hemispheres. The northern

half is the Northern Hemisphere. The southern half is the Southern Hemisphere.

Hemispheres The equator splits the globe into Northern and Southern hemispheres. The prime meridian and International Date Line split the globe into Eastern and Western hemispheres.

Geographers also divide Earth in half by longitude. The Western Hemisphere lies west of the prime meridian.

The Eastern Hemisphere is east of it. The two hemispheres divide again at the International Date Line.

Continents and Oceans Cover Earth Geographers also divide Earth’s lands and seas into areas. Ocean water

covers more than 70 percent of Earth. This ocean is really just one big body of water. But geographers usually

divide it into four oceans. They are the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic oceans.

These oceans lap the shores of continents [continent: the seven largest areas of land on Earth] , the largest

areas of land on our planet. Geographers identify seven continents. From largest to smallest, they are Asia,

Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Europe and Asia are actually parts of

one huge landmass [landmass: a very large, unbroken area of land] . But geographers usually think of them

as two continents because they have different cultures and histories.

Earth’s Continents and Oceans You can see from this map that oceans cover most of Earth. The four major oceans are actually a single body of water that surrounds the seven continents.


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Section 7 – Earth and the Sun

For centuries, most people believed that Earth stood still in

space. Today we know that our planet is in constant motion.

That motion creates our years, months, and days. It also helps

to create our seasons.

The Moving Earth Earth moves around the sun in a nearly

circular path called an orbit. One round trip, called a

revolution [revolution: one complete trip by Earth around

the sun] , takes about 365¼ days. This is an Earth year.

As Earth revolves around the sun, it spins like a giant top on

its axis [axis: an imaginary line that runs from the North

Pole to the South Pole through the center of Earth] . The

axis is an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the

South Pole through the center of Earth. The spinning motion

of Earth is called rotation [rotation: the spinning motion of

Earth around its axis] .

The Tilted Earth The tilt of Earth on its axis means that some areas receive more sunshine than others each day. This difference creates Earth’s seasons.

Earth makes one full rotation about every 24 hours. As Earth spins, it is daytime on the side facing the sun. On

the side facing away from the sun, it is night.

Earth’s Tilt Creates the Seasons Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle relative to the sun. Because of this tilt, the

Northern and Southern hemispheres receive different amounts of sunlight as Earth moves around the sun. These

differences create Earth’s seasons.

Look at the diagram on this page to see the changing seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. During the north’s

summer, this half of Earth is tilted toward the sun. At this time the Northern Hemisphere receives more sunlight

for more hours, and most places enjoy hot days. Winter comes when this hemisphere tilts away from the sun.

Then the days are short and cool.

Of course, during these same months the Southern Hemisphere tilts toward the sun, so in the south it is summer.

Similarly, when it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in Earth’s southern half.

Tropics, Circles, and Zones Because of Earth’s tilt, the sun never beats straight down on places in the far

north and south. Two lines of latitude mark the northernmost and southernmost points where the sun’s rays ever

beat straight down. The northern line is called the Tropic of Cancer [Tropic of Cancer: the northernmost

line of latitude where the sun’s rays ever beat straight down. This line marks the northern limit of the

tropical zone.] . The southern line is called the Tropic of Capricorn [Tropic of Capricorn: the

southernmost line of latitude where the sun’s rays ever beat straight down. This line marks the southern

limit of the tropical zone.] . The areas between these two lines and the equator are known as tropical zones

[tropical zone: the area between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer and between the equator and the

Tropic of Capricorn, where the climate is generally hot] . Tropical zones receive a lot of sunshine. They are

hot all year round.


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Two other lines of latitude mark the points

farthest north and south where the sun

doesn’t shine at all on one day each year.

On that day, night lasts a full 24 hours.

These lines are the Arctic Circle [Arctic

Circle: the line of latitude at 66°33’N

that marks the boundary of the northern

polar zone] and the Antarctic Circle

[Antarctic Circle: the line of latitude at

66°33’S that marks the boundary of the

southern polar zone] . The areas between

these circles and the North and South poles

are known as polar zones [polar zone: the

area between the Arctic Circle and the

North Pole or between the Antarctic

Circle and the South Pole, where the

climate is generally cold] . These zones

receive little direct sunlight and are cold

most of the year.

Between the tropical and polar zones lie the

temperate zones [temperate zone: the

area between Earth’s tropical zones and

polar zones, where the climate is

relatively mild] . Generally, in these zones

summers are warm and winters are cool.

