Understanding the Five Domains of Empowerment in the

1 Running Head: WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture:

Understanding the Five Domains of Empowerment in the Context of Livestock Ownership,

Animal Source Food Consumption, and Child Malnutrition in Haramaya, Ethiopia

Anna Rabil

University of Florida

2 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Abstract

Livestock ownership, particularly by women, and Animal Source Food (ASF) consumption have

both been associated with reduced rates of chronic malnutrition in children. The Five Domains

of Empowerment (5DE), as characterized in the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index

(WEAI), include production, resources, income, leadership, and time. Empowerment of women

across these domains has been associated with greater productivity and improved human

health outcomes. Using the 5DE as an indicator of overall women’s empowerment, this paper

seeks to examine household livestock ownership as it drives women’s empowerment. The study

also aims to test whether women’s overall empowerment is associated with ASF consumption

and/or chronic malnutrition among their young children, and to identify which domains of

empowerment, if any, are protective against malnutrition. As such, this analysis seeks to

characterize the role of women’s empowerment in smallholder agricultural communities of

Haramaya District, Ethiopia and its relationship with child nutrition.

Household data collected during fall 2018 were analyzed using R statistical software. Household

survey data and anthropometric measurements of children were collected using the REDCap

software platform on Samsung tablets in five rural kebeles of Haramaya, Ethiopia. Bivariate

analysis was conducted on each predictor and outcome variable of interest with p-value < 0.20.

Using the adequacy thresholds identified in the A-WEAI, analysis identified four out of 102

women as overall empowered. Given the overall small sample size (102) and the very small

number of women identified as empowered (4), finding statistically significant associations

between women’s overall empowerment and other predictor variables, as planned, is unlikely.

Among the four empowered women, one had a child who consumed ASF, and two had stunted

children. Because of the small sample size and the skewed distribution of results, in addition to


examining the overall 5DE scores, this analysis examines on the five individual domains of

empowerment (production, income, resources, leadership, and time).

Introduction

Globally, women account for 43% of the agricultural labor force, and they comprise two-thirds,

or 400 million, of over 600 million small livestock owners (Doss, 2011, Huyer, 2016). With

women playing such an integral role in these sectors, it is important to address their

empowerment, or lack thereof, in order to improve nutritional outcomes at the household level,

particularly in rural communities where agriculture is central to livelihood. Empowerment of

women in agriculture, through ownership of assets and power in decision-making, has the

potential to not only close gender gaps and improve the economy, but also strengthen food

security at the household level and allow for greater health outcomes for both women and

children (Kumar, 2015, Jin and Ianotti, 2014). Research has delineated a positive relationship

between livestock ownership and improved nutrition, as well as a link between women’s

ownership of assets and household food security (van den Bold, 2013). Similarly, when women

are empowered, they are better equipped to sustain their children’s health as well as their own,

and they are more productive in agriculture (Malapit, 2015).

Ethiopia maintains the largest population of livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa, with livestock

representing 90% of the value of assets in the country (Campenhout, 2012). Livestock is a

major source of agricultural wealth, reflecting the potential to be both a source of livelihood and

a tool for gaining credit (Debela, 2017). Women’s ownership of livestock, in particular, increases

household food security and improved child nutrition outcomes (Njuki, 2013). As such, livestock

ownership is a critical component of women’s empowerment in agriculture (Jin and Iannotti,

2014). Livestock ownership at the household level may facilitate access to animal source foods

(ASF), either through direct production or purchase, through sale of livestock and livestock


products. ASF have been shown to reduce significantly nutrition deficits (Ianotti et al., 2017).

ASF include milk, meat, and eggs, all rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals that cannot be as

readily absorbed from plant-based foods (Njuki, 2013). In turn, when a woman is empowered

within agriculture, she has more control over nutritional resources such as ASF foods thereby

producing better nutritional outcomes for both her and her children (Gillespie, 2017). Consuming

ASF, therefore, is particularly beneficial for impoverished rural communities and is especially

critical in the first 1000 days between conception and 24 months of age. As noted, livestock

ownership may increase on-farm consumption of ASF through direct consumption of that which

is produced, but it may also increase purchased ASF, through income generated by the sale of

livestock products, making it an imperative part of livelihood in rural agricultural communities

(Njuki, 2013).

