Understanding OceanandEarth System Sciencethrough models · 2016. 8. 15. · ORCA2 grid ECHAM-T106 grid FIELD EXCHANGE BETWEEN ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN MODELS The interpolation issue

Understanding Ocean and EarthSystem Science through models

l Understanding the contemporary Earth System Science relies on the recruitment and formation of a generation of young scientists with the capabilities to analyze the products of climate and Earth System Models.

l Capacity building in human and technological resources should be an integral component of the curriculum. This should go beyond the traditional boundaries of the scientific disciplines taught at universities.

l We target undergraduate and early graduate students from Science, Engineering and Economics faculties in South Africa, which provide introductory courses in Information Technology, Computing, Applied Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Earth Sciences.

AGENDA Lectures 10h30-11h30 Enrico Scoccimarro

ESM crash course part 1: the physical components 11h30-12h30 Marcello Vichi

ESM crash course part 2: the carbon cycle 12h30-13h30 B reak

Hands-on session 13h30-15h00 Group A 15h00-16h30 Group B

ESM crash course part1:

the physical componentsEnrico Scoccimarro

Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia - INGVCentro euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici - CMCC

Bologna, Italy

enrico.scoccimarro@ ingv.it

h" p://[email protected]

The euro Mediterranean Center on Climate Change (CMCC) mission is toinvestigate and model our climate system and its interactions with society to provide reliable, rigorous,and timely scientific results to stimulate sustainable growth, protect the environment, and to develop science driven adaptation and mitigation policies in a changingclimate.

Outline

• Physics of climate: a brief introduction

• Anthropogenic impacts on the past climate

• Climate Models, future scenarios and projections

ESM crash course part 2: the carbon cycle

Outline

• Physics of climate: a brief introduction• Anthropogenic impacts on the past climate



Let’s start talking about Heat !!!!!!

• Heat transfers in three ways:

• ConducAon

• RadiaAon

• ConvecAon

<- Responsible of the heat transfer from the Sun to the Earth Planet

<- Dominates the heat transfer over the Earth Planet

The radiation method of heat transfer

How does heat energy get from the Sun to the Earth? There are no particles

between the Sun and the Earth so it CANNOT travel by conduction or byconvection.

?RADIATION

H2OCH4

CO2

N2 O2

The Climate Machine

Solar Radiation

Earth Radiation

The energy that drives the climate system comes from the Sun

Earth Radius ? 6000 km!

Greenhouse gasses are mainly stored in the Troposphere

Energy radiates from theearth surface

Radia4on from the sun warms the earth’s

surface

Without greenhouse gases:

-18 degrees!

Withgreenhouse gases:

+15 degrees!

Greenhouse gases are being warmed by the radia4on from

earth

Energy radiates from theatmosphere

Solar radiaAon

As the Sun's energy spreads through space its spectral characteristics do not change because space contains almost

no interfering matter. However the energy flux drops monotonically as the square of the distance from the Sun.

Thus, when the radiation reaches the outer limit of the Earth's atmosphere, several hundred kilometers over the

Earth's surface, the radiative flux is approximately 1360 W/m2

1360 W/m2 (Solar Constant)

63 x 106 W/m2

SST - Sea Surface Temperature [oC]

The Earth is a sphere and aside from the part closest to the sun, where the rays of sunlight are perpendicular to the ground, its surface tilts with respect to the incoming rays of energy with the regions furthest away aligned in parallel to the radiation and thus receiving no energy at all

CONVECTION

ConvecAon

red= hot blue = cold

The Atmospheric CirculaAon

The Ocean CirculaAon

The Ocean CirculaAon (OGCM results)

The climatological meridional heat transport

[PW]

[latit

ude]

Types of CLIMATE

Outline• Physics of climate: a brief introduction

• Anthropogenic impacts on the past climate• Climate Models, future scenarios and projections


Changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration

http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/iadv/

Keeling curvenamed after Charles “Dave” Keeling

Climate Variability and Change – Fall School on "Modeling CC Impacts on Water and Crops at Different Scales”, November 5 2012 - Alghero

Why “unprecedented perturbation”?