Earth’s Revolution and the Seasons This diagram shows how Earth’s tilt creates the seasons during our planet’s year-long trip around the sun. Notice that the seasons are reversed in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.


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Section 8 – Showing a Round World on a Flat Map

In this chapter, you have learned how geographers show information on maps. A

map’s title, legend, and symbols can help you understand what a map shows.

You learned how geographers describe where a place is in terms of its absolute

location. The global grid allows mapmakers to indicate the exact location of any

place on Earth using lines of latitude and longitude. Map scales are useful for

describing the relative location of two places. Using a scale, you can estimate

about how far two places are from each other.

Mercator Projections Show Direction but Distort Size Gerardus Mercator designed his map projection in 1569. It shows directions between places accurately near the equator. But it distorts the size of continents, especially near the North and South poles. This is called area distortion.

All Flat Maps Have Distortion Geographers use maps to show features of Earth,

such as oceans and continents. But every flat map involves some distortion. The

size or shape of landmasses may be distorted. The distances between places may

not be accurately shown.

To deal with distortions, mapmakers use different map projections. Many

projections are named after the mapmakers who designed them. For example,

Arthur Robinson designed the Robinson projection. The world map in section 6 is

a Robinson projection. It is a popular projection because it balances the distortions

of size and shape. In this way it gives a fairly accurate picture of the world.

Lambert Projections Show Polar Areas that Other Maps Distort A Lambert projection is a circular map. It shows size accurately at its center, but not distance or shape. It is good for showing the areas around the North or South pole. Most other map projections distort the shape and size of the Arctic and Antarctica.

You can see several map projections on this page. Note how each projection does some things better than

others. As you look at them, think about what type of information each map projection might show best.

Eckert IV Projections Show Size but Distort Shape The Eckert IV projection is an equal-area map. Equal-area maps show the sizes of places accurately. However, they distort shape near the poles. This is called shape distortion. Geographers often use Eckert IV projections to show the number of people in different areas.

Goode’s Homolosine Projections Show Continents but Distort Oceans Goode’s Homolosine projection uses a trick to help us see how the continents compare in size. It snips bits out of the oceans. This trick allows the continents to stretch without distorting their shapes. But it distorts the shape and size of the oceans.


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Summary

Maps are important tools geographers use that show information about people and places on Earth. Many maps

feature important devices such as compass roses, legends, grids, and scales. The global grid system, which is

made up of lines of latitude and longitude, help people find the absolute location of a place.

Some maps show the entire world, including the continents and oceans. Because the world is round, all flat

maps involve distortion. Different types of map projections deal with distortion in various ways.

Chapter 2 – A Spatial Way of Thinking

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Section 1 - Introduction

In the late summer of 1854, a dreaded disease called cholera struck a neighborhood in

London, England. People suddenly began suffering cramps, vomiting, and terrible thirst.

Many died within hours. In just 10 days, the disease killed about 500 people. Wagons

carried away corpses for mass burials.

No one knew how cholera spread or how to stop it. But one doctor, John Snow, had an

idea. Snow convinced officials to remove the handle from a water pump on Broad Street

so that no one could use the pump. Soon the cholera stopped spreading. Snow had

guessed correctly that the disease was spread through polluted drinking water.

Snow had, in effect, solved the mystery by using the skills of the geographic inquiry process. First he asked a

question: How was cholera spread? Next he gathered information by going door to door to find out where

people were dying. He then organized his information on a neighborhood map, marking the house of each

cholera death. His next step was to analyze his map. He was able to answer his question: The Broad Street

pump must be spreading the disease, because most of the deaths were clustered around it.

John Snow’s map is an example of a thematic map [thematic map: a map that shows a particular theme, or

topic] . A thematic map presents information related to only one theme or topic. In this chapter, you will learn

how to identify and read different types of thematic maps. You will see how geographers use these tools to

make sense of Earth’s physical and human features.

Section 2 – The Geographic Setting

Thematic maps are all around us. Tune in to a news program and you’re likely to see a weather map showing

high and low temperatures. To find your way on the local bus system, you might use a map of bus routes. These

maps focus on a specific topic, or theme. They show information about some aspect of physical or human

geography.

