Unification and Consolidation of Civilization in China

8/4/2019 Unification and Consolidation of Civilization in China

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Chapter 5

Unification and the Consolidation of Civilization in China

Chapter Summary. The Zhou dynasty in the 8th century B.C.E. lost control of its vassals. Internalpolitical disorder was increased by nomadic pressure. The unstable times eventually led to the emergence

of a more complex classical society. Political stabilization began in the 3rd century B.C.E. with the

victories of Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty. Unwise policies by the Qin rulers caused revolts ending with

the emergence of the Han dynasty in 207 B.C.E. The Han, ruling over 400 years, reestablished and

expanded the extent of Chinese civilization and created an lasting sense of Chinese identity. They founded

an enduring bureaucracy whose members, the shi, were a major influence on social and cultural

development.

Philosophical Remedies for the Prolonged Crisis of the Later Zhou. The continuing disorder marking

the decline of the Zhou dynasty prompted debate over appropriate remedies. The warfare awarded societal

value to military skills and depressed the worth of the shi. Aristocratic power grew while the shi fell to

minor occupations. Rituals and court etiquette were replaced by rough nomadic manners. Warfare

consumed state resources and public works, including dikes and canals, were ruined. Peasants were taxedheavily and conscripted into the military. The need for military materials stimulated commerce, helping the

growth of a prosperous merchant class with an important role in society. By the end of the Zhou period

China supported larger urban centers than any other contemporary civilization.

Confucius and the Restoration of the Shi. By the 5th century B.C.E. thinkers, including Confucius,

sought ways to create a stable society and political structure. Confucius, a member of a poor shi family,

became a traveling teacher whose political and philosophical ideas attracted followers. He was a social

philosopher concerned with the need to reestablish order and harmony in China; he thought that achieving

order depended upon rulers accepting the advice of superior men - women were excluded - who were

awarded power because of their moral excellence. Such men, recruited from the shi,

gained wisdom through education and, in principle, could be from any social class.

Confucian Thought and Social Ideals. Confucius thought that superior men should rule to serve the

interests and welfare of the entire society. In return the common people should respect and support theirrulers superior status. Social harmony depended upon everyone accepting their social place and

performing its required tasks. Society was held together by personal ties of loyalty and obedience that

made state intervention minimal.

The Confucian Gentleman. Confucius thought that the superior man defended his decisions against all

opposition. Rulers should receive deference, but the shi should criticize them for neglecting their subjects

welfare. The shi gentleman was a generalist equally accomplished in public and private aspects of life.

With such men, said Confucius, China would be peaceful and tranquil.

The Heirs of Confucius. The most important division among Confucius's disciples was between Mencius

and Xunzi. Mencius believed that humans were good by nature and that government should develop that

goodness. He stressed the consent of the common people was the basis of political power, and that they

had the right to overthrow oppressive rulers. Xunzi thought that humans by nature were lazy and evil, thusrequiring a strong and authoritarian government. Education could improve people, he thought, but he

rejected the idea that government was based on their consent. The later Legalist school of thought

embraced his views.

Daoist Alternatives. The philosopher Laozi offered an alternative to Confucianism. Although he urged

rulers to cultivate patience, selflessness, and concern for the welfare of all creatures, Laozi thought that a

strong state and absolute ethical prescriptions were not significant in solving human suffering. Laozi

instead advocated a retreat from society into nature where individuals could attune with the Dao, or cosmic


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armies extended Chinese rule to northern Korea and southward into Vietnam. Many of the conquered

peoples assimilated to Chinese civilization.

The Revenge of the Shi. The Legalists, influential under the Qin, were replaced by Confucians. By the

end of the 2nd century B.C.E. the shi were preeminent among ruling classes. Confucianism became the

dominant thought system in Chinese civilization for the next 2000 years. Knowledge of Confucius's

teachings was required for employment in government service; an imperial university was founded to train

future officials.

Education, Examinations, and Shi Dominance. Confucian classics were the centerpiece of the

educational system. An examination process was established for entering the bureaucracy. Since

education was expensive the system effectively excluded almost all peasants and served the shi and

landholders. Even though many political positions remained essentially hereditary or appointive, the Han

had initiated the concept of a professional civil service where holding office depended more on merit than

birth.