Falkowski et al. (2000)

Why “unprecedented perturbaAon”?

Temperature change difference (2001-2015) - (1850-1899):

+0,79 ± 0,19 ! C

Climate Variability and Change – Fall School on "Modeling CC Impacts on Water and Crops at Different Scales”, November 5 2012 - Alghero

Surface Temperature evolution in the past years

Past changes in Arctic Sea Ice extension

Past changes in the annual cycle of sea ice extent

Arctic Sea Ice Volume: time evolution since 1979

Vallelunga glacier

1893 2008Past changes in Glaciers extension

Alpine glaciers mass evolution since 1945

Past evolution of the Sea Level High

Outline• Physics of climate: a brief introduction




SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND CLIMATE SCIENCE

•The Oxford English Dictionary says that scientific method is: "a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.”

•This definition whould require the possibility to test ourhypothesis as many times as possible to be sure of itsstatistical significance.

•In the context of climate “empirical science” is not applicable because it would require a spare earth toexperiment on. And even if this spare earth existed it would take many years, at least 30 but in some cases, thousands or millions of years to test our hypotheses on it.

33

Laboratory experiments?

•This is an important consideration, because it is precisely such whole-Earth, system-scale experiments, incorporating the full complexity of interacting processes and feedbacks, that might ideally be required to fully verify or falsify climate change hypotheses (Schellnhuber et al., 2004, in Chap. 1, IPCC WG1, 2007).

•That’s where numerical climate models come for help.

Global models: a brief history

In 1904, Norwegian scientist Vilhelm Bjerknes first argued that it should be possible to forecast weather from calculations based upon natural laws.

“Based upon the observations that have been made. The initial state of the atmosphere is represented by a number of charts which give the distribution of 7 variables …With these chatrs …new charts..are to be drawn wich represent the newstate of the atmosphere from hour to hour.”

However no analytic methods for solving the physical equations involved were known at that time, so Bjerknes was forced to rely on graphical methods.

35

Lewis Fry Richardson•In 1922, Lewis Fry Richardson devised an algorithmicscheme for weather prediction based on solving partialdifferential equations.

•He set out to formulate a set of equations tha would completely determine the behaviour of the atmosphere given its initial state. This set later on became the well known primitive equations:

21

3

36

4

Lewis Fry Richardson

•Richardson proposed a computational strategy for the entire globe, introducing the primal concept of discretization through the finite differences method.

•For a forecast of 6-hour Richardson needed 6 weeks of intense labour and finally ended up witha completely wrong solution!!!

•“Perhaps some day in the future it will be possible to advance the computations faster than the weather advances and at a cost less than the saving to mankind due to the information gained. But that is a dream”

37

The model grid

38

the problem of the resolution

39

Resolution 1

Resolution 2

I The Hansen et al. model (1983)•8° latitude by 10° longitude, 9 vertical levels upto 10 mb. Topography and vegetation.•The physical processes of momentum andenergy transfer among atmosphere, ocean (seaice) and land are solved at each grid point.•The model also inc1udes the radiative influenceof CO2, H20 and other gases

..

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lmr gnsts,( J o -1,C

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Numerical climate models

•Investigation tools•Prognostic models of the general circulation of the ocean and atmosphere•Based on physical equations of mass and energy balance•Discretized numerical solutions at given spatial gridpoints

General Circulation Model (global scale)resolution: a zoom over EU

1990

42

1996

2001

2007

orography

43

2007 AR5 2013

now

General Circulation Model (global scale)resolution: a zoom over EU orography

HighResMIP within CMIP6(6th phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project that will provide climatedata for the next Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC Assessment Report)

