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UNIT 1

AIMS OF SCIENCE TEACHING

1.1 Introduction

Before you look at the Aims of science teaching, I suggest that you reflect on the question, ‘What is science?’ This may sound like a silly question to you but sadly very few student teachers who pursue science courses spend time to reflect on the nature of their subject. However, it is very important that you have an understanding of the nature of science because it will affect your attitude towards the subject and thereby the approach you use to teach it. This unit will shade light on the nature of science, before describing the Aims of teaching the subject.

1.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Define science

• Define Aims

• State the purpose of Aims

• Describe the Aims for teaching science (biology, chemistry and physics) in Zambian schools.

1.3 Reflection

Have you ever thought about the meaning of science? Well, whether you have ever considered it or not, kindly pause a while, reflect and write down your definition of science. Did you think science is about doing laboratory activities only? In this module, you will see that the term science refers to much more than this.

1.4 Definition of science

The answer to the question, ‘What is science?’ is not a simple one and is a topic that has kept the philosophers arguing for the last 400 years or so. For instance, Ollerenshaw and Ritchie (1993) define science as the exploration of the Cosmos in order to discover or explain what, why, when, where and how things happen, are happening or are likely to happen within it. Wenham (1995) considers science as a method of exploring and investigating the world around, both natural and human-made, with the aim of learning more about it and understanding it better. But Sund and

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Trowbridge (1967) state that science is both a body of knowledge ( of facts, theories, laws, models and concepts) and a process (method), which develops this knowledge.

From these definitions we can say that science is both a continuous process of understanding the entire universe through investigations as well as an organized body of knowledge produced through activities undertaken by scientists.

1.5 The components of science

The definitions of science in unit 1.4 imply that science consists of basically two components namely, ‘product’ and ‘process’. Product here refers to the body of scientific knowledge that is generated by scientists while processes refer to the ways or methods by which scientists acquire such knowledge. In other words, the processes of knowledge are all those activities that give rise to the body of knowledge. Let us now look at the two components of science in detail.

1.6 Product of science: This refers to the ‘science knowledge’ which is produced or acquired through scientific processes. It consists of facts, concepts, rules /principles/ laws and theories. Scientific concepts are meanings attached to scientific terms, or symbols. A concept is empirical if it is associated with an observable phenomena and theoretical if it is associated with a non-observable phenomena. Laws/principles are statements that show relationships between two or more related concepts. An example is Boyle’s Law. A theory is a statement of logical reasoning derived from some well founded assumptions regarding the basic nature of the physical world. It seeks to explain interrelationships between known phenomena. A good example of this is the kinetic theory of matter.

1.7 Processes of science: These are means by which scientists generate scientific knowledge. They are as follows: observing, classifying, measuring, inferring, predicting, identifying, controlling variables, interpreting data, formulating hypothesis, defining operationally, experimenting and communicating (Haambokoma, 2007). Let us examine what each of these processes means or involves.

• Observation: In ordinary language, observation means seeing, but in science, the term observation has a wider meaning. It involves using all five senses i.e. touch, taste, see, hear and smell. In other words observing means perception using all the 5 senses, namely : sight, touch, hear, taste and smell/order. Accurate observation in science is important in that it is a pre- requisite for scientific investigation.

• Classification: This means organizing collected data or items into categories or groups. For example, metals can be classified into magnetic and non magnetic substances.

• Measurement: This involves determining quantities such as length, mass, time, temperature etc using measuring instruments. Skills in measuring requires the ability to use measuring instruments as well as the ability to determine the most appropriate

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instrument to use for making measurement. There are two types of measurement, namely, direct and indirect measurements. Direct measurements are those that are done using one instrument and no calculations are required while indirect measurements are those which are done using one instrument but require further mathematical calculations to get the required measure. Ability to estimate is also an important part of measuring skills.

• Inference: Inference refers to an explanation or interpretation of an observation. For example the deflection of a campus needle would be inferred or interpreted as the presence or change of a magnetic flux. It is possible to make more than one inference to explain an observation.

• Prediction: This refers to a forecast of what a future observation will be. Predictions are based on observations, measurements and inferences about connections between observed variables. They can be done using interpolation and extrapolation. Interpolation means making predictions in between given values using a graph. Extrapolation is extending a relationship beyond the range of values given on a graph.

• Controlling variable: The term variable means a quantity which can take different values. For example, force, mass, acceleration and length. Controlling variables involves keeping one variable or more constant while you change one variable and observe the effect on another. Identifying and controlling variables is very important in science experiments.

• Interpreting data: This means explaining the meaning of information, presented in different forms such as graphs, tables, pictorial data etc. It may involve looking for patterns in given data.

• Formulating Hypothesis: By the term hypothesis we mean a guess. Formulating hypotheses therefore involves making a guess (if …….then…….) e.g. if a substance sinks in water, then it is denser than water.

• Defining Operationally: This involves giving an accurate description of a phenomenon in terms of what can be seen of the phenomenon and how the phenomenon can be measured where possible. For example, an operational definition of a magnet would be a substance which attracts pieces of Iron.

• Experimentation: Experimentation involves carrying out experiments or investigations and it represents the highest level of the scientific processes.

• Communication: This involves letting other people know of ideas one has or what one has observed or discovered. Means of communication use are: talking, writing, drawing, or representing things in different forms such as graphs, charts, tables and symbols. Communication also involves obtaining information from other scientists.

This is what we can say for now about the nature of science. You will learn more about it in Module II. You will also learn that science is popular in society because:

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• It has an intrinsic value as a body of accumulated knowledge and as a way of finding out about the world

• Learning science is a means for helping individuals to fulfil their own personal potential • Learning science helps the individual to learn to live in a society and both to contribute to

it and to benefit from it. Having understood the nature and value of science, you can now look at units 1.8 and 1.9 to see what science teaching would like to achieve in learners.

1.8 Meaning of Aims?

Parkinson (1994) defines ‘Aims’ as the goals that we wish to achieve. Aims are general statements of intent.

Note:

We all have aims in our lives, such as:

• Wanting to be happy and healthy • Wanting to obtain a University Degree • Wanting to cover all the work in the syllabus.

Therefore, it is important that science courses are also clear about what we want to achieve as teachers and what we want our pupils to achieve as learners. This is because educational aims highlight the philosophy of a course or to put it in layman’s terms ‘they give you a flavour of what the course is trying to achieve’.

1.9 Aims for teaching science (biology, chemistry and physics)

Not all science courses have the same list of aims but there are a number of aims that are common to all courses. These are to enable the learner to:

• Appreciate science as a human activity Science is a human construction, a way of thinking and acting. It is dependent upon context: cultural, social, economic, technological and political. Scientific activity can introduce and influence change for individuals and for society. Therefore, science needs to be interpreted at an individual as well as at a collective level. As scientific knowledge changes so does society; such changes are ecological and not merely additional.

• Understand how science operates The nature, form and value base of science should be understood so that the learner can recognize and interact with scientific activities.

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• Know and understand scientific concepts and principles Identify the basic parameters, principles and concepts; this is essential in developing a progressive intellectual grasp of science, and the application of knowledge, understanding and skills.

• Be able to be scientific Knowing about science is important, but being able ‘to do science’, to act scientifically, to apply scientific knowledge, understanding and skills in individual and collective situations is more. Learners should acquire scientific competencies and know when and how to use science in a positive way. They should communicate with others in appropriate terminology, scientific and non-scientific. This involves exploring science in action through the acquisition and application of skills and knowledge of scientific enquiry, capability and testing of ideas.

• Relate scientific enquiry and action to other modes of human behaviour Scientific Endeavour, acquisition and application of new knowledge and skills are of lesser value if viewed in isolation. Scientific worth and progress is only meaningful when considered in terms of learning and activity. The learner should recognize the need to relate scientific advance within the wider context of human development if society as a whole is to benefit.

It should be noted that the aims above are very general and teachers need to interpret them in the light of the specific situations dictated by a particular science or programme being followed. Science teachers can formulate a number of aims in science education as they interpret the general aims given in the National Curriculum for Science. This can best be done through the subject associations like ZASE, Science Examiners’ panels and Science writers’ panels through the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), the National Science Centre or any science and technology organization in the country.

1.10 Summary:

In this unit we have looked at the nature of science and Aims for teaching science. The unit that follows addresses learning objectives.

1.11 References and suggested Readings Muzumara, P.M (2007) Becoming an effective Science Teacher. New Horizon Printing Press. National In-Service Teachers’ College. Lusaka.

Parkinson, J(1994) The Effective teaching of Secondary Science. Longman. London and NewYork.

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UNIT 2

OBJECTIVES

2.1 Introduction: Our Institution is training you to be an effective teacher of physics, chemistry or biology. An effective teacher is one who makes the learners achieve what he/she wants at the end of a lesson. Therefore, in order that you may be an effective teacher of science you need to have a clear idea of what you want your pupils to achieve at the end of instruction. This will help you to choose the most sustainable approach and methods to use as well as resources. After a lesson it will also help you to know if you have achieved what you had planned to achieve or not. One way to do this is to use behavioural objectives. This unit will help you understand what objectives are, how to write them and their role and limitations.

2.2 Objectives:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define behavioural objectives

• state three types of objectives

• describe components of a complete behavioural objective

• demonstrate understanding of the role of objectives in science teaching

• state the limitations of behavioural objectives

2.3 Reflection

Think about the various situations in which you have heard or used the term ‘objective’. What did the term refer to?

Before reading the text that follows, write a brief statement on paper of your understanding of the term objective (in your own words). After that, compare the answer with that given in unit 2.4. Do they mean the same thing? Discuss with any colleague.

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2.4 Meaning of an objective

People have several views about what an objective is. Some of these are:

• An intent communicated by a statement describing a proposed change in a learner-statement of what the learner is to be like when he has successfully completed a learning experience (Mager, 1962).

• Intended learning outcomes (Stenehouse, 1975)

• Something that one’s efforts or actions are intended to attain or accurately accomplish; goal; target (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/objective.