Thematic Maps Can Show Physical Geography Some thematic maps focus on

physical features [physical feature: any natural characteristic of Earth’s

surface, such as landforms and bodies of water] . Physical features are natural

parts of Earth’s surface. They include landforms [landform: any natural feature

of Earth’s surface that has a distinct shape. Landforms include major

features such as continents, plains, plateaus, and mountain ranges. They also

include minor features such as hills, valleys, canyons, and dunes.] like

mountains, plains, and plateaus [plateau: a raised area of land, such as a hill or

mountain, with a flat top] . They also include bodies of water. A physical

features map of Earth will show oceans, seas, bays, rivers, and lakes.

The Steep Rock Walls of Canyon de Chelly A canyon is a landform found mostly in the southwestern United States. Canyon de Chelly was once home to Anasazi Indians. They built their villages in the steep canyon walls. You can find Canyon de Chelly on a physical features map of Arizona.

Thematic maps can show other aspects of the physical environment. For example, some maps focus on climate

[climate: the pattern of weather over a long period of time] , or long-term patterns of weather. Climate maps

show how much rainfall various areas receive. They also show how hot or cold places tend to be in winter and

summer.


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Climate has a big effect on the types of vegetation [vegetation: all the plants and trees in an area] , or trees

and other plants, that will grow in an area. You can see this by comparing a climate map of Earth with a

vegetation map. A vegetation map shows the kinds of trees and other plants that grow in various places. In

many ways it looks like a climate map, although other factors also affect what will grow where.

Thematic Maps Can Show Human Geography Thematic

maps can also focus on human geography. John Snow’s map

of the cholera deaths near the Broad Street pump is a good

example. Another example is a political map. The map on the

next page shows the borders of the 50 U.S. states. It also

shows the borders between countries. In addition to borders,

political maps also show important cities, such as the capitals

of states and countries.

Another type of thematic map shows population density

[population density: the average number of people who live

in a unit of area, such as a square mile. Population density

measures how crowded an area is.] . This is the number of

people per unit of area, such as a square mile. The higher the

number, the more crowded an area is. A population density

map reveals where large numbers of people cluster.

Besides showing where people live, a thematic map can show

what they do. A map of economic activity [economic

activity: any action that relates to the making, buying, and selling of goods and services] focuses on the

ways people produce, buy, and sell goods and services. This kind of map might show the main types of business

and industry in an area. It might also show the natural resources [natural resource: a useful material that is

found in nature, such as water, wood, coal, or oil] that fuel the area’s economy. Natural resources are useful

items found in nature, such as wood, coal, and oil.

A Map’s Title and Legend State Its Theme To read a thematic map, first look at its title. The title states the

topic of the map. Then look at the map legend. It tells you how to read the map’s symbols. On the U.S. political

map, the legend shows the symbols for the national and state capitals. A map legend may also explain how the

map uses colors. For instance, a thematic map might use colors to show differences in elevation or population

density.

Political maps help us see where countries,

states, and important cities are located. On this

map of the United States, you can see the borders

of your state. A star marks the state’s capital. A

star with a circle around it shows the nation’s

capital.


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Section 3 – Mapping Earth’s Physical Features

In the winter, snowboarders look for a snowy

mountain to practice their sport on. In the summer,

vacationers often cool off by a lake or river. These are

just three of the landforms and bodies of water that

you might see on a physical features map.

Common Landforms Geographers have given names

to the many landforms found on Earth. Some

landforms have distinctive shapes when viewed from

above. A long, narrow peninsula, for example, juts out

from a continent into water. Other landforms, like

mountains, have distinct shapes when viewed from the

ground.

Physical features maps show the shapes of features as

seen from above. They also show the elevation

[elevation: the height of the land above sea level] ,

or height above sea level, of various features. Usually

physical features maps use colors and shading to show

changes in elevation.

This map shows major physical features in India. The Himalayas are India’s highest physical feature. Two long rivers, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, flow out of the Himalayas. They form one of the world’s largest river deltas where they meet the Bay of Bengal.

Bodies of Water Geographers also label bodies of water on physical features maps. Many kinds of water

bodies appear on the continents. For example, rivers flow down from mountains and make their way to the sea.

Lakes are entirely surrounded by land. Other water bodies are created where oceans and seas meet the

continents. A bay is partly enclosed by a wide, curving stretch of land. A strait is a narrow channel that connects

two larger bodies of water.

Landforms and Water Bodies: You will see both landforms and bodies of water labeled on maps. This

diagram shows many of these physical features.