General Circulation Model (global scale)resolution: a zoom over the South Pacific basin

orography

Scale of phenomena

45

Development: From Atmosphere only General CirculaAon Models (GCMs) through fully Coupled Atmosphere – Ocean models (CGCMs) to Earth SystemModels (ESMs)

AR5

Last IPCC Assessment Reports (AR4 and AR5) leverage on Couple Model Intercomparison Projects (CMIP3 and CMIP5)

Horizontal resolution between CMIP3 (AR4) and CMIP5 (AR5) didn’t change significantly

Trenberth, 1992

COUPLED MODEL HIERARCHY

SWAMP OCEAN (no heat storage)Downward infraRed

Sensible HF

SLAB/MIXED LAYER OCEAN

OCEAN GCM

S + Fd – Fu – H - LE = 0Absorbed solar Upward infraRed

Latent HF

No

dyna

mic

s

IThe phys·ca ·nterface

Sea le

igure 2 ch o th h ng 1 I tw en asea i ·c mod s (includin , c· bon rela ooii ld ·).

er d th o n -

Atmosphere/Ocean-Sea Ice coupled model

OR

CA

2gr

id

ECH

AM

-T10

6gr

id

FIELD EXCHANGE BETWEEN ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN MODELSThe interpolation issue.

ECHAM-T106 ORCA2


Northern Hemisphere GridsECHAM-T30 ORCA2

FIELD EXCHANGE BETWEEN ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN MODELSThe interpolation issue.


Atmosphere

Sea-Ice

Ocean

ECHAM 5(70 km horiz. res.)

ORCA2 OPA 8.2(50-200 km horiz. res.)

LIM(Louvain-La-Neuve

sea-Ice Model )

Coupler OASIS 3(Ocean Atmosphere Sea Ice Soil )

An example of a CMIP5 Climate model: CMCC-CM

Earth System experiments

• Climate Models are mainly used for

•process studies: to be" er understand the relaAonship within the climate system•aSribu4on studies: understanding the causality between observed changes and the major natural andanthropogenic forcings•scenario studies: making future projecAons on the state of the climate according to predefined scenarios of anthropogenic usage of the Earth resources

ProjecAons

•Climate scientists never use the term prediction when referring to future climate conditions.•This stems from the fact that a future climate simulation is not exactly an “initial value problem” but mostly a “boundary value problem”•The correct term is “projection”, because the models are used to project into the future the climate conditions driven by a set of predefined, time-evolving forcing scenarios.

Future scenarios: where do they come from?

•A SCENARIO is a plausible description of how the future may develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about key relationships and driving forces (e.g., population, rate of technology change, prices).Note that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts. (OECD, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development )

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres

Emission scenarios: SRES in AR4 and RCPs in AR5

[CH4]

[CO2]

1 9 5 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 7 0 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 5 0 2 0 6 0 2 0 7 0 2 0 8 0 2 0 9 0 2 1 0 0y e a r

3 0 0

4 0 0

5 0 0

6 0 0

7 0 0

8 0 0

9 0 0

1 0 0 0

[ ppm

v]

R C P 4 . 5 R C P 8 . 5 A 1 BH I S T

1 9 5 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 7 0 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 5 0 2 0 6 0 2 0 7 0 2 0 8 0 2 0 9 0 2 1 0 0y e a r

m o l e f r a c t i o n o f C O 2 i n a i r

1 0 0 0

1 5 0 0

2 0 0 0

2 5 0 0

3 0 0 0

3 5 0 0

m o l e f r a c t i o n o f C H 4 i n a i r4 0 0 0

[ ppbv

]

R C P 4 . 5 R C P 8 . 5 A 1 BH I S T

METHANE

CARBON DIOXIDE

Future emission scenarios: SRES in AR4 e RCPs in AR5

1 9 5 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 7 0 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 5 0y e a r

2 0 6 0 2 0 7 0 2 0 8 0 2 0 9 0 2 1 0 03 0 0

4 0 0

5 0 0

6 0 0

7 0 0

8 0 0

9 0 0

m o l e f r a c t i o n o f C O 2 i n a i r1 0 0 0

[ ppm

v]

R C P 4 . 5 R C P 8 . 5A 1 BH I S T

for the first 4me (AR5) Representa4ve Concentra4on Pathways (RCPs)will include scenarios that explore approaches to climate change mi4ga4on in addi4on to the tradi4onal„no climate policy‟ scenarios

CO2

INGV-CMCC CMIP5 IPCC Experiments: the historical run

monthly freq.