From these definitions it can be deduced that an objective is a statement which specifies performance or behaviour a learner is expected to demonstrate after receiving instruction or after a lesson / learning experience (Haambokoma, 2007).

Let us look at some types of objectives.

2.5 Types of objectives

There are three types of objectives namely: cognitive, psychomotor and affective objectives. Cognitive objectives are those which mainly involve the brain work (i.e. thinking). Examples of cognitive objectives (with outcome statement only) are as follows:

• pupils should be able to define static charge

• pupils should be able to recall the meaning of electromagnetic induction

• pupils should be able to write down the correct units for current and voltage

All the objectives above are concerned with the use of the brain and this is what makes them cognitive objectives. A cognitive behaviour does involve activity and speech but emphasis is on what the brain does (Imenda, 1982).

Psychomotor objectives are those which focus on acquisition of skills such as measurement, drawing, carrying out experiments, and handling apparatus correctly (motor skills).

The following are examples of psychomotor objectives:

• Given a piece of paper and pencil, pupils should be able to draw a diagram of an internal combustion engine.

• Given the necessary components, pupils should be able to construct an electric circuit.

Affective objectives are those that are concerned with aspects such as attitudes, interest in the subject, values and development of appreciation for a subject.

The following are examples of affective objectives:

• when given a choice to study French or science, the pupil chooses to study science.

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• the pupil justifies the value of taking science to other pupils

• the pupil is always asking science questions in order to learn more.

2.6 Activity

2.7 Components of an objective.

In most cases, objectives are written in observable behavioural term and are therefore known as behavioural objectives. According to Mager (1962) a meaningfully stated objective (i.e. one that succeeds in communicating teacher’s intent) should have three parts, namely : the condition statement, performance term and the qualifying term. The condition statement gives the condition under which the required performance (behaviour) is to be carried out. In majority of cases, it states what will be available to the learner in order to carry out the task.

The following illustrates condition statements:

• Given a measuring cylinder, the learner should be able to.............

• Using a plane mirror, the pupil should be able to................

• When called upon to do so, the pupil should be able to............

The condition statement can also indicate what the pupil will be denied.

• For example, without using a ruler, the pupil should be able to......................................... The condition statement is also known as the testing situation.

We have looked at the condition statement. Let us now turn to the performance term.

The performance term is a part of the objective which states what the learner must be able to do or perform after instruction/lesson. This is also called the outcome statement or terminal behaviour. The terminal behaviour is stated using an action verb. Some of the action verbs that can be used in writing objectives are:

Before you go to unit 2.7, discuss unit 2.5 with any of your colleagues. Clearly distinguish

between affective and psychomotor objectives. Include any other three examples of each

type of objectives.

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Deduce balance mention

Indicate Identify modify

Justify State defend

Compare calculate draw

Examples:

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ the pupil should be able to state the meaning of the term velocity.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ the pupil should be able to identify the parts of a block and tackle pulley system.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ the pupil should be able to calculate the density of a substance

Having looked at the first and second parts of the meaningfully stated objective, let us finally examine the third and last part, called qualifying term. This is the part of an objective which states the acceptable level of attainment of the performance term. Reece and Walker (1997) added that this part may specify duration, for example, to one decimal place or to quantity such as “get 18 out of 20 items correct.”This part of an objective is also called an ‘evaluation statement’ or ‘criteria’. Therefore, a complete specific objective would read as follows:

• Using a micrometer screw gauge, the learner should be able to measure the thickness of a needle to an accuracy of 0.01mm.

According to Mager (1962) it is important to write objectives with three parts as illustrated above in order to reduce ambiguity i.e. to make objectives specific. However, Mager also advices that, it is not always necessary to include all three parts in every objective one writes for a lesson. The most important thing is that the objective should communicate the intended learning outcome as clearly as possible. It is therefore possible to write lesson objectives in the following manner. The pupil should be able to:

• label the diagram of an internal combustion engine.

• assemble a simple electric circuit consisting of a battery, 2 bulbs and a switch.

Various writers have proposed guidelines of writing behavioural objectives. For example, Reece and Walker (1997) cite the following guidelines:

• action verbs must be used to express the outcome or desired student behaviour

• objectives must be stated in terms of the learning outcome (product) and not in terms of the learning process. In other words, they should describe what a learner should be able to do after instruction.

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• objectives must be expressed in terms of learner or pupil performance and not in terms of teacher performance.

• An objective should express only one desired behaviour (learning outcome).

2.8 Activity

2.9 Role/value of objectives

So far we have looked at what behavioural objectives are and how a teacher can formulate them. Let us now consider the value of objectives. There are several benefits that have been advanced by various writers with regard to value of behavioural objectives. Some of these are that:

• they enable a teacher select appropriate content i.e. the subject matter (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) that they should teach to pupils.

• they provide direction to the teacher when selecting or designing appropriate learning experiences (methods used to help pupils learn).

• they provide teacher’s direction required for organising and sequencing of content and learning experiences.

• they serve as a basis for selecting teaching and learning resources by the teacher.

• they provide direction when evaluating the effectiveness of the lesson or programme.

• they provide clear targets towards which teachers and learners can work.

• they encourage teachers to think and plan their work.

• they also provide a basis for marking and reporting of pupils performance.

Write 4 behavioural objectives consisting of a condition statement, an outcome

statement and a performance term.

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2.10 Activity

Despite all these benefits, objectives have some limitations.

2.11 Limitations of objectives

Although the behavioural objectives have been widely applied, it is important for you to note that their use has been criticised. Imenda (1982) gives the following criticisms of objectives:

• They limit learning of other aspects by pupils i.e. pupils will be confining themselves to learning of what is specified by the objectives which have been pre-determined by the teacher.

• There is a tendency by some teachers to concentrate on behavioural (overt) learning outcomes at the expense of non-observable learning outcomes which might be more important.

• They are difficult to formulate for every learning situation especially as the learning material becomes more advanced.

• They consume a lot of time for the teacher to construct.

• They may not help to achieve overall aims .

Prepare science lesson activities which should engage pupils in the following:

(a) Extrapolation

(b) Interpolation

(c) Experimentation

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2.12 Activity

2.13 Summary

You have seen what objectives are, various types, their components, value and finally their limitations. In unit three you shall look at the categories (Domains) in which these objectives fall.

2.14 References and suggested Readings Haambokoma, C., 2007. Module EDS 51. Teaching Science. Science teaching methods. Zambia Open University.ISBN. Imenda, S.N.,1982. A textbook of science education. Mager, F.R., 1962. Preparing instructional Objectives, San Francisco: Fearon Publishers. Reece, I. and S. Walker., 1997. Teaching, Training and Learning: A Practical Guide, Sunderland: Business Education Publisher.

Stenhouse, L., 1975. An introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London:Heinemann

Having completed unit 2, attempt the following questions:

(a) Write down one specific behavioural objective whose evaluation statement or acceptable performance is defined by indicating a time limit.

(b) Write one specific behavioural objective whose qualifying term is defined by specifying a minimum number of correct responses which you will accept.

(c) Briefly describe any two limitations of behavioural objectives.

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UNIT 3

THE DOMAINS OF LEARNING

3.1 Introduction

Learning domains, sometimes referred to as categories of learning outcomes, are critical to consider as you plan your lessons. By analyzing the type of learning domain or outcome that you want, you can determine which activities, assessments, and representational modes (face-to-face, video, online, multimedia) are optimal based on the learning outcome desired. This unit discusses the three categories of learning outcomes (domains of learning).

3.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• State the three domains of learning

• Describe the three domains of learning

• Write objectives in the three domains of learning

3.3 Reflection

3.4 Definitions

Cognitive domain -This is the domain that involves the mind and the intellect. It deals with thinking, and knowledge, and the ability of a person in intellectual pursuits.

Affective domain This is the domain that deals with a person and how they act and feel. Emotions, and feelings, and different behaviors such as a person's individual attitude are characteristic of this domain.

Think about the various situations in which you have heard or used the term ‘Domain’. What did the term refer to?

Before reading the text that follows, write a brief statement in the note book of your understanding of this term in your own words. Share your response with other colleagues.

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Psychomotor domain - This is the domain that deals with the physical realm, manual skills, actions and physical skills.

3.5 An overview of each of the Domains

The following is a brief overview of learning domains with some examples of how you might represent content, provide activities, and assess mastery of that domain. These domains include cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Cognitive Domain

According to Bloom (1956) the cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Knowledge: Recall data or information.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.

Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of

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an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome.

Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.

Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

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Therefore, this domain focuses on intellectual skills and is familiar to educators. Bloom’s Taxonomy (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) is frequently used to describe the increasing complexity of cognitive skills as students move from beginner to more advanced in their knowledge of content. The cognitive domain is the core learning domain. The other domains (affective and psychomotor) require at least some cognitive component.

The cognitive domain is well suited to the online environment (Vinson,2012). Face-to-face courses benefit from using the web as a way to supplement classroom lectures that are cognitive in nature. These supplemental material may include the following:

Additional explanations of key concepts

• Graphics to show relationships between ideas • Organized class notes • Tables that provide summary information • PowerPoint slides • Additional examples • Self-check quizzes • A discussion board • Case studies • Drill and practice of content that must be memorized • FLASH animations or simulations of challenging and key concepts • Practice questions with answers and “expert” explanations • Links to similar information presented in a different way

Courses that are hybrid (presented in both an online and face-to-face format), often present the cognitive portion of the course via the web and use classroom time for the more affective and psychomotor learning outcomes.

As we move up the cognitive domain especially as we get to synthesis and evaluation, collaborative assignments requiring students to engage in problem-based or project-based activities serve as important ways to determine if students have reached that level of learning (Vinson,2012). These projects can be done online, but often lend themselves to at least some face-to-face interaction. If face-to-face interaction is not possible, synchronous mediated events such as web casting, interactive video, or conference calls facilitate project development. Also, higher cognitive skills provide opportunities for student to develop interpersonal domain learning. To the extent that we desire interpersonal learning outcomes, we should consider how to facilitate face-to-face interactions.