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Section 4 – Hot, Cold, Wet, Dry: Earth’s Climates

Do you check a weather report each morning to see

what the day will be like? Are most days sunny? Or

does it rain a lot where you live? Such long-term

patterns in weather are called climate.

Climate Zones To study climates, geographers divide

Earth into climate zones [climate zone: a large area

of Earth with a particular pattern of weather] .

Each zone has a particular pattern of temperature and

precipitation [precipitation: moisture that falls

from the sky as rain, snow, sleet, or hail] —rain,

snow, or other moisture. This pattern is often shown

on a climagraph [climagraph: a graph that shows

the average temperature and precipitation in a

place over a year] , like those you see below.

Australia has seven climate zones. This climate

map shows each zone in a different color.

A climagraph shows the average temperature and

precipitation in a place over a year. The letters along the bottom of the graph stand for the months of the year.

The curved line indicates the average monthly temperatures. The bars show the average monthly precipitation.

Location Affects Climate Many factors affect a place’s climate. One of the most important is latitude. Places

in tropical latitudes, close to the equator, get the most direct rays from the sun all year. Most of these places

have hot weather year-round. Places at high latitudes, close to the North and South poles, receive much less

sunlight. As a result, they are very cold.

Another factor affecting climate is elevation, or altitude. Places at high elevations have colder climates than

those lower down. You’ll learn more about the factors that affect climate throughout this book.


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Section 5 – Trees and Other Plants: Earth’s Vegetation

Think about the climate where you live. Now think about the kinds

of plants that grow nearby. In an arid [arid: dry or lacking

rainfall; also a climate or climate zone that is hot and dry all

year with very little rain] climate, like a desert [desert: a

geographic region with too little rainfall to support much plant

life; also a vegetation zone] , you might see hardy cacti. In a

humid continental [humid continental: a climate or climate

zone with warm, rainy summers and cool, snowy winters]

climate, you might see lofty trees that stay green all year. Climate

has a major effect on the kind of vegetation that grows in a place.

Vegetation Is Adapted to Its Environment Plants of some kind

grow nearly everywhere on Earth. But in order to survive, plants

must adapt to their environment.

Plants can adapt to even extreme environments. A tundra climate zone is very cold and dry. Yet small plants

and bushes grow there. In arid climates, cacti can go for long periods without water. Other kinds of vegetation

need lots of rainfall to survive.

This map shows the vegetation zones found in North Africa. Chaparral thrives beside the Mediterranean Sea. Desert and desert scrub are found in the dry Sahara. A narrow band of broadleaf evergreen forest appears in the northeast corner of North Africa. What do you think allows tropical trees to survive in such an arid region?

Other factors besides climate affect what plants grow where. Among them are elevation, amount of sunlight,

and richness of the soil.

Global Vegetation Zones Geographers study where different plants grow by dividing the world into

vegetation zones [vegetation zone: a large area of Earth with a certain mix of plants and trees that are

adapted to similar conditions] . In each zone, a certain mix of plants has adapted to similar conditions.

Like climate zones, vegetation zones are affected by their location on Earth. They range from the barren ice cap

zones at the poles to the dense broadleaf evergreen forest zones near the equator.


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Section 6 – Where People Live: Population Density

In 2007, about 8 million people lived in New York

City. They were jammed into an area of about 300

square miles. Compare this with the town of

Skwentna, Alaska, where approximately 150 people

were spread out over about 450 square miles. When it

comes to crowding, these two places are about as

different as they can be. Geographers show these

kinds of differences using population density maps.

Population Density Measures Crowding Population

density tells us how crowded a place is. To calculate

the density of a place, divide the number of people

there by its land area. The higher the result, the more

crowded the place is. In 2007, New York City had a

population density of about 26,000 people per square

mile. In contrast, Skwentna had less than 1 person per

square mile.

Population Density Maps Population density maps show patterns of where people live. On this map, much of the North China Plain is colored purple. So are many coastal areas. These are the most crowded parts of China.

Population density affects how people live. In Skwentna, houses are spread out. There are no roads. People use

airplanes, boats, or snowmobiles to get to the local store and the post office. Skwentna’s version of rush hour

comes in February, when dogsled racers speed through town.

In New York City, people live packed in high-rise apartments. They may have hundreds of neighbors just in

their own building. Every day millions of “straphangers” hold on tight as they jostle one another in the city’s

crowded subways.