Roughly 38%, or 5.8 million, children under the age of five are stunted in Ethiopia (Ethiopia,

2018). Stunting is a life sentence that condemns a child to myriad health and nutritional

problems throughout their life, from hindered growth and lowered cognitive abilities, to increased

susceptibility to diseases and less productivity in adulthood (Black et al., 2008). Underlying

causes of stunting are complex and numerous. Lack of sanitation, food intake, and livestock

ownership have all been associated with stunting in children (Geberselassie, 2018). Research

has found that targeting nutrition in the first 1000 days of a child’s life has a positive impact on

cognitive development for the child (Schwarzenberg, 2018).

A woman who is empowered in agriculture is described as one who has the resources and

opportunity to engage in agricultural management decisions and participates in activities in

agriculture that are productive; in turn, she has control over the benefits reaped from her efforts

in agriculture (Women’s Empowerment, 2016). With women making up the majority of the

agricultural workforce globally, it is critical that they have power over decision-making and

receive the returns of their production. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index is a


standardized method of quantifying empowerment in agricultural communities that can be used

to assess how empowered a woman is and to determine where women are disempowered in

order to close the gaps in empowerment between men and women. The WEAI is made up of

the Five Domains of Empowerment and the Gender Parity Index. Together, these components

enable an analysis of where a woman has control in agricultural production and allow for

diagnosis and monitoring of how empowerment varies across different agricultural communities.

The Five Domains of Empowerment (5DE) makes up 90% of the WEAI score and, as its name

suggests, is comprised of five domains: decision-making and production, resources, income,

leadership, and time. These five domains are calculated based on six weighted indicators,

which are then aggregated to determine the 5DE empowerment score. The indicators are input

in productive decisions, ownership of assets, access to and decisions on credit, control over use

of income, group membership, and workload (A-WEAI, 2018). The Gender Parity Index (GPI)

measures gender parity within the households that were surveyed, showing the woman’s 5DE

score in comparison to the man’s score, thereby providing the empowerment gap between men

and women in the same household as well as the percentage of women who are just as

empowered as men (Malapit, 2013). Without male empowerment data, the GPI cannot be

calculated and thus a full WEAI score can also not be computed.

Aims and Hypotheses

It is the intention of this study to identify the relationship between women’s empowerment in

agriculture and child malnutrition, ASF consumption, and livestock ownership. The first aim of

this paper is to examine the relationship between household livestock ownership and women’s

empowerment. If there is an association, this study will then examine which domains of

empowerment are associated with livestock ownership. The second aim is to test for

associations between 1) women’s empowerment and child ASF consumption, and 2) women’s

empowerment and child malnutrition. If a significant association between women’s


empowerment and child ASF consumption and/or between women’s empowerment and child

malnutrition rates is identified, this study will again seek to examine which specific domains of

empowerment are associated with positive child health outcomes. These analyses will provide

insight into how women’s actions and interactions in agriculture contribute to child nutritional

outcomes in Haramaya District Ethiopia. This information may inform interventions that seek to

close the gender gap in agriculture or to reduce rates of child malnutrition.

Methods

Study Design and Population

Analysis was conducted on primary household data collected as part of the larger, ongoing

Campylobacter Genomics and Environmental Enteric Dysfunction (CAGED) project. This

analysis examines data from household surveys and child anthropometric measurements from

102 households across five kebeles in rural Haramaya, East Hararghe zone, Oromia region,

Ethiopia, collected between October and December 2018. Data on empowerment were

collected by individually asking the female heads of the 102 households the Five Domains of

Empowerment questions, taken from the standardized A-WEAI survey tool. Household surveys

also asked questions pertaining to data on livestock ownership, ASF consumption, and dietary

diversity in women and children. Children 11-17 months, targeted for the study, were measured

and weighed as part of the study.

Statistical Methods

Bivariate analysis was conducted on each predictor and outcome variable of interest. Statistical

analyses, including logistic regression, Fisher’s Exact Test, and two-sample t-tests, were

conducted in R-Studio. Results with a p-value < 0.20 were considered significant. Variables

included in analysis were tropical livestock units (TLU), child ASF consumption (yes/no), and


length-for-age z-scores (LAZ). These variables were analyzed against the Five Domains of

Empowerment score (5DE) and each of the domains of empowerment, separately.