The Affective Domain

The affective domain is critical for learning but is often not specifically addressed. This is the domain that deals with attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing what is being

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learned, and ultimately incorporating the values of a discipline into a way of life (Vinson, 2012). Stages in that domain are not as sequential as the cognitive domain, but have been described as the following:

• Receiving (willing to listen) • Responding (willing to participate) • Valuing (willing to be involved) • Organizing (willing to be an advocate) • Characterization (willing to change one’s behaviour, lifestyle, or way of

life)

You do not necessarily expect your science students to become instructors or scientists, but you want them to be willing to “show up” for class, participate in class, and become involved with the content. You expect students to expend effort in their courses and sustain the effort throughout the duration of the course. You also would like your students to take the next higher course or another course in the curriculum because they value what they have learned.

The affective domain is not best handled with just text on a screen. Class meetings or an initial class meeting to support an online course might be used for affective development. Videos and audio clips are also excellent ways to engage the affective domain. These should be short and may include the following:

• Former students giving tips on how to be successful • The instructor informing the students of the value of the course • Professionals who are using the knowledge from the course in their lives • An overview of the program with key support personnel and facilities

visible to the student • Streaming audio files throughout the course encouraging students and

providing helpful tips • Short video clips of the instructor explaining course content

Additionally, chunking information into small steps and designing opportunities for the students to be successful facilitate affective learning for students (Vinson, 2012). Face-to-face courses can include affective online components by allowing students to have a place to post questions, get feedback, and hear encouraging messages from the instructor (with a text accompaniment). Encouraging students to set goals for themselves that are reasonable can also enhance affective learning. To the extent that students are challenged or are new to a content area, we would expect instructors to include more affective learning outcomes.

According to Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia ( 1973) the affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. They list the five major categories from the simplest behavior to the most complex as shown below:

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Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.

Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).

Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.

Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.

Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.

Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities,

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interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.

Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.

Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look.

Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain focuses on performing sequences of motor activities to a specified level of accuracy, smoothness, rapidity, or force (Vinson, 2012). Underlying the motor activity is cognitive understanding. In the higher education environment, we see psychomotor learning in content including the following:

• Lab courses for science classes • Vocational courses • Physical education courses • Training in using specified equipment such as computers, cameras,

musical instruments etc. • Performing arts

The stages of the psychomotor domain have been described as follows:

• Action (elementary movement)

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• Coordination (synchronized movement) • Formation (bodily movement) • Production (combine verbal and nonverbal movement

The psychomotor domain is best assessed in a face-to-face situation (Vinson, 2012). Since there is a cognitive component underlying motor skills, these can be effectively viewed in videos, demonstrations, online text descriptions, or with pictures of each step in the sequence. Simulations can be used to help people learn the steps or practice variations of a motor sequence; but ultimately, the student should perform the skill with an instructor or designee judging if the skill was performed to a set standard. Sometimes, simulations are used for learning without “hands on” opportunities, because the psychomotor activity is dangerous or equipment is not readily available.

Students who are new to a content area will generally benefit more from “hands-on” learning than from mediated learning within the psychomotor domain. As students become more expert, videos and pictures can be used to teach the skill.

Simpson (1972) also states that the psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. He lists the seven major categories from the simplest behavior to the most complex as shown:

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.

Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called

Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This

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mindsets). subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain.

Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift.

Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.

Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.

Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.

Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.

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Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.

Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.

Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

3.6 Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave's (1975):

• Imitation — Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.

• Manipulation — Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.

• Precision — Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be “just right.”

• Articulation — Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.

• Naturalization — Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's (1972):

• Reflex movements — Reactions that are not learned. • Fundamental movements — Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.

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• Perception — Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.

• Physical abilities — Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.

• Skilled movements — Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.

• No discursive communication — Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.

3.7 Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the two most prominent ones being, 1) changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and 2) slightly rearranging them (Pohl, 2000).

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate:

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Remembering: Recall previous learned information.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.

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Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

Understanding: Comprehending the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.

Applying: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Analyzing: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Evaluating: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.

Key Words: appraises, compares,

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concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Creating: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome.

Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

3.8 Activity

Write two objectives in each of the three domains of learning.

3.9 Summary

You have been looking at Domains of learning.The next unit discusses sequencing instruction.

3.10 References and suggested Readings

Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.

Darryl L. Sink and Associates, Inc (1994). The instructional developer workshop, Monterey, California.

Dave, R. H. (1972). Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives. (R. J. Armstrong, ed.). Tucson, Arizona: Educational Innovators Press.

Gagne. R. M., Briggs, J.J. and Wagner. W.W. (1992). Principles of instructional design. Fort Worth, TX.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

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Harrow, A. (1972) A Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives. New York: David McKay.

Kemp, J.E. (1985). The instructional design process. New York, NY.: Harper and Row, Publishers.

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.

Pohl, M. (2000). Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn: Models and Strategies to Develop a Classroom Culture of Thinking. Cheltenham, Vic.: Hawker Brownlow.

Simpson E. J. (1972). The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

Vinson, C(2012) Learning Domains and Delivery of Instruction.pixel.fhda.edu/id /learning_domain.html.

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UNIT 4

SEQUENCING INSTRUCTION

4.1 Introduction: In science teaching it is always important to sequence instruction so that the learners may find it easier to understand what is taught. In this Unit you shall look at sequencing instruction, Task Analysis and concept maps.

4.2 Objectives:

At the end of this unit, you should be able to :

• state the meaning of ‘sequencing instruction’

• describe some methods of sequencing instruction

• define the term Task Analysis

• show (procedure) how to conduct a Task Analysis

• define a concept map

• describe the role of concept maps in science teaching

4.3 Reflection

Before teaching any lesson, it is important for you to think about the best sequence for presenting that lesson or instruction?

4.4 Definition

Sequencing instruction refers to the systematic planning and logical organization of the teaching activities (such as content and teaching methods) of a lesson in such a way as to help the learner achieve the intended learning goal. The content /instruction should be organised in line with the objectives to be achieved.

Have you ever seen a teacher go to class to teach without any preparation? If so, what was your experience? In your opinion, is it advisable for a teacher to go to class without sequencing instruction? Give reasons. Write the answers in your note book before reading unit 4.4.

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4.5 What sequencing instruction involves?

Sequencing instruction involves :

- use of appropriate teaching and learning strategies.

- taking into account the prior knowledge of the students.

- use of appropriate resources at appropriate time during the lesson.

-teachers arranging their lessons in a manner that will help learners process the

information and retain it for future retrieval/use.

4.6 Importance of sequencing instruction in science lessons

Sequencing instruction is very important for the following reasons:

-It leads to effective teaching on the part of the teacher and meaningful learning among students.

-It reveals the missing parts of the lesson, which the teacher can quickly include.

-It provides teachers with opportunities to examine the structure of their lessons before

presenting to class.

4.7 Things to consider when sequencing instruction.

When sequencing instruction you need to consider the following:

• Pre-instructional activities.

• Information presentation

• Learner participation

• Testing /Assessment

• Follow-through

Let us discuss each one in detail.

(a) Pre-instructional activities

These are things that you need to do to introduce a lesson. They should:

(i) help draw learners’ attention

(ii) motivate learners

(iii) stimulate recall of prior learning (retrieval)

(iv) inform the learner of the objectives of the lesson.

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Therefore, pre-instructional activities should be relevant to the instruction to be presented.

(b) Information presentation

The following guidelines are important for you to deliver meaningful lessons to the learners.

• determine the pre–requisite knowledge which needs to be known by students before the new information is presented.

• It is also important that you begin with the most familiar information before presenting the most.

• Teach the less difficult before the more difficult concepts.

• Begin with the topics or tasks that will create the most learner interest.

• Ensure that the learner has reached the appropriate developmental level before teaching a task or topic

• Determine what information, concepts, rules and principles need to be presented. Avoid giving too much information. Also take into account how to present information to students of different abilities.

(c) Learner participation

Make sure learners will get a chance to participate in your lessons through:

- various activities e.g. class experiments, reading etc.

- Question and answer

- class projects on specific aspects etc

(d)Assessment/Testing

- Assess/Test the learners to find out if they got the information well. This will

elicit performance and will provide feedback .

(e) Follow-up

Follow-ups enhance retention. Therefore, provide various activities for the learners to demonstrate their understanding. These may be pictures of objects on the topic taught with questions for the pupils to answer.

Remember that different types of instruction are required for different learning outcomes. Therefore, in order that learning can occur, specific conditions of learning need to be present. Hence, the need for sequencing instruction.

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4.8 Activity

4.9 Task Analysis

Task analysis can turn a long-term project into a series of simple assignments. 4.10 Definition of Task Analysis

Task analysis is the process of breaking down a given activity into the smallest actions required, called sub tasks(Cini,2012). This process helps students to complete difficult tasks by breaking down a large, seemingly unattainable goal into digestible pieces.

Task analysis is an important part of classroom management, enabling teachers to effectively communicate with students when providing instructions and guidance throughout the day. Therefore, encouraging students to master the skill of task analysis is beneficial as it makes it easier to teach other skill sets such as note-taking, research and time management.

4.11 Use of Task Analysis

Procedure:

o Classroom procedure is a stable model for activities within a given area or with a certain teacher (Cini, 2012). For instance, the classroom procedure for arriving in the morning may be to find a seat and settle in. Task analysis can help students meet this expectation by providing a list of easy-to-follow morning activities. Having clear and specific sub tasks helps students to enjoy the school atmosphere by preventing rowdy behavior and preparing them for upcoming tasks. Tasks can

Using the information in unit 4, answer the following questions:

(i) Briefly describe the role of sequencing of instruction in science lessons.

(ii) State at least four things that a teacher should bear in mind when sequencing instruction for a science class..

(iii) Why is it necessary to test the learners?

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also be designed to make the job of the teacher easier or more efficient, such as instructing students to place homework in an inbox so that you do not have to collect it. Other examples of goals that can be achieved through task analysis include emergency evacuation, going to lunch, playing at recess, working in class and leaving for the day.