CMCC-CMHistorical

XX sec. Sulfate aerosols3d, monthly fields

XX sec. Ozone2d, zonal mean, monthly fields

XX sec. CH4Global value, yearly

XX sec. CO2Global value, yearly

XX sec. CFCsGlobal value, yearly

XX sec. N2OGlobal value, yearly

yearly freq.

IPCC AR5 global projections

Climate Model Data

The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project – CMIP as climate data provider to theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC Reports

http://cmip-pcmdi.llnl.gov/cmip5/availability.html

Observations since 1950 compared with projections from the previous IPCC assessments.Observed globally and annually averaged CO2concentrations in parts per million (in ppm)Estimated changes in the observed globally and annually averaged surface temperature anomaly relative to 1961–1990 (in °C)Estimated changes in the observed global annual mean sea level (in cm)

IPCC AR5 global projections

CO2

2 meter Temperatureanomaly wrt 1961-1990

Mean sea level anomaly wrt 1961-1990

World Climate Research Programme W M O

wmm•IOC

• About .., Core Projects Grand Challenges .., Key Deliverables ..,Unifying Themes ..,

Co-sponsored activities ... Resources ..,

Sitemap

CMIP Phase 6 (CMIP6)

Overview CMIP6 Experimental Design and Organization

The overview paper on the CMIP6 experimental design and organization has now been publ shedin GMO (Eyring et

al., 2016) . This CMIPSoverview paper presents the background and rationa le for the new structure of CM IP,prov des a detailed descript ion of the CMIP Diagnostic, Evaluation and Characterization of Klima (DECK)

experiments and CMIP6 historical s im ulations, andinc ludes a briefintroduction to the 21 CMIPS-Endorsed MIPs.

A brief summary can be found in the following overview presentation (CMIP6Fina1Design_GMD_ 160603.pdf) and

below. After a long and wide community oonsultation, a new and more federated structure has been putin p lace.It

consists of ttYee major elements:

1. a handful of common experiments, the DECK (Diagnostic, Evaluation and Characterizat ion of Klima) and CMIP

historical s imulations (1850 - near-present) that will m aintain continuity and help document basic characteristics

of models across different phases of CMIP,

2. common standards, coordination, infrastructure and docum entation that will fac i tate the d istribution of model

outputs and the characterization of the model ensemble, and

3. an ensemble of CMIP-Endorsed Model lntercomparison Projects (MIPs} that will be specific to a particular phase

of CMIP (now CMIPS) and that will build on the DECK and CMIP h istorical s imulations to address a large range of

specific questions and fill the scientific gaps of the previous CMIP phases.

e W GCM

0 About WGCM

0 Members

CMIP

0 About CMIP

0 CMIP3

(> CMIPS

0 CMIP6

(> Catalogue MIPs

(> CMIPS-EndorsedMIPs

(> Other act ive MIPs

> Former MIPa

0 Decadal predlctJon

(> MeetJngs EARCHINSTITUTE

DOEJANL lNASA/JPL

NASA/NCCSobs4MIPsMERRAGMAO

NOAA/ESRL

ESGEarth System Grid FederationIPSL j

- ANU/NCI I

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CSSEF

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MARINERESEARCHINSTITUTE

https ://pcmdi.llnl.gov

Golden rules for us ing climatemodel data

1. Models are “models”, not reality. Carefully cons ider theunderlying assumptions

2. Climate models resolve climatic features. T here is no year1998, but the climate of the 90’s .

3. Climate science is based on several realizations becauseclimate is intr ins ically variable: do not cherry-pick onemodel unless for specific purposes