Analyses

The first analysis examines household livestock ownership as the independent variable and

overall women’s 5DE score as the dependent variable. Livestock ownership will then be

analyzed against each domain of empowerment to determine whether certain dimensions of

women’s empowerment are more or less associated with livestock ownership. The second

portion of analysis will look at women’s empowerment as the independent variable and child

ASF consumption as the dependent variable to determine if women’s empowerment is

associated with an increase in ASF consumption. Subsequently, each of the five domains will

be examined for their effect on child ASF consumption as well. The same approach will be

taken with stunting, to determine which, if any, domains of women’s empowerment are

associated with lower rates of malnutrition in young children.

Results

Out of the 102 women and household data analyzed, only four women were empowered, with

5DE scores of greater than .80. Given the small count in the empowered category (4), bivariate

analysis with predictor variables are unlikely to yield statistically significant results. Of the four

empowered women, as identified through the 5DE, one (25%) had a child who consumed ASF,

and two (50%) had stunted children.

In Table 1, summary data are presented for empowerment and tropical livestock units (TLU), a

continuous variable that reflects livestock ownership at the household level. Overall

empowerment (5DE) and each of the domains individually are presented. As can be seen in

Table 1.1, only four women were overall empowered. They had a mean TLU score of 1.75,

which is greater than the mean for non-empowered women (1.58), but not statistically


significant. When looking at each of the domains, however, we do see higher rates of

empowerment. Table 1.4(a) shows 97% (102) of women as empowered in Ownership of Assets

with a mean TLU score of 1.59. In Table 1.5, we see that 80% (102) of women were

empowered in leadership with a mean TLU score of 1.65 compared to a mean of 1.31 for

disempowered women within leadership.

Table 1- TLU vs 5DE

1.1 Overall 5DE Empowered count mean sd

0 98 1.58 1.46 1 4 1.75 0.642

1.2 Production prod_Adequacy count mean sd

0 85 1.48 1.29 1 17 2.1 1.99

1.3 Income inc_Adequacy count mean sd 0 74 1.51 1.42 1 28 1.78 1.48


1.4(a) Resources A: Ownership of Assets own_Adequacy count mean sd 0 3 1.33 0.764

1 99 1.59 1.45

1.4(b) Resources B: Access to & Decisions about Credit credit_Adequacy count mean sd 0 95 1.66 1.45

1 7 0.486 0.456

1.5 Leadership lead_Adequacy count mean sd 0 20 1.31 1.43 1 82 1.65 1.44

1.6 Time time_Adequacy count mean sd 0 49 1.51 1.36 1 53 1.65 1.51

Though not statistically significant using a 95% confidence interval and p-value of < 0.05, the

relationship between livestock ownership (as indicated by TLU) and empowerment is marginally

significant (p = 0.1014, see Table 1.7), with the odds of a woman being empowered being 1.08

times greater per increased TLU. When looking by empowerment domain at a significance level

of p <.20, the domains of Production and Resources B: Access to and Decisions about Credit

are significant. Looking at Production (p=0.109), a woman is 1.3 times more likely to reach the

threshold for adequacy (thus deemed “empowered’) in Production per unit of TLU (see Table

1.7). For Access and Decisions in Credit (p=0.004), a woman is 0.21 times less likely to have

adequacy in this subset of the Resources domain per unit of TLU (see Table 1.7).


Table 1.7 – TLU vs 5DE – Logistic Regression

Note: *p<0.20

In Analysis 2, we first examined relationship between women’s empowerment and Child ASF

Consumption, both overall and by domain. Table 2A shows two by two tables for the 5DE and

ASF, as well as the results of the Fisher’s Exact Test analysis that was run on each predictor

and outcome variable. Out of 101 women, as one household did not have Child ASF data

reported, the Income domain, as shown in table 2A.3, is significant (p=0.003). Nine women had

adequacy in the income domain and their children were 0.250 times as likely to consume ASF.

Leadership is also significant (p=0.132) with a child being 2.066 times more likely to consume

ASF when their mother has adequacy in the leadership domain compared to disempowered

women within this domain.