Rules

o Classroom rules are statements of expectations held by the teacher regarding conduct in and around the school(Cini, 2012). They may be specific instructions such as "Do not open windows," or more general orders like "Respect your fellow students." Task analysis may also be used to explain general rules to students. For example, the rule about respect may be broken down into gretting your classmates with a smile, holding open the door and being careful not to knock over others' belongings. This process is particularly helpful when working with young or developmentally-challenged students as it provides a checklist for following necessary rules. If infractions occur, task analysis enables the teacher to provide a specific reason for chastisement.

Learning Skills

o Task analysis is often used when selecting in-class and homework assignments, and each activity is intended to develop a particular skill by building on the knowledge previously acquired(Cini, 2012). For example, a student is taught to count to 10, to recognize numbers and quantities, to add visually, to identify mathematical symbols and finally to complete sums. On a smaller scale, every chapter in a school book does the same, leading the student through a series of activities and asking questions to ensure content has been reviewed. As students age, it is crucial to provide them with the autonomy to perform task analysis of lessons on their own. This provides students with an increasing degree of autonomy in regard to their own education. Comprehension of the task analysis process enables an individual to review information, draw conclusions and apply the information to his life.

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4.12 Reflection on concept maps.

4.13 Definition of a concept map

A concept map is a diagram showing the relationships among concepts (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/concept-map). It serves as a way of representing relation between concepts in the same way that a road map represents the locations of high ways and towns, and a circuit diagram represents the workings of an electrical appliance (http://www.ied.edu.hk).

In a concept map, each word or phrase is connected to another and linked back to the original idea, word or phrase. Therefore, a concept map is a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by revealing connections and helping students see how individual ideas form a larger whole.

4. 14 Some types of concept maps

(i) Spider:

This is a concept map organized by placing the central theme or unifying factor in the centre of the map. Outwardly, radiating sub themes surround the centre of the map as shown below:

Electromagnetic

waves. Uses

4Properties

3

Nature

2

.2

Examples

1

Have you ever heard of a concept map? If not, do you have friends around you who have heard about this? If so, what do you or your friends think a concept map is? In which way are concept maps useful to teachers and pupils of science?

Write the answer in your notebook before reading the text in unit 4.13. Then, compare your answer with the on given.

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(ii) Hierarchy :

This is a concept map which presents information in a descending order of importance. The most important information is placed on the top. Distinguishing factors determine the placement of the information. An example is shown below on Light.

(iii) Flow chart :

This is a concept map which organises information in a linear format. An example is shown on energy changes in hydro electric power stations.

(iv) System

This is a concept map which organises information in a format which is similar to a flow chart with addition of ‘INPUTS’ and ‘OUTPUTS’(http://www.aces.uiuc.edu) . An example is shown on energy changes in a nuclear power station.

Light

Reflection Refraction

Two laws Uses Two laws Uses

Potential

energy

Kinetic

energy

Mechanical

energy

Electrical

energy

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4.15 Activity

4.16 Role of concept maps in science

4.16 Role of concept maps

A concept map can be very helpful to both teachers and learners of science for the following reasons.

• If constructed by learners, it helps to present their understanding of interrelated ideas. It also provides insight into the way learners envisage how one thing causes another. • It can be used by a teacher to diagnose or identify alternative /erroneous ideas/ perceptions held by learners, as well as a remedy to these errors. • It can be used to summarise a topic or fundamental concepts • It engages the learner in the construction of knowledge by linking sub concepts to more general and abstract concepts, thus bringing about meaningful learning. • It facilitates pupils’ abilities to solve problems and to answer questions that require application and synthesis of concepts. • It helps pupils to elaborate the conceptual understanding of the theory they already possess especially to recognise and modify those knowledge structures that contain misconceptions, alternative conceptions or frame work ( Novak and Gown, 1982).

1.

Nuclear energy

2.

Heat energy

4.

Electrical energy

3.

Mechanical energy

Use one of the concept maps in unit 4 to summarise a lesson on Logic gates.

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• It has a large positive effect on pupils’ attitudes toward science (ibid: 1984) and increased responsibility for learning. • It allows pupils to draw associations among the main concepts being presented and generates greater retention, application and understanding of concepts. • It stimulates the generation of ideas, and aids creativity. This is why concept mapping is sometimes used for brain storming. • It can be used to communicate complex ideas.

4.17 Activity

4.18 Summary

In unit four, we have looked at sequencing instruction, Task Analysis, concept maps and their role in science teaching. Let us now turn to teaching approaches that you will use to help pupils acquire scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes.

4.19 References and suggested Readings

Cini, S(2012) Classroom uses of Task Analysis. http://www.ehow.com/list_7680603_classroom-uses-task-analysis.html)

http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/concept-map.

(http://www.ied.edu.hk).

(http://www.aces.uiuc.edu)

Construct a concept map that can make it easier for pupils to understand a difficult

topic in your subject area.

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TOPIC 5

APPROACHES FOR TEACHING SCIENCE

5.1 Introduction: There are various approaches you can use to teach science. Some of these are whole class teaching (large group), small group teaching, and individualised teaching. In this unit we will look at the various aspects of each of these approaches in order to enable you to make informed decisions on issues involving organising learners for teaching or appropriate approach to use for a particular lesson.

5.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Give features of whole class teaching • State the merits and demerits of whole class teaching • Describe small group teaching and the role of the teacher • Give the merits and demerits of small group teaching • Describe the merits and demerits of individualised teaching.

5.3 Reflection

5.4 Whole class teaching

According to Capel et al(1995), Whole class teaching is a type of teaching where a teacher handles all the pupils at the same time. It is also called large group teaching and has the following characteristics:

• Pupils seat in rows facing the front of the classroom • Teacher stands in front of the class • Teacher provides information while pupils in the classroom sit quietly and are expected

to listen to the teacher talk

In many of our schools it is common to see a teacher in front of a classroom teaching the class as a whole. The teacher talks while the pupils listen attentively. Sometimes the teacher does a demonstration while the pupils watch. Do you also do this? What is this teaching approach called? Does it have any merits and demerits? Please Explain?

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• Every pupil in the classroom learns the same thing at the same rate.

Advantages:

Whole class teaching has a number of advantages as outlined by Haambokoma(2007) below:

• It is cost efficient in terms of teacher requirement. One teacher can teach a large number of pupils.

• Does not require a large number of learning materials. For example only one textbook is required for the teacher who will provide the information to the pupils

• The teacher just has to say a thing or give instructions once to many pupils (say 50 pupils) instead of saying the same thing 50 times.

• It is ideal when apparatus are not enough

• Class control is easier because pupils are doing the same thing at the same time.

Disadvantages:

Despite the merits above, whole class teaching also has weaknesses (ibid:89) as shown below:

• It does not provide a lot of opportunities to pupils to participate in the learning process. Usually a good number of pupils are passive during whole class teaching.

• It does not take into account the individual differences which exist among pupils in a class. For example some pupils are slow learners while others are fast learners.

• It is difficult to give individual attention to pupils especially those who have difficulties.

• The teacher provides information most of the time and therefore pupils are not encouraged to search for information.

5.5 Activity

At times teachers choose to divide their classes into small groups and then attend to the groups one at a time. Could there be any special reasons for doing this? Please outline the reasons (if any) before you study unit 5.6. Write your answers in the note book.

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5.6 Small class teaching

Small Group teaching Approach refers to a type of teaching where pupils who make up a large class are divided into small groups of about 4-6 learners depending on the size of the class (Callahan,1966; Haambokoma, 2007). The groups may be used for discussion, experiment etc. Groups can be formed using different criteria such as ability, sex, friendship, choice etc. During group work, you are expected to assume the following roles; motivator, facilitator, instructor, questioner, organiser and provider.

This approach has a number of advantages.

Advantages:

According to Haambokoma (2007) and Callahan(1966), the following are some of the advantages of small group teaching:

• It helps pupils to learn to work as a team which is a useful skill in future.

• It enables pupils to learn from each other or assist each other in case of mixed ability grouping.

• It removes much of the personal pressure which some people may feel when presented with a problem.

• It gives chance to a teacher to circulate and give group advice and help.

• It teaches to be self reliant not teacher dependent i.e. pupils becoming more responsible for their own learning.

• It increases pupils’ participation during lessons.

• If the grouping is done according to ability, it gives pupils of the same ability level an opportunity to work at their own pace.

• It enables big tasks to be handled easily by assigning parts of a large task to different groups.

• The contribution of individuals, each with their own strengths can allow the group to work quickly and logically to find a solution.

• It is useful when materials are in short supply.

• The shy pupils may find the courage to participate in small groups.

Disadvantages:

Despite these advantages, small group approach has disadvantages. Some of these are that:

• It is tiresome and time consuming to the teacher who has to prepare various activities for all the groups.

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• In a group, a pupil who is outspoken normally dominates. If others are not careful they may be mislead.

• Some pupils are still passive during small group teaching especially the slow learners. They leave it to their friends to do the work.

• The teacher cannot easily give individual attention to pupils who have difficulties because his or her concentration is on a group.

5.7 Activity

5.8 Individualised teaching

According to Callahan(1966), Individualised teaching is an approach where a teacher provides instructions to pupils individually. Each pupil is given work to do on his or her own at his/her own pace. The teacher gives guidance to pupils individually. Normally the teacher decides the content. A teacher is using individualised approach if she/he gives pupils’ problems in science to do during lessons and individually.

Advantages:

Haambokoma(2007) reported the following advantages of Individualised approach:

(i) It gives chance to pupil’s to learn at their own pace. (ii) It provides an opportunity to pupils to participate in the learning process. (iii) It enables pupils to get help individually from the teacher when they need it. (iv) It helps pupils to learn to be independent and prepares them for examinations where

pupils are expected to work individually (v) It develops initiative in a pupil (vi) It gives the teacher a clear picture of each pupil’s learning progress In spite of these advantages, Individualized approach has some weaknesses (ibid:91) as indicated below: (i) The approach is very demanding on the part of the teacher who is expected to attend to

many pupils individually. The larger the class the more demand on the teacher. (ii) It discourages pupils learning from each other and co-operating during lessons. (iii) It requires a lot of apparatus and learning materials. (iv) Different pupils require different types of help (v) It requires a lot of time to cater for pupils individually unlike in the whole class approach.