4. Cons ider the spatial resolution (gr id s ize) and temporalfrequency

5. Use like with l ike. Carefully read the definition of the modelvariables

Outline

• Physics of climate: a brief introduction



Due to the induced - additional computational costs,Earth System Models (ESM) run with a lower horizontal resolution

compared to Coupled General Circulation Models (CGCM),but the possibility to realistically represent the Carbon Cycle

within the Climate System, gives the possibility to better Investigate climate changes under different

future emission scenarios


QUESTIONS !!!!!

Picture by Paola Secco

[email protected]

▪Global atmospheric concentraAons of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrousoxide have increased markedly as a result of human acAviAes since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values determined from ice cores spanning many thousands of years. The global increases in carbon dioxideconcentraAon are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change, whilethose of methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture (WG1 SPM)§ Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident fromobserva5ons of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures,widespread mel5ng of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level (WG1 SPM)§ From new es5mates of the combined anthropogenic forcing due to greenhouse gases, aerosols and land surface changes, it is extremely likelythat human ac5vi5es have exerted a substan5al net warming influence onclimate since 1750. (WG1-TS6.1)

IPCC 4th Assessment Report (AR4, 2007)

▪Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentraAons of greenhouse gases have increased.§ Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth’ssurface than any preceding decade since 1850. In the Northern Hemisphere,1983–2012 was likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years.§ Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounAng for more than 90% of the energy accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence). It is virtually certain that the upper ocean (0−700 m) warmed from 1971 to 2010, and it likely warmed between the 1870s and 1971.

IPCC 5th Assessment Report (AR5, 2013) 1/5

▪Over the last two decades, the Greenland and AntarcAc ice sheets have been losing mass, glaciers have conAnued to shrink almost worldwide, and ArcAcsea ice and Northern Hemisphere spring snow cover have conAnued to decrease in extent (high confidence).§ The rate of sea level rise since the mid-19th century has been larger than the mean rate during the previous two millennia (high confidence). Over the period 1901–2010, global mean sea level rose by 0.19 [0.17 to 0.21] m.§ The atmospheric concentraAons of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. CO2 concentraAons have increased by 40% since pre-industrial Ames, primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use change emissions. The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emi" ed anthropogenic carbon dioxide, causing ocean acidificaAon.


§ Human influence on the climate system is clear. This is evident from the increasing greenhouse gas concentraAons in the atmosphere, posiAve radiaAve forcing, observed warming, and understanding of the climate system.§ Climate models have improved since the AR4. Models reproduceobserved conAnental-scale surface temperature pa " erns and trends overmany decades, including the more rapid warming since the mid-20th century and the cooling immediately following large volcanic erupAons (very high confidence).§ ObservaAonal and model studies of temperature change, climatefeedbacks and changes in the Earth’s energy budget together provideconfidence in the magnitude of global warming in response to past andfuture forcing.


▪Human influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean This evidence for human influence has grown since AR4. It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.§ ConAnued emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and changes in all components of the climate system. LimiAng climate change will require substanAal and sustained reducAons of greenhouse gas emissions.§ Global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century is likely to exceed 1.5°C relaAve to 1850 to 1900 for all RCP scenarios except RCP2.6. It is likely to exceed 2°C for RCP6.0 and RCP8.5, and more likely than not to exceed 2°C for RCP4.5. Warming will conAnue beyond 2100 under all RCP scenarios except RCP2.6. Warming will conAnue to exhibit interannual-to-decadal variability and will not be regionally uniform.