Table 2A – 5DE vs Child ASF Consumption – Fisher’s Exact Test

2A.1 Overall 5DE Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.3149 95 percent confidence interval: (0.005, 3.206) odds ratio: 0.247

5DE

No Yes

Child ASF

No 41 1

Yes 56 3

2A.2 Production

Production Adequacy

No Yes

Child ASF

No 39 5

Yes 45 12

2A.3 Income

Income Adequacy

No Yes

Child ASF

No 25 19

Yes 48 9

OR (95% CI) p-value

Overall 5DE 1.08 (0.57,2.06) 0.1014*

Production 1.3 (0.94,1.8) 0.109*

Income 1.14 (0.85,1.52) 0.2778

Resources A: Ownership of Assets 1.16 (0.46,2.94) 0.7557

Resources B: Access & Decisions About Credit 0.21 (0.05,0.93) 0.004*

Leadership 1.21 (0.82,1.81) 0.315

Time 1.07 (0.81,1.41) 0.626


Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.284 95 percent confidence interval: (0.610, 8.166) odds ratio: 2.066

Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.003* 95 percent confidence interval: (0.086, 0.681) odds ratio: 0.250

2A.4A Resources A: Ownership of Assets

Ownership Adequacy

No Yes

Child ASF

No 2 42

Yes 1 56


2A.4B Resources B: Access to and Decisions About Credit

Credit Adequacy

No Yes

Child ASF

No 40 4

Yes 54 3


2A.5 Leadership

Leadership Adequacy

No Yes

Child ASF

No 12 32

Yes 8 49

Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.132* 95 percent confidence interval: (0.759, 7.202) odds ratio: 2.277

2A.6 Time

Time Adequacy

No Yes

Child ASF

No 20 24

Yes 29 28


Note: *p<0.20

In the second half of Analysis 2, we analyzed the association between the Five Domains of

Empowerment and LAZ scores for children under two years of age using two-sample t-tests.

Table 2B depicts the summary data and boxplots of our results as well as the statistical tests.

Overall, the mean LAZ score for children of empowered women (-1.90), and the mean LAZ

score for children of disempowered women (-1.89) was virtually the same.

Table 2B – 5DE vs LAZ

2B.1 Overall 5DE Empowered count mean sd 0 98 -1.89 1.56


1 4 -1.90 1.60

2B.2 Production prod_Adequacy count mean sd 0 85 -1.96 1.45 1 17 -1.55 2.03

2B.3 Income inc_Adequacy count mean sd 0 74 -1.79 1.51 1 28 -2.14 1.67

2B.4(a) Resources A: Ownership of Assets own_Adequacy count mean sd 0 3 -1.99 1.05 1 99 -1.89 1.57

2B.4(b) Resources B: Access to and Decisions about Credit credit_Adequacy count mean sd 0 95 -1.94 1.55 1 7 -1.16 1.59

2B.5 Leadership lead_Adequacy count mean sd 0 20 -1.92 1.20 1 82 -1.88 1.64

2B.6 Time time_Adequacy count mean sd 0 49 -1.40 1.46 1 53 -2.34 1.51


A two-sample t-test was conducted to compare LAZ scores for children under two years of age

in overall empowerment and each of the domains individually. The only domain of

empowerment for which a statistically significant difference was found is Time (p=0.002), where

women empowered in time had children with lower LAZ scores, or poorer growth. More than

half of the women (53) are empowered within this domain, and they have a smaller mean LAZ

score (-2.34) than the children of disempowered women (-1.40).

Table 2B.7 – 5DE vs LAZ – Two-Sample T-Test

T p-value

Overall 5DE -0.021127 0.9832

Production 0.99637 0.321

Income -1.011 0.31

Resources A: Ownership of Assets 0.11011 0.91

Resources B: Access & Decisions About Credit 1.2818 0.203

Leadership 0.091558 0.93

Time -3.1687 0.002*

Note: *p<0.20

Discussion

A woman is empowered in agriculture when she has the resources to contribute to agricultural

decisions and can participate in productive agricultural activities. From the results of this

analysis, only 4 women meet this distinction, or are considered overall empowered. Of these


four women, 25% had a child who consumed ASF and 50% had stunted children. In the

analysis of individual domains, there are more significant results. In analyzing TLU and the 5DE,

women are more likely to be empowered in the domain of production per TLU. Empowerment in

this domain means that the woman has input in productive agricultural decisions including

decisions on food, cash crops, and livestock. Existing literature highlights that livestock is a

major source of agricultural wealth in Ethiopia and thus a source for gaining credit, however

these results indicate that a woman is less likely to be empowered within the Access to and