Have you ever handled pupils in class as individuals? If so, what was good about that teaching approach? Did you have any challenges? Please explain.

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5.9 Activity

5.10 Summary

This unit has discussed three main approaches commonly used for teaching science and all of them are very beneficial to learners. Unit six discusses Teaching Strategies.

5.11 References and suggested readings

Callahan, S.G.,1966. Successful Teaching in Secondary Schools, Scott, Foresman and Company. London.

Haambokoma, C., 2007. Module EDS 51. Teaching Science. Science teaching methods. Zambia Open University.ISBN.

Reflect on the following questions and write notes in your note book.

(i) What is a teaching approach?

(ii) State three teaching approaches.

(iii) Briefly describe any two of the named approaches in (ii)

(iv) Discuss Pair work as a teaching strategy. State two merits and two demerits of

this teaching approach.

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UNIT 6

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING SCIENCE

6.1 Introduction: In this unit we will look at selected strategies for teaching science. The term strategies here means procedures, activities or experiences teachers use in order to bring about pupil learning (i.e. means used to enable a pupil acquire scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes). Teaching strategies can also be called teaching methods or teaching techniques. After the objectives below, we will examine four selected teaching strategies that you will use to enable your pupils attain the desired learning outcomes during science lessons. These are: Discussion, Role play, Practical work and Field trip.

6.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain what a teaching strategy is.

• list down some strategies which can be used to teach science effectively.

• give a description of each strategy as well as their advantages and disadvantages.

• describe factors which influence choice of teaching strategy to use during a particular

lesson.

6.3 Reflection

6.4 Discussion method

A discussion method is a teaching strategy which involves pupils sharing ideas, view points and information so as to understand material being taught or learnt.

According to Mahaye (2000) and Haambokoma(2007), a discussion can take different forms, namely: Class discussion (a discussion involving participation of all learners in a class). Small

Let your pupils find out from each other why objects of the same mass have more weight on Earth than on the Moon. What kind of teaching strategy are you using?

42

group discussion (a class is divided into small groups and then a discussion takes place in small groups).

Panel discussion (a panel of 4-5 pupils) discusses a topic in front of the class and then answers questions from the rest of the pupils in class .

Brain storming session (teacher poses a problem to pupils and asks them to provide ideas on how to solve it.

Debate (two groups putting forward opposing view points)

Advantages:

According to Haambokoma (2007) and Gage(1963), this strategy has the following advantages:

• It provides pupils with opportunities to air ideas they have on a topic. This enables the teacher know pupils’ ideas and misconceptions and then helps accordingly.

• It enables pupils to participate in the learning process.

• It enables pupils to exchange ideas or information they read from different sources. In this way, pupils learn from different sources rather than from one source only ( teacher ).

• It holds pupils’ attention much longer than the lecture method because pupils are actively involved.

• It provides opportunity for the teacher to reinforce or praise pupils for their contributions. As pointed out earlier on, reinforcement is important for facilitating learning.

• Research findings have shown that discussion method is a more effective method for transmitting knowledge.

• Research findings also show that material learnt through discussion method can be retained longer than material learnt through lecture method.

• It stimulates pupils to think. Thus it promotes thinking.

• It enables pupils to achieve higher level cognitive objectives such as those of synthesis, analysis and evaluation levels.

• It enables pupils to improve their communication skills (pupils become more articulate).

• Very useful for developing and changing pupils’ attitudes

• It encourages learners to look for information on their own instead of depending on the teacher.

• It gives pupils opportunity to develop self-confidence as they learn to present and defend their views.

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• It may stimulate pupils’ interest in a subject.

• It provides co-operative learning.

Disadvantages:

Capel et al(1995) and Haambokoma(2007) showed that when the discussion method is used to teach pupils,

• Coverage of syllabus is slow

• It is difficult to manage a large class

• Pupils may not have adequate knowledge to contribute to the discussion

• It is difficult to keep the discussion to the point

• It may be noisy.

Their advice is that in order to ensure a successful discussion, the teacher should consider the following issues carefully:

• The topic of discussion should be interesting and within the ability of pupils to discuss

• The issue of discussion should be relevant to the lives of pupils i.e. it should concern them.

• Pupils should be given adequate time to prepare themselves (search for relevant information).

• Sitting arrangement must be appropriate for discussion session (it is important that pupils should be able to see each other when discussing).

• Before the discussion, pupils must be reminded of conduct to be observed.

6.5 Activity

In Zambian high schools, it is not common today to find teachers using the discussion method to teach science, and yet this teaching strategy is highly recommended. What has gone wrong? Discuss with colleagues.

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6.6 Reflection

6.7 Role play

Haambokoma (2007) defines Role play as a dramatic presentation of a problematic situation arising from conflicting views, interest or values. When this strategy is used, pupils are asked to imagine that they are another person in a particular situation. They are then asked to behave and speak exactly as they feel that person would. Individual pupils or groups of pupils could be asked to play roles such as a Farmer, Doctor, Chief, Accountant , Engineer, Physicist etc . Any situations involving multiple group conflicts is appropriate for role playing. The teacher should ensure that the role play is analysed and related to the intended learning outcome. This teaching method has merits and demerits.

Advantages:

According to Capel(1995) and Haambokoma (2007) the advantages of role-play are that:

• It is effective in motivating pupils if it is well organised.

• It can enable pupils relate what they learn in the classroom to the real situation outside the classroom.

• It is good for conveying information and facts.

• It is appropriate for teaching controversial issues.

• Learning is both very active and interactive.

• It stimulates oral participation and involvement.

• It is useful for developing and changing pupils attitudes.

• It promotes group learning and cooperation.

• It narrows the gap between the classroom and everyday life.

• It encourages pupils to think and search for information.

Despite these advantages, this teaching strategy has some disadvantages, as tabulated below.

Have you (or any of your fellow teachers ) involved pupils in role play? If so, before reading unit 6.7, describe in your own words what role play is(as a teaching strategy). Write the answer in your note book. Then, compare it with the description in unit 6.7.

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Disadvantages:

• It can be threatening especially for the shy pupils

• It needs careful preparation

• It may be difficult to manage

• It consumes too much time

6.8 Practical work

Practical instructional mode is a kind of teaching in which a teacher encourages pupils to be involved in practical activities for purposes of learning i.e. acquiring of knowledge, skills and attitudes(Gage,1963; Haambokoma, 2007). Many of the activities carried out by pupils are experiments. These experiments may either be investigative (experiments done to find a solution to a problem) or illustrative (experiments done to prove or illustrate what the teacher has said or taught). There are two types of investigative experiments, namely: Structured investigative experiments, where pupils are given some guidance on how to carry out the experiment but the solution is not given to them; Unstructured investigative experiments ,which are those where only a problem is posed to pupils and they have to decide how to carry out the experiment. Below are the advantages and disadvantages of practical work.

Advantages:

Gage (1963), Capel et al (1995) and Haambokoma (2007) showed that participation in experimental work can help pupils to:

• Acquire knowledge and understanding of science by exploring phenomena through carrying out experiments.

• Acquire skills in designing experiments/investigations e.g. identifying variables to change or control.

• Develop manipulative skills through carrying out experiments and handling apparatus and chemicals.

• Learn science through ‘doing’ making learning more meaningful.

• Develop ability to follow instructions

• Participate in the learning process.

• Develop interest in science because of active participation.

• Develop skills such as measuring, observing, recording observations, interpreting data, drawing conclusions and communicating results.

• Develop science attitudes such as curiosity, precision, perseverance, etc.

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• Develop problem solving skills (defining the problem, researching for possible solutions, considering a number of solutions, choosing promising solutions, planning and designing investigations, carrying out investigation.

Disadvantages:

On the other hand, they indicated that though the practical method has many advantages, it is:

• Time consuming

• Expensive in terms of materials to use such as chemicals, apparatus etc.

• Dangerous sometimes.

Having examined what practical activities are, their advantages and disadvantages , let us now turn to how you can improve your teaching of science through conducting of practical work.

According to Haambokoma(2007),this can be done by:

• Informing the pupils of the purpose of the work

• Telling the pupils what they have to do . The instructions should be clear and in a correct sequence.

• Supervising pupils closely enough to identify those having problems as well as to avoid accidents.

• Asking questions which help to lessen difficulties

• Asking questions which guide pupils through the experiment

• Encouraging active participation in the lessons

• Only helping when it is necessary

6.9 Activity

Take pupils out of the classroom to any place, to observe objects of your choice. What teaching strategy are you using? What are its merits and demerits?

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6.10 Field Trip

A Field trip is a type of instructional strategy where by pupils are taken out of their classroom to visit places of interest for purposes of learning through direct exposure - pupils taken out of their normal learning situation to a ‘real- life ‘ situation (Haambokoma, 2007). It can also be called an instructional trip and it has a number of advantages.

Advantages:

Callahan(1966) and Haambokoma(2007) showed that a Field trip:

• adds variety i.e. it breaks the monotony of being in class all the time. • makes the learning of some topics more relevant and real • provides first hand learning experience • makes learning more meaningful and lasting • may permit pupils to observe and study something which cannot be brought into the classroom • may cultivate interest in pupils especially those who may not like being in class all the time.

6.11 Reflection

6.12 Factors which influence choice of teaching strategy So far we have looked at teaching strategies and have seen that they are many. You are not likely to use all these during a single science lesson or even in a week of teaching science. In a lesson, you may use only one, two or three of them. Therefore, in every lesson you need to make a choice of the teaching strategy or strategies to be used. Haambokoma (2007), lists some of the factors you need to consider when choosing a teaching strategy as follows:

• Objectives: Ensure that the strategy chosen is appropriate to lesson objectives. If not

it may not help the pupils to achieve what you want. • Nature of pupils: Bear in mind the ability of the individual pupils who constitute the

class and their attention span. • Size of the group: Consider the size of the group or number of pupils. For example,

for 10 pupils, a practical would be ideal because they would not need too many pieces of apparatus but if the number is too big, alternative strategies may be of more help.