The Emergence of the Scholar Gentry. Three main social strata gained official recognition: the shi,

ordinary free subjects, and an underclass (the "mean people"). Each had many occupational and status

divisions. Local landlord families increasingly were linked to shi by marriage to create a new class, the

scholar-gentry. It controlled both land and office-holding and had a base in towns and rural regions.

Scholar-gentry families lived in large, comfortable, extended family compounds. Some families playedmajor roles in society for millennia.

Class and Gender Roles in Han Society. Women, especially from higher social classes had more

freedom in Han times than under later dynasties. Marriages were arranged as alliances between important

families. A bride entered her husband's household, but powerful relatives ensured good treatment.

Widows were permitted to remarry. Upperclass women often were educated. Extended family living was

not common among the peasantry; women worked in households and in town markets. At all levels,

however, women were subordinate to men. Their most vital social function was to produce male children.

Elder males dominated households and males received the greater share of family property. Political

positions were reserved for males.

Peasant Life. Few peasants produced more than what was required for subsistence and taxes. With a large

enough holding they might sell any surplus and live well. Poorer peasants with little or no land labored forlandlords in conditions of poverty. Technological development eased labor burdens through inventions, as

the shoulder horse collar and wheelbarrow; other improvements included iron tools, irrigation networks,

and cropping patterns. Peasants remained liable to conscription for public works or military service.

Population pressure was relieved by movement into uncultivated hill and forest regions, or to newly

conquered lands in the south. Some peasants turned to banditry. or became beggars. Many, for economic

and physical protection, formed secret societies which might, in stressful times, provide a basis for

rebellion.

The Han Capital at Xian. The urban growth of the Zhou era continued under the Han. Xian, the model

for later imperial cities, was laid out on a grid pattern, with roadways defining its major quarters. Walls

with towers and gates encircled the city. About 100,000 people lived within the walls, with an equal or

larger number residing nearby. The imperial family lived in a "forbidden city" separate from the rest of the

inhabitants. The complex was surrounded by administrative buildings and residences of the scholar-gentryand aristocrats.

Towns and Traders. China then probably had the world's most urbanized civilization. There were many

towns with populations over 10,000. Most were walled, and many were administrative centers. Others

were centers for mining, industry, or commerce. Trade expanded under the Han by land and sea routes into

central Asia, south China,

southeast Asia, and India. Large firms controlled and grew wealthy from the trade. They also profited

from lending and investing in mining and other activities. Despite their wealth, merchants were barred,

because of scholar-gentry influence, from gaining political power or social status.


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A Genius for Invention and Artisan Production. The Han significantly advanced the Chinese aptitude

for invention, becoming the most technologically innovative of all classical civilizations. Innovations

included the introduction of the brush pen and paper, watermills powering mills and workshops, rudders,

and compasses. Improved techniques appeared in mining, silk making, and ceramics. The advances led to

the growth of a mostly urban artisan and manufacturing class. Artisans, although relegated by the scholar-

gentry to a social status inferior to peasants, surpassed them in living standards.

The Arts and Sciences of the Han Era. Art was largely decorative and geometric. Calligraphy was a

highly praised form. Painting was less developed than under later dynasties, but bronzes and ceramics

established a lasting standard. Work in the sciences focused on practical applications. Astronomers

developed a 365.5 day calendar and calculated planetary movement. Medical advances came in disease

diagnosis, herbal and drug remedies, and acupuncture. In mathematics the practical focus led to

discoveries in acoustics and measurement standards.

Imperial Crisis and Han Restoration. The successors of Han Wudi were not efficient rulers, losing

control of affairs to the families of emperor's wives. The Wang family seized power in 9 C.E. Emperor

Wang Mang's reform efforts alienated the scholar-gentry and peasants. In 23 C.E. he was overthrown and

the Han dynasty was restored.

The Later Han and Imperial Collapse. The restored dynasty did not reach the peak attained by earlierrulers. Political decline was continuous. Central authority crumbled as court factions, the scholar-gentry,

emperor's wives, eunuchs, and regional lords dueled for power. The dynasty ended in 200 C.E.

Conclusion: An Era of Accomplishment and Affluence. The Han dynasty established a cyclical pattern

of dynastic succession and overthrow enduring until the 20th century. A core of lasting Chinese cultural

values emerged: political unity, rule by an emperor and a professional bureaucracy, and scholar-gentry

dominance. Cultural differences persisted between the legacies of Confucius and Laozi, and an elite-mass

gap continued because only a very few became literate. Still, the Han presided over the development of

one of the most creative civilizations in world history. The basic components of the lasting and influential

Chinese civilization had been established.