Decisions About Credit subset of the Resources domain per household TLU. Without adequacy

in this indicator, a woman either has no credit, or has credit, but does not participate in

decisions regarding the credit. Research also shows that when women are empowered in

agriculture, they have more control over nutritional resources such as ASF, yet in analyzing the

5DE and child ASF consumption, women empowered within the domain of Income, meaning

they have input in decisions regarding income and major household expenditures, had children

that were less likely to consume ASF. Interestingly, however, women empowered in leadership

had children more likely to consume ASF. In analyzing the 5DE and LAZ scores, women with

adequacy in the Time domain, had children with lower LAZ scores, indicating higher rates of

stunting. This is again contradictory to research that indicates empowered women having better

health outcomes for their children and thus lower rates of stunting.

Limitations

There are significant limitations to this research. Because this was a limited dataset with results

significantly skewed towards disempowerment, it is difficult to draw any conclusions based on

these results. For more effective statistical testing, a larger sample size should be surveyed in

order to have greater generalizability. In this study, ultimately, a woman who has a child that

consumes ASF consumption or a child that is not stunted, is likely still overall agriculturally

disempowered and therefore deeper analyses are needed to determine the consistency and


significance of these findings. In turn, although the overall empowerment analysis produced

significant results for the TLU analysis, we know that only four out of 102 women were overall

empowered, thereby diminishing the significance of this relationship and emphasizing the need

for a larger sample size. Another limitation is that this study only looks at one component of the

two components that constitute the A-WEAI survey: the 5DE. If the full A-WEAI was utilized,

conclusions could be made about the significance of these empowerment results in comparison

with the empowerment of men in the same household.

Future Research

Further analyses should include examination of the types of livestock owned by the household.

Although TLU gives a weighted aggregate score for total livestock in the household, it does not

allow for insight about the role of specific species of animals associated with empowerment. .

Similarly, looking at the types of ASF consumed by the child would determine if consumption of

certain animal sources foods is affected by empowerment more than that of others. There also

needs to be closer inspection of why empowerment in certain domains may drive more negative

results of outcome variables, such as why women empowered in the Time domain have more

stunted children. Alternatively, implementation of the full A-WEAI would allow for an

understanding of the severity of the disempowerment in these women. For example, if the men

in this same sample are significantly more empowered, then there is a gender gap that needs to

be addressed. However, if there is also only a very small portion of men who are empowered,

then there is overall disempowerment across the community.

Conclusions

With only four percent of women identified as empowered, it appears that there is a significant

need to develop the agricultural empowerment of women in these areas. While most women

achieved adequacy within the ownership of assets subset domain of Resources, most women


were disempowered in the Access to and Decisions about Credit subset of Resources. This

may be explained by the fact that Ownership of Assets considers not only independent

ownership, but also joint ownership with the male head of household. Therefore, although a

household keeps livestock, the male head of household may oversee decisions surrounding the

resource of livestock, thereby removing the woman from decision making abilities, ultimately

disempowering her in the Access to and Decisions About Credit subset of Resources domain.

So, while a woman may share ownership of assets, and thus be considered adequate within the

Ownership domain, she may not have power in decision making over credit surrounding the

resources. Livestock ownership is included in determination of adequacy within the Ownership

of Assets domain and therefore it is to be expected that there will be an association between

TLU scores the Resources domain. Results showed that women who have achieved adequacy

within the Income domain of empowerment have children who consume less ASF. This may be

because when a woman is empowered in income, she may be more likely to sell animal

products for profit that can be used for other necessities rather than to lose profit by feeding the

animal products to her family. The fact that our final analysis reveals that women who achieve

adequacy within the Time domain have children with lower LAZ scores, indicating poorer

growth, can likely be interpreted by the understanding that without empowerment in other

domains of agriculture, being time empowered alone will not improve growth outcomes for

children under two years of age. Ultimately, however, it is important to conclude that this is still a

significantly disempowered population, and thus making definitive conclusions about ASF

consumption, livestock ownership, and child malnutrition rates in relation to empowerment is not

possible with this dataset. Further analyses of these data and future replication with a greater

sample size are imperative to better understanding the dynamics at play.


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