Is it necessary for you to use all the teaching strategies in every single lesson? If not, which factors should influence choice of your teaching strategy?

Discuss these factors with colleagues before reading unit 6.12.

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• Participation: Ensure that the strategy chosen will provide opportunities for active learning (active involvement of pupils in the learning process).

• Content: Some strategies are more suitable to teach topics pupils are familiar with than others and so this factor (content) has to be considered when choosing a teaching strategy.

• Interest of pupils: You need to consider how interested the pupils are in the subject or topic because interest is an important pre-requisite to learning.

• Materials: The materials that are available also help the teacher to determine which strategy to use. But where need be, you should improvise.

• Time: Consider the amount of time available. Some strategies require more time than others.

• Teacher’s skills: It is important for a teacher to consider his or her ability to effectively implement a particular strategy during a lesson. It is not good for a teacher to choose a strategy one cannot easily use. I am sure this will not be the case with you when you finish the course.

6.13 Activity

6.14 Summary

Unit six has explained what teaching strategies are, including some examples. It has described each strategy in detail and has given a number of advantages and disadvantages. Finally it has outlined the factors which influence choice of teaching strategy to use during a particular science lesson. The unit that follows (7) describes a syllabus. 6.15 References and suggested readings Capel, S., M. Leask and T. Turner.,1995. Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. Routledge.

London.

The following are the factors that influence choice of a teaching method: Objectives, Nature

of pupils, Size of the group, Participation, Content, Interest of pupils, Materials, Time and

Teachers’ skills. Briefly explain how each of these factors may influence the choice of your

teaching method on ‘Machines’.

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Gage, N.L., 1963. Handbook of Research on Teaching. Rand Mc Nally and Company, Chicago.

Haambokoma, C., 2007. Module EDS 51. Teaching Science. Science teaching methods. Zambia

Open University.ISBN.

Mahaye, A.T., 2000. Teaching methods. In Monica Jacobs, Ngabomzi Gawe and Ntombizolile

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UNIT 7

SYLLABUS

7.1 Introduction

In contemporary literature there is a general confusion over the meaning of the terms “syllabus” and “curriculum”. This unit will make a clarification between the two so that the meaning of the term syllabus remains clear before you look at its purpose and components.

7.2 Objectives:

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Define the term syllabus • State the purpose/function of a syllabus • Describe the components of a syllabus • Describe the School Certificate Science Syllabus

7.3 Reflections:

7.4 Definition of Syllabus

A syllabus is “A plan for a course which shows the teacher in broad outline what aspects of his/her particular subject are to be covered yearly”. It can also be defined as a document which contains a series of statements of what is to be taught /learnt in a given subject yearly.

On the other hand, Curriculum is a broad term which means the learning students experience in schools.Farlex (2012) defines it asthe courses of study offered by an educational institution. It is concerned with planning, implementation, evaluation, management and administration of education programmes.

Have you ever used a syllabus? If so what is it? How is it different from a Curriculum?

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• This means that a syllabus is part of the school curriculum but curriculum may not be part of the syllabus.

7.5 Two types of Syllabus

There are two types of syllabi. In Zambia these are prepared by the Curriculum Development

Centre.

i. Examinations Syllabus

This specifies areas where questions for the final examinations will come from. In Zambia It is

handled by the Examinations Council of Zambia and is used purely for the purpose of

examinations.

ii. Teaching syllabus

This shows all topics learners are supposed to cover, whether examinable or not. It is

handled by teachers and is used for teaching all topics whether examinable or not.

7.6 Purposes/functions of a syllabus

A syllabus :

• Serves as a guide of what is to be taught • Serves as a guide of the extent/depth to which material should be taught • Ensures that same things are covered countrywide • Guides examiners on what is to be included in the examination papers, etc.

7.7 Components of a Syllabus

Some of the components of a syllabus are:

• Grade level • Content to be covered • Notes on Resources (recommended books, apparatus etc) • Learning objectives • Suggested teaching strategies (common in lower grades). • Assessment strategies

However, a syllabus does not specify the time per topic and the order in which the topics should be taught.

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7.8 Format of the Zambian School Certificate Science Syllabus

The table below shows the format of the Zambian School Certificate Science Syllabus with some content on machines in physics(as an example).

CONTENT OBJECTIVES (PSBAT:) NOTES 1.0 Simple machines 1.1 Explain what is meant

by a simple machine.

Include levers, pulleys, Inclined plane and gear wheels.

1.2 Describe the different

types of simple

machines. 1.3 Calculate the MA, VR

and efficiency of

machines.

7.9 Activity

Go through the Zambian School Certificate syllabus for biology, chemistry and

physics. Write down any similarities and differences. Share your findings with

colleagues.

7.10 Summary

In this unit you looked at the syllabus, its definition, purpose and components. In the next Unit you shall look at the Scheme of work.

7.11 References and suggested Readings Nunan, D.(1988), Syllabus design. Oxford University Press.

Farlex (2012) The Free Dictionary. www.thefreedictionary.com/curriculum

Curriculum Development Centre (2000) Physics high school syllabus. Lusaka. Zambia.

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TOPIC 8

THE SCHEME OF WORK

8.1 Introduction

Although a syllabus guides instructors on what to teach, it is important for teachers to scheme the work so that they can monitor progress against the original plan. In this unit you will learn about schemes of work, their purpose, components and preparation.

8.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define a scheme of work

• State the purpose/functions of a scheme of work

• Describe the components of a scheme of work

• Prepare a scheme of work

8.3 Reflection

Some teachers plan their work in advance i.e they plan what they will teach per week for a term or the whole year. Could there be any good reasons for doing this? Discuss with colleagues and indicate some of the reasons in your note book.

We want to build on the reasons you have given and highlight what others consider to be the value of a scheme of work in a classroom. We hope you will have a clearer understanding of the importance of a scheme of work by the time we get to the end of this unit.

8.4 Definition of a scheme of work A scheme of work is a guideline that defines the structure and content of a course (Wikipedia, 2008). It maps out clearly how resources (e.g. books, equipment, time) and class activities (e.g. teacher-talk, group work, practical, discussions) and assessment strategies (e.g. tests, quizzes) will be used to ensure that the learning aims and objectives of the course are met successfully. It will normally include dates. The scheme of work is usually an interpretation of a specification or syllabus and can be used as a guide throughout the course to monitor progress against the original plan.

8.5 Purposes/functions of a scheme of work

A scheme of work:

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• Provides a guide to the teacher on what is he/she is going to teach • Enables the school or department to cater for individual differences of learners with

special educational needs • Ensures continuity of the lessons • Enables teachers of different subjects to coordinate

8.6 Components of a scheme of work The format of a scheme of work may vary from school to school but the key parts of a "scheme of work" include (a column for) each of the following:

Week number Date Content Objectives or Outcomes Methods of delivery (student and teacher activity) Assessment strategies Resources Other Remarks

8.7 Preparing a scheme of work

As already stated, A scheme of work is your plan of what you will teach during every lesson throughout the term or academic year. It is a vital and useful document which you will need to produce. As you do so, consider the following:

• The syllabus in order to see the number of topics to be taught in a year • The time required to cover the topics above • The materials required(reference books, apparatus, chemicals etc) • Ability of the pupils in class • The season of the year when topics will be taught • The availability of teachers • Teaching methods to be used for each topic • Orderly sequence

Tips

If you are writing a scheme of work for the first time:

• Check if your school has a blank form of a scheme of work. They may have a special way they like the schemes of work to be laid out, and/or have a template available. This will make your life easier.

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• Check other people's schemes of work. Ideally, look at a scheme of work left by your predecessor, but if one isn't available, look at a colleague's scheme of work.

• If creating a scheme of work on a computer from scratch, then create a word document and put a table in it, or create a spreadsheet. Give yourself the required number of columns.

• Begin by breaking down the year’s material into chunks. How many sections do you need to teach? Allow yourself a couple of weeks at the end for revision and assessment - or games. Allow a week at the start for introductory stuff.

• Break a section down into further chunks. E.g. you might break down a physics section on Electronics into the following chunks:

*Thermionic emission

*Components used in electronic circuits

*Logic gates

*Multivibrator circuits

• Decide how long you'll need for each of these chunks. If the above section is lasting one term, then you would have about 2-3 weeks per chunk.

• Now within each chunk, decide what lessons you could do. Try to offer a variety of practical, theoretical, group work, single work, and teacher-led work. For the chunk on Thermionic emission, you might have: o Meaning of Thermionic emission o Detailed explanation of thermionic emission o Use of Thermionic emission in the Cathode ray oscilloscope

• Do this for every chunk, and for every module, and fill in the bare bones into the 'Lesson content' column on your document.

• Now think about what resources you'll need. Textbooks? Large paper and felt tips? Computers? Write these in the Resources column.

• Don't forget that you are trying to promote equality and diversity through your teaching, and include how you will do that across the sessions on your course (e.g. cross-cultural case studies; balanced examples from various cultures, including disabled people and a balance of genders).

• The assessment column can be filled with how you will know, after each lesson, that the information has sunk in. This may be through Q&A, written tests, by reading their posters, or by listening in to their conversations.

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Example of a (blank form of a) Scheme of work

Week Date Content/Topic Objectives References,

Teaching Aids/materials etc

Methods of teaching

Evaluation

(Assignments, tests, Projects etc)

8.8 Activity

Using the format of the scheme of work above, write a detailed scheme of work for a term in your subject area to be presented to the HOD for checking. Discuss the document with any reliable colleague possibly in the same field.

8.9 Summary

This Unit was on the Scheme of work. The unit that follows is on

8.10 References and suggested Readings

Wikipedia (2008), The scheme of work. At http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheme_of_work

The Standards Site(2012)Welcome to Schemes of Work. webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090608182316/.../schemes3/

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UNIT 9

LESSON PLAN

9.1 Introduction

Since the time you started school, you have been handled by so many teachers. Some looked organised and impressed you while others did not. Why did some teachers look disorganised and fail to perform well? This unit describes one important thing which effective teachers always do. This is lesson planning. The unit explains what a Lesson plan is, its purpose, components and format.