▪Changes in the global water cycle in response to the warming over the 21st century will not be uniform. The contrast in precipitaAon between wet and dry regions and between wet and dry seasons will increase, although there may be regional excepAons.§ The global ocean will conAnue to warm during the 21st century. Heat will penetrate from the surface to the deep ocean and affect ocean circulaAon.§ It is very likely that the ArcAc sea ice cover will conAnue to shrink and thin as global mean surface temperature rises. Global glacier volume will further decrease.§ Global mean sea level will conAnue to rise during the 21st century. Underall RCP scenarios the rate of sea level rise will very likely exceed that observed during 1971–2010 due to increased ocean warming and increased loss of mass from glaciers and ice sheets.▪ Most aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries even ifemissions of CO2 are stopped. This represents a substanAal mulA-century climate change commitment created by past, present and future emissions of CO2.


The RadiaAve Balance

A Phase space view

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: the 5th Assessment ReportIPCC – AR5

WG I:The Physical Science

Basis

WG II:Impacts, Adaptation,

and Vulnerability

WG III:Mitigation of

Climate Change

Key SPM Messages

19 Headlineson less than 2 Pages

Summary for Policymakers ca. 14,000 Words

14 ChaptersAtlas of Regional Projections

54,677 Review Commentsby 1089 Experts

2010: 259 Authors Selected

2009: WGI Outline Approved

Observed Changes in the Climate System

Observed Changes in the Climate SystemWarming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes areunprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snowand ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentraAons of greenhouse gases have increased.

Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounting formore than 90% of the energy accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence). It is virtuallycertain that the upper ocean (0–700 m) warmed from 1971 to 2010.

Over the last two decades, the Greenland and Antarc4c ice sheets have been losing mass, glaciers haveconAnued to shrink almost worldwide, and Arc4c sea ice and Northern Hemisphere spring snow cover haveconAnued to decrease in extent (high confidence).

The rate of sea level rise since the mid-19th century has been larger than the mean rate during the previoustwo millennia (high confidence). Over the period 1901 to 2010, global mean sea level rose by 0.19 [0.17 to0.21] m.

The atmospheric concentra4ons of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levelsunprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Carbon dioxide concentra4ons have increased by 40% sincepre-industrial 4mes, primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use change emissions.The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emiS ed anthropogenic carbon dioxide, causing ocean acidificaAon.

WGI - IPCC 5° Assessment Report

Figure SPM.1aObserved globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature anomaly 1850-2012

All Figures © IPCC 2013Changes in surface temperature

Figure SPM.1bObserved change in surface temperature 1901-2012

Figure SPM.3MulAple observed indicators of a changing global climate

All Figures © IPCC 2013Changes in Criosphere and Oceans

Climate change: detecAon and a " ribuAon

• Climate change refers to any change (mean state and/ or variability) in climate over time (sufficiently long .. 30years! ), whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity

• Detection of climate change is the process of demonstrating that climate has changed in some defined statistical sense, without providing a reason for that change.

• Attribution of causes of climate change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the detected change with some defined level of confidence (Chapter 1, AR5, IPCC WG1)

Extreme Events

• “There are a number of ways extreme climate events can be defined, such as extreme daily temperatures, extreme daily rainfall amounts, large areas experiencing unusually warm monthlytemperatures, or even storm events such ashurricanes. Extreme events can also be defined by the impact an event has on society. That may involveexcessive loss of life, excessive economic or monetary losses or both.” (Easterling et al. 2000)

Convection

What happens to the particles in a liquid or a gas when you heat them?

The particles spread out and become less dense.

This effects fluid movement.What is a fluid? A liquid or gas.

Fluid movement

Cooler, more dense, fluids sink through warmer, less dense fluids.

In effect,

warmer liquids and gases rise up.

Cooler liquids and gases sink.

Documents

Understanding OceanandEarth System Sciencethrough models · 2016. 8. 15. · ORCA2 grid ECHAM-T106 grid FIELD EXCHANGE BETWEEN ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN MODELS The interpolation issue