KEY TERMS

Qin: dynasty (221-207 B.C.E.)founded at the end of the Warring States period.

Shi Huangdi:first emperor of China; founder of Qin dynasty.

Warring States period:time of warfare between regional lords following the decline of the Zhou dynasty

in the 8th century B.C.E.

Confucius: major Chinese philosopher born in 6th century B.C.E.; sayings collected inAnalects;

philosophy based on the need for restoration of social order through the role of superior men.

Mencius: major follower of Confucius; stressed that humans were essentially good and that governments

required the consent of their subjects.

Xunzi: follower of Confucius; stressed that humans were inherently lazy and evil and required an

authoritarian government.

Laozi:Chinese Daoist philosopher; taught that governments were of secondary importance and

recommended retreat from society into nature.


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Daoism: philosophy associated with Laozi; individual should seek alignment with Dao or cosmic force.

Legalists: Chinese school of political philosophy; stressed the need for the absolute power of the emperor

enforced through strict application of laws.

Great Wall: Chinese defensive fortification built to keep out northern nomadic invaders; began during the

reign of Shi Huangdi.

Sunzi:author ofThe Art of War; argued that war was an extension of statecraft and should be fought

according to scientific principles.

Liu Bang: founder of the Han dynasty in 202 B.C.E.

Han:dynastysucceeding the Qin ruled from 202 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.

scholar-gentry:Chinese class created by the marital linkage of the local landholding aristocracy with the

office-holding shi.

secret societies: Chinese peasant organizations; provided members financial support during hard times and

physical protection during disputes with local aristocracy.

forbidden city: imperial precinct within Chinese capital cities; only imperial family, advisors, and

household were permitted to enter.

Wang Mang:member of a powerful family related to the Han emperors through marriage; temporarily

overthrew the Han between 9 and 23 C.E.

eunuchs: castrated males used within households of Chinese emperors, usually to guard his concubines;

became a political counterbalance to powerful marital relatives during later Han rule.

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS

1. Discuss political centralization under the Qin and Han dynasties. Discuss the factors associated

with the creation of political unity in classical China. They include: the development of appropriatepolitical philosophies; the contributions of Confucius and his disciples; other philosophies (Daoism,

Legalism); the institutionalism of the teachings of Confucius in the examination system; the rise and

triumph of the shi; the destruction of regional states and the feudal aristocracy; the creation of a unified

political infrastructure.

2. Compare the social organization of China under the Zhou and Han dynasties. Zhou China was

based upon the existence of a regional aristocracy that governed as feudal vassals; the aristocracy were

often members of the royal family and more closely controlled by the dynasty than under the earlier Shang

rulers. Beneath the warriors were the peasantry and artisans. Han China was ruled by the imperial family

and the shi who evolved into the scholar-gentry. The peasantry was divided into those with land and those

without who served as agricultural laborers; artisans were growing in numbers;

merchants were becoming wealthy but remained with low social status. The clear difference between the

Zhou and Han was the replacement of the feudal aristocracy by the scholar-gentry and the growingimportance of artisans and merchants.

CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What were the political, social, and economic consequences of the period of the

Warring States?

2. Describe Confucius's political philosophy.


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3. What changes in Confucius's political philosophy were made by his disciples?

4. Describe the Daoist alternative to Confucian political philosophy.

5. What was the significance of the Qin dynasty?

6. Discuss the impact of Sunzi's political philosophy.

7. How did the Han institutionalize Confucian political philosophy?

8. Discuss the status of each of the following groups during Han times: scholar-gentry,

women, peasants, merchants, artisans.

THE INSTRUCTOR'S TOOL KIT

Map References

Danzer, Discovering World History through Maps and Views

Source Maps: S18-S19. Reference Maps: R17.

Documents

"Key Chinese Values: Confucianism"

"Legalism: An Alternative System"

"Chinese Politics in Practice: A Historian's View"

"Women in Classical China: Pan Chao"

In Stearns,Documents in Word History (New York: HarperCollins, 1988)

Video/Film

The Silk Road. 6 video tapes. Filmic Archives