9.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Define a lesson plan

• State the purpose of a lesson plan

• Describe the components of a lesson plan

• Prepare a lesson plan

9.3 Reflection

9.4 Definition

A lesson plan can be defined in different ways. Vandila defines it as “ A written outline of what is intended to take place in a class when a teacher presents a selected science content or process to a group of pupils whose purpose is to learn.”

Imagine an inexperienced teacher going to teach science without planning his work. Write down some of the things that may happen in class? What is a lesson plan? How important is a lesson plan in the delivery of science lessons?

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9.5 Purpose of a lesson plan

A well prepared lesson plan is a key to successful teaching and learning. Many lessons have literally fallen apart because of ineffective planning or no planning at all. A lesson plan serves as a guide to effective instruction as it guides the teacher in a manner that a map directs a tourist or a traveller. It indicates what a teacher is going to teach, how he is going to teach it and how the teacher will know whether or not the pupils have learnt what was taught.

9.6 Components of a science lesson plan

A science lesson plan should have each of the following:

9.6.1 General information

This should be at the top of the lesson plan. It should include:

A. Name of the teacher and school B. Grade and name of the class to be taught C. Number of pupils in the class D. Subject and topic to be taught E. Date and time when the lesson is to be taught F. Duration of the lesson G. Place where the lesson will take place

9.6.2 Lesson Objectives

Lesson objectives should be clearly stated in terms of what the learners should be able to do

or perform after receiving appropriate instruction. They must be complete instructional

objectives; levels of cognitive objectives must be indicated.

9.6.3 Pre-requisites

Skills and/or knowledge that pupils should have prior to the lesson must be stated (may be in

form of objectives).

9.64 Resources

Teaching aids, apparatus, equipment etc to be used in the lesson must be stated. Both materials

required by the teacher and pupils should be stated.

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9.6.5 References

Sources of the information in developing the lesson plan must be given. e.g. Textbooks, manuals etc. These should include names of authors and titles of books.

9.6.6 Teaching strategy

A brief listing of the teaching strategies, procedures, groupings etc. to be used during the

presentation should be done.

9.6.7 Lesson introduction

A lesson should have an introduction. The introduction to the lesson must be short, stimulating and aimed at capturing the attention of the class for the lesson at hand. It should involve all the pupils in the class.

There are two possible ways of introducing a lesson. These are:

A. Review (i) Ask pupils questions on what they did before.

(ii) Teacher reviews to the class what they learnt in the previous lesson.

B.Use Mind capture i.e. something that work will draw pupil’s attention and interest.

For example, you can:

(i) Tell a relevant story (ii) Pose a problem (iii) Do a demonstration (iv) Show an appropriate film, video, slide, photo, specimen.

The introduction section in the lesson plan should show what the teacher will be doing and what the pupils will be doing. i.e. teacher and pupil activities.

Apart from gaining attention, the introduction should function like Ausubel’s advance organiser in preparing the pupil for what is to follow including stimulating recall of pre-requisite information.

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9.6.8 Lesson development/Progression

This is the main part of a lesson. It should describe the activities of the teacher and pupil’s activities while teaching/learning is going on. This part of the lesson plan should have its body divided into 4 columns ( content/skills, teacher activities, pupil activities and time estimate ).

A. The content/skill column should show the subject matter to be learnt.

B. The teacher activities column should show what the teacher will be doing at each stage of the lesson. e.g. demonstrating, giving notes, asking questions. The questions to be asked should be written.

C. the pupil activities column should show the activities in which pupils will be engaged at each stage of the lesson. e.g. will they be answering questions, drawing, performing an experiment, copying, discussing.

D. The time estimate column should show the estimated duration for each activity during the lesson.

Note

It is important for you to note that each lesson must be pupil centred; pupils should as much as possible be engaged in some activities on each lesson. Pupils learn better when they are actively involved in the learning process. The activities should foster development of scientific processes/skills, en route to mastering the desired content.

9.6.9 Lesson Evaluation

A lesson plan should also have an evaluation section where the teacher finds out whether the

pupils have learnt the topic taught. The evaluation should tell you (the teacher) if the pupils

have mastered the objectives.

Lesson evaluation can be done by asking pupils a few review questions towards the end of the

lesson followed by home-work ( a follow up).

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9.6.10 Self-Evaluation

This refers to your own assessment of your teaching; Was your teaching effective, meaningful, interesting etc. Could there be suggestions for improvement? If so indicate whatever is required.

FORMAT OF A SCIENCE LESSON PLAN

NAME: SCHOOL:_________________________

GRADE: CLASS: NUMBER OF PUPILS: .

SUBJECT: TOPIC: .

DATE: TIME: DURATION:________________

LOCATION:________________________________________________________________

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

PRE-REQUISITES:

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RESOURCES:

REFERENCES:

TEACHING STRATEGIES:

LESSON INTRODUCTION:

TEACHER ACTIVITIES PUPIL ACTIVITIES TIME ESTIMATE

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LESSON DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT/SKILLS TEACHER ACTIVITIES

PUPIL

ACTIVITIES

TIME

ESTIMATE

LESSON EVALUATION:

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SELF-EVALUATION:

LESSON NOTES:

A lesson plan must be accompanied by lesson notes. This may include charts, diagrams, detailed notes which could not be accommodated in the lesson progression part of the lesson plan, and detailed laboratory instructions. Lesson plans notes the memory of a teacher. Notes must be short.

9.7 Activity

9.8 Summary

This unit focused on a lesson plan, its meaning, purpose, components and preparation. Unit 10 looks at Records of work.

9.9 Reference and suggested readings

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2012), Lesson Plan. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_plan

Serdyukov, P and M, Ryan (2008), Writing Effective Lesson Plans: The 5-Star Approach. Allyn & Bacon. Boston.

Salsbury, D.E., and S.Melinda(2008). Lesson Planning: A Research-Based Model for K-12 Classrooms. Prentice Hall, Alexandria.

Skowron, J (2006), Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teachers Guide to Effective Instruction. Corwin Press. Thousand Oaks CA.

Tileston, D. E.(2003), What Every Teacher Should Know About Instructional Planning ,Corwin Press, 2003. Thousand Oaks CA.

Shoshana,W (2006), Your Best Year Yet! A Guide to Purposeful Planning and Effective Classroom Organization (Teaching Strategies). New York.

Prepare a lesson plan that should help to deliver a difficult topic in science to a grade 12 class effectively.

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LESSON 10

RECORDS OF WORK

10.1 Introduction

At the end of every lesson, it is important to keep a record of the work done. There are various reasons why this is done. This unit describes the purpose and components of a record of work.

10.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define a record of work

• State the purpose of a record of work

• Describe the components of a record of work

• Prepare a record of work

10.3 Reflections

All teachers are expected to keep a record of work that has been done with the pupils. Could you think of any three reasons why this is so. Discuss the reasons with colleagues.

I shall build on the answers you will give to provide more reasons. This will help you to appreciate the role of Records of work in science teaching

10.4 Definition of a record of work

A record of work refers to a written account of the work done in class that is kept by the teacher (Hornby, 2010). It is prepared by the teacher and is normally checked by the Head of department fortnightly (every after two weeks). After the HOD has checked, it goes to the Head of a school for further checking, stamping and signature.

10.5 Purpose of a record of work

Some of the reasons for recording work are:

• To cover yourself up because from the record, the Head and HOD will know that you are attending to your classes.

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• To help any teacher who takes over from you to know where you ended and continue from there

• To know if you are teaching a class at a right pace

• To get reminded of any previous challenges on certain topics so that in future you handle them better

• To make the HOD and in turn the Head of a school aware of any difficulties you have i.e

pupil indiscipline, lack of laboratories, lack of pieces of apparatus, disturbances in schools etc so that you work hand in hand to solve such.

10.6 Components of a record of work The format of a record of work may vary from school to school but the key elements of a record of work include the following:

Week number Date Work done Evaluation(Tests, Homework, Project etc) Teacher’s short comments HOD’s remarks

10.7 Preparing a record of work

When preparing a record of work ensure that all the above elements are included. An example is shown below.

Chalawanga High school

Subject____________________ Year_______ Term_____ Class_____ Teacher______________

Week Date Work done Evaluation(Tests, Homework, Project etc)

Teacher’s short comments

HOD’s remaks

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10.8 Activity

Using the format of the record of work above, write a detailed record of work on a challenging topic in your subject area to be presented to the HOD and Head of the school. Discuss the document with any reliable colleague possibly in the same field.

10.9 Summary

Unit 10 was on the record of work. The last Unit in this module discusses Assessment.

10.10 Reference and suggested Readings

Hornby, A.S(2010)Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Uxford University Press.United Kingdom.

www.scribd.com/doc/.../Importance-of-Record-Keeping-in-Schools

www.developingteachers.com/tips/pasttips112.htm wiki.answers.com›...›Literature&Language›BooksandLiterature

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UNIT 11

MONITORING LEARNING OF SCIENCE

11.1 Introduction: As you teach your pupils, it is important to know how they are progressing, their strengths and weaknesses, their ability levels and how best they need to be taught. Whenever you examine them or evaluate their work, you are monitoring learning. In this unit we shall look at how to monitor learning in science. We will examine some methods of monitoring learning and how monitoring can improve teaching and learning of this subject.

11.2 Objectives:

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• State some methods of monitoring learning of science • Describe how the teaching of science can be improved through monitoring.

11.3 Reflection

11.4 Reasons for monitoring pupils.

There are several reasons why you as a teacher should monitor pupils.

According to Capel et al(1995), monitoring should be done:

• to motivate learners

• to motivate teachers

• to measure or control standards

• to check learning out comes against teaching objectives

• to diagnose and create a rank order of students

Some teachers find it difficult to examine or evaluate pupils’ work regularly. They complain that the classes are too big for them to do the monitoring. While their complaint may be genuine, do you think this can help improve the teaching of science? If not, give reasons for your answer. Then, compare your answers with those provided in unit 11.4.