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Section 7 – Economic Activity: Land and Resources

Do you like chocolate? This sweet treat comes from

cocoa beans, the fruit of the cacao tree. The cacao

tree grows only in hot, tropical areas near the

equator. But factories that use cocoa beans to make

chocolate candy are found in Europe and the United

States. The locations of cocoa plantations

[plantation: a large farm, especially in a hot

area] and candy factories are examples of the kind

of information you might see on an economic

activity map.

Land Use Shows How People Make a Living Economic activity maps often show patterns of land

use [land use: the ways in which people use a

particular area of Earth’s surface; for example,

for farming, development, or preservation] .

Land use is the way people use the land they live on

to meet their needs. In some areas, people use land

for farming. In others, they may use it for mining.

Economic Activity Maps The colors on this map show land use patterns in Europe. The most widespread land use is commercial farming. The symbols show the locations of important resources in Europe. Where is petroleum, or oil, found in Europe?

Natural Resources Affect Economic Activities Economic activity also depends on a country’s natural

resources. Forestry [forestry: the planting, growing, and harvesting of trees] , or the harvesting of trees to

produce wood products, is important in forested areas. Near oceans, fishing is an important industry.

Many resources lie hidden beneath the ground. This is true of both minerals and fossil fuels [fossil fuel: any

fuel, such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, that is made from the remains of prehistoric plants and

animals] such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Uranium is another underground energy resource. It provides fuel

for nuclear power plants. In contrast, moving water is an easy-to-find energy resource. Dams can be built on

rivers to harness the moving water’s energy and convert it to hydroelectric power [hydroelectric power:

electricity that is generated from the power of moving water] .


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Land Use and Resources How people use land depends on the natural resources in their area. Some still get

their food by hunting and gathering. Some grow crops and raise animals to sell. Others make and sell goods

created from natural resources. Natural resources are not evenly distributed around the world.


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Section 8 – Organizing Earth’s Surface: Regions

As you have learned, geographers use many kinds of maps to

make sense of the world. Some of these maps focus on physical

geography. Others focus on human geography. All of them reveal

interesting patterns to explore.

Geographers use these patterns to organize the Earth’s surface

into regions [region: an area defined by one or more natural

or cultural characteristics that set it apart from other areas] .

A region is an area with one or more features that set it apart from

other areas. As you’ll see, the concept of region allows

geographers to divide the world in useful ways.

Unique Features Define a Region Think about the community

you live in. Does it have a business district? A shopping mall? An

industrial park? A civic center? A residential neighborhood? Each

of these areas has features that set it apart from other areas. You

might think of one as a business region, another as a shopping

region, and still another as a housing region. Each region looks

different. Each has a different purpose. Each has different needs.

Transportation Region Maps A region is an area with one or more features that set it apart from other areas. A feature might be something physical like climate. Or it might be a human feature such as roads and train lines. The network of routes on this map defines a transportation region in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Geographers define regions in several ways. The Sunbelt is a region defined by physical features. It is a region

made up of states in the southern part of the United States. What sets the Sunbelt apart from other regions is its

warm, sunny climate. The Corn Belt is a region defined by human features. It is made up of states in the center

of the country where raising corn is an important economic activity.

Dividing the World into Seven Major Regions The world is a

very large place to make sense of. For this reason, geographers

usually divide it into regions to study. These world regions are

still very large. But each has its own special features.

This book divides the world into seven major regions. Each

region is shown in a different color on the world regions map

below. These colors are your guide to finding each region in this

book. Your study of a region will begin with an introduction to its most important physical and human features.

In that introduction, you will begin to see what makes each of these regions unique.

World Regions Maps This book divides the world into seven large regions. Each region has certain distinct physical features. Each also has unique human features.


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Summary – Summary Geographers use maps for many different purposes. Thematic maps, which present information related to only

one theme, help geographers make sense of Earth’s physical and human features. Because thematic maps focus

on one topic, geographers are able to find out specific information about a place. Thematic maps can tell

information about physical features of a place or even what type of economic activities take place there.

The world is divided into seven major regions. These regions are divided into smaller regions. Because unique

features define a region, different types of maps apply to different places.

Documents

Unit 1 Chapters 1-2 - Weeblymsscheible215.weebly.com/uploads/4/2/2/0/42205921/unit_1...Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography 2 The Geographic Inquiry Process Geography is a very old