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• to diagnose learning needs and learning difficulties

• to find out and report, what children know, understand and can

do.

• to derive quantitative data on which to base comparisons of

schools.

• to select students

• to support children in their learning.

11.5 Techniques of monitoring learners

There are a variety of monitoring techniques you may use to monitor the progress of pupils. Some of these techniques are:

• Pupil assignments and worksheets/work books • Questionnaires and interviews • Direct observation (structured or unstructured) • Practical tests • Conventional tests etc

(a) Pupil assignments and worksheets/workbooks You can give your pupils an assignment for research either at the beginning or at the end of a topic (Muzumara,2008). After a stipulated period of time they bring the answers for marking or discussion. Many teachers find this method of gathering information very appropriate. Pupils are usually kept abreast with what they are learning through these assignments and at the same time they develop process skills such as communicating as they share ideas, researching as they endeavour to look for solutions to the tasks given and problem solving skills, as they analyse their findings through research. (b)Questionnaires and interviews A lot of information can be obtained through the use of questionnaires and interviews. Both methods are used to collect similar data. Of the two techniques, questionnaires are usually more structured than interviews and can easily be quantified. On the other hand interviews generally offer more flexibility. Both methods have a number of limitations. Pupils may hesitate to give correct responses if the responses are likely to embarrass them. Pupils may respond to impress or amuse the teacher rather than being factual and truthful. However, the major advantage of the two methods of collecting data is that they provide a means of determining attitudes. According to Muzumara (2008), the two methods have advantages over each other as indicated below.

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(i) Advantages of questionnaires over interviews • They are usually less time consuming both for the assessor and

the respondent • They are usually less costly • Respondents can provide answers at their convenient time. • They are usually anonymous and hence respondents may try to

be frank

(ii)Advantages of interviews over questionnaires

• Questions can be rephrased or repeated to suit the interviewee • Contradictory responses can be clarified there and then • Additional questions may be included to further clarify some points. • Reading difficulties, which respondents may encounter with questionnaires,

are eliminated. • A better sample is likely to be picked for the interview to provide the needed

Information.

(c)Direct observation (structure or unstructured)

Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place (Kumar,1999:105). Teachers of science can use this method to see how the pupils interact with each other in a group and with any given intervention particularly during laboratory activities.

11.6 Activity

State some types of tests that you can remember.

• Which type is the easiest to set?

• Which type is the easiest to mark?

• Which type can easily be affected by your mood as an examiner?

Explain your answer to the last question.

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11.7 Tests

Of the many monitoring devices, tests are by far the most commonly used measuring techniques in science (Muzumara, 2008). Many science teachers find it easy to use tests to measure the effectiveness of their instruction and how pupils are progressing in science. However, tests may be limited to measuring performance and achievement in the content or process areas and not attitudes in science. Tests can only measure limited learning outcomes even in both content and processes of science. There are various types of tests. Let us look at some of these, their merits and demerits.

(i)Multiple choice tests:

According to Schofield(1972) and Muzumara(2008), the following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of multiple choice tests:

Advantages

• They test a wide range of abilities. • They are easy to mark • They can be answered in a short time • The effect of guessing can be minimised

• They cover a wide range of the syllabus objectives

The list that follows shows some disadvantages of multiple choice tests.

Disadvantages of multiple choice tests

• They are difficult to set at higher ability levels

• They usually involve a lot of reading by pupils

• They take a lot of time to set

• There is little opportunity for pupils to display extra knowledge

In constructing a multiple choice test the following guidelines should be considered (Schofield,1972; Capel et al, 1995; Muzumara, 2008):

• To reduce the pupils’ probability of guessing the correct answer the number of choices should not be less than four

• Incorrect choices should not be absurd or obviously incorrect • Correct choices should usually be about the same length as the incorrect

choices • Correct choices should not be either consistently longer or shorter than

incorrect choices • Correct choices should differ from the incorrect choices in meaning • Each question should be independent of other questions • Sentence structure should be as simple as possible

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• Correct answers should follow a random pattern • Direction to the pupils must be clear and understandable • Choices should be lettered • Each choice should be on a separate line • Instructions to the pupils should be very clear as to how they are to express

answers i.e. underline or circle the letter of your choice, place answer in the blank provided, tick the letter with the correct answer etc

• Avoid including answers like “none of the above”, or “A and B together ”, “l don’t know” or “ all of the above”

• Marking keys should be prepared before the test is administered

(ii)Essay type tests :

Essay type test is one of the oldest forms of tests in science teaching and also one of the most commonly used in schools. In answering questions the pupil is expected to spend time to analyse the question, list the main points of his answer and compose the answer in a logical sequence. In composing answers the pupil is expected to integrate information from a variety of sources. According to Schofield (1972), essay type tests have the following advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages of Essay type tests

• They encourage pupils to be creative in writing style.

• They reduce the possibility of cheating and guessing .

• They encourage good study habits e.t.c

Disadvantages of Essay type tests

• Good questions are difficult to write .

• They take a lot of time to mark.

• Some times it is difficult to mark some scripts due to poor

hand writing.

• They have low reliability because of subjectivity of marking .

• The marker tends to carry some impression from one paper

to another.

• The mood of the grader may affect marking

• They have low validity

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11.8 Activity

When marking an essay type test it is advisable that:-

• you avoid looking at pupils’ names .

• you mark one question for every pupil first then go back to

the next one and so forth.

• you write complete answers to all questions or indicate

values for each point before you start marking.

• avoid being biased against pupils whose hand writing is

poor.

• where possible let more than one marker read the papers.

(iii) Completion Tests

These are tests which consist of incomplete sentences. Pupils are asked to complete a statement by filling in appropriate words or phrases or to complete sentences.

Muzumara (2008) they have the following merits and demerits

Advantages:

• guessing is reduced to a minimum

• it demands recall with item recognition

• it can sample a wide area of topic

Disadvantages:

• it doesn’t give the pupil opportunity to think .

• it takes time to mark compared to multiple choice .

Sometimes teachers do not award the pupils the marks they deserve in essay type tests. Give some reasons for this and how it can be avoided so that the learners are graded accordingly.

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• test items are difficult to construct

(iv) Matching item tests

In this type of tests the pupil is given a parallel list of items; One containing structures or phrases, the other response alternatives . The pupil is requested to match items in the two lists. Usually, you will match things like names and dates, places and events, or words and definitions.

According to Knight (1993) the advantages of matching item tests are:

• marking can be objective and a large sample of questions may be

used.

• they are easy to mark

• they can be answered in a short time

• they are easy to score

Disadvantages of matching item tests

• the tests measure both memory and retention of knowledge. They

should measure only one of these.

• they usually test facts

• pupils do not have the opportunity to display extra knowledge

• pupils’ thinking abilities are limited to the items given in the question

(Muzumara, 2008; Scholefied,1972).

In constructing matching item tests the following guidelines should be followed:

• for each question the basic idea of matching should be indicated

clearly.

• more responses than needed should be given .

• items should be listed in a topical, alphabetical or chronological order.

(v)Practical Tests

Practical tests aim to measure pupils manipulative abilities which fall into five categories as shown (Muzumara, 2008; Carpel, 1995):

(i) skills in manipulating apparatus, chemicals or specimen.

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(ii) skills in carrying out an experiment i.e. observing and accurately recording

observations

(iii) ability to analyse and interpret data.

(iv) ability to write an experimental report: i.e. stating the aim , procedure , data analysis,

conclusions ,and recommendation

(v) skill to draw fully labelled diagrams of apparatus or objects used in the experiments.

They have a number of advantages and disadvantages as shown below.

Advantages

• it is easy to test a wide variety of practical skills

• pupils can be assessed over many practical activities thus eliminating

the problem of a chance failure or success .

• They are best carried out in a non-stressful environment.

Disadvantages

• they are expensive to administer

• there’s a possibility of accident

• they are time consuming

• unless, well planned, they may not be used for measuring skills.

(vi)True and False Tests:

A true - false test consists of a statement and pupils are requested to indicate whether the statement is true or false (Muzumara, 2008).

The letters T capital for true and F for false are placed next to each statement. The pupil response is indicated by either placing against T or F or citing T or F.

Advantages

• The tests are objective and easy to mark (objective here implies

truthful , exact, correct)

• They measure a wide range of the topic

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Disadvantages

• They measure both recognition and recall.

• They don’t encourage pupils to be creative

11.9 Activity

11.10 Reflection

11.11 Improving the teaching of science through monitoring As a teacher of science, when you monitor pupils regularly and discover areas in which they are weak, you will spend more time on those areas clarifying the work. This helps the learners to understand the science more. Furthermore, you will choose the type of teaching strategies and approaches which will be more approapriate for the pupils. Apart from these, having understood the pupils’ ability level you will present the kind of material which is suitable to them at that stage. In this way your teaching will be more effective and the overall class performance will generally improve.

(i) State some methods of monitoring learning of science.

(ii) What are some advantages and disadvantages of Completion tests?

(iii) Briefly discuss how the teaching of science can be improved through

monitoring.

Do you also think that the teaching of science can be improved through monitoring? If so, how?

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11.12 Summary:

This topic has examined some methods of monitoring learning of science. It has also briefly described how the teaching of science can be improved through monitoring.

11.13 References and suggested readings

Capel, S., M. Leask and T. Turner.,1995. Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. Routledge.

London.

Knight.,1993. Study strategies for College. Homewood, Il,60430, Boston.

Kumar, R., 1999. Research methodology: A step by step guide for beginners. SAGE

Publications Ltd, London.

Muzumara, P.M., 2008. Becoming an effective science teacher. 2nd ed. Bhuta Publishers, Lusaka.

Schofield, H., 1972. Assessment and Testing: An Introduction. George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

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MODULE SUMMARY

This module is on science teaching methods. It has described the Aims of teaching science, behavioural objectives, Domains of learning, Sequencing instruction, Teaching approaches, Teaching strategies, Syllabus, Scheme of work, Lesson plan, Record of work and Monitoring of learning.

I am hopeful that it has helped you to acquire some knowledge, skills and appropriate attitudes for teaching science effectively.