Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with Autism Two Models of Discrete Trial...
117
Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with Autism Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with Autism a. Lovaas Model
Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with
Autism Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children
with Autism a. Lovaas Model (utilizing the UCLA curriculum) b.
Errorless Teaching (utilizing the ABLLS as curriculum)
Slide 3
The Discrete Trial (a three-term contingency) S D R S R
(Discriminative Stimulus) (Response) (Reinforcing Stimulus) (a
four-term contingency) (a four-term contingency) EO/S D R S R
(Establishing Operation/Discriminative Stimulus) (Response)
(Reinforcing Stimulus)
Slide 4
Definitions 1. S D (Discriminative Stimulus): An 1. S D
(Discriminative Stimulus): An environmental cue or instruction that
signals that reinforcement is available for a target behavior. 2. R
(Response) : 2. R (Response) : The behavior the child exhibits
immediately following the presentation of the S D. S R (Reinforcing
Stimulus) 3. S R (Reinforcing Stimulus) : The consequence following
the childs response that changes the likelihood with which the
behavior will reoccur.
Slide 5
Consecutive Trials Using the Three-Term Contingency SD R SR ITI
SD R SR ITI SD R SR - This sequence is adhered to most often at the
early stages of teaching regardless of the model of treatment that
is being utilized.
Slide 6
Definitions 4. ITI (Inter-trial Interval) - The time between
the end of the consumption of the reinforcer or administration of
the punisher (NO) and the presentation of the next S D. - When
thinning the reinforcement schedule, the ITI is the time between
the end of one response and the presentation of the next S D. -
Depending on the model of treatment, the ITI will be from less than
one second up to three seconds.
Slide 7
Consecutive Trials Using the Three-Term Contingency SD R ITI SD
R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SR This sequence
can be employed when thinning the reinforcement schedule or
increasing the pace of instruction regardless of the model of
treatment. This sequence is also employed when presenting SDs in a
mixed and varied format or when stimuli are presented in random
rotation.
Slide 8
Definitions 5. Mixing and Varying (errorless)/Random Rotation
(Lovaas) : The random presentation of any mastered response from
any program with any current target response from any program. 6.
Program : A skill or concept that is being taught (e.g., Expressive
Picture Labels or Pronouns or Prepositions are all programs). 7.
Mastered Response : A response that was taught within a program. 8.
Field: The top of the table where stimuli are placed.
Slide 9
Definitions 9. Current Target : A response that is currently
being taught within a program (e.g., cup, my shirt, on top) 10.
Prompt : Assistance provided by the adult in order to increase the
likelihood that the child will be successful at completing the
response. The prompt should be delivered immediately following the
S D. (e.g., S D (prompt) R S R ) (e.g., S D (prompt) R S R ) 11.
Stimulus : An item or event in the environment that can be detected
by the senses (pl. stimuli).
Slide 10
Definitions 12. Discrimination Training: The procedure that
teaches children to be able to distinguish one item (or other
response) from another. 13. Extinction: The process in which
behavior that has been previously reinforced is or longer
reinforced, therefore the frequency of the behavior decreases.
Slide 11
When to use No 1. In the UCLA model it is recommended that an
informational No or extinction is employed when a child responds
incorrectly. 2. Using two consecutive Nos prior to delivering a
prompt should be primarily confined to points in the discrimination
training procedure when the child will be offered opportunities to
change and adapt his/her behavior in response to corrective
feedback (i.e., the absence of reinforcement). In other words, we
are saying to the child, try again.
Slide 12
When to use No 3. During the teaching of new responses, the
correct procedure to employ following an incorrect response
(according to the UCLA model) is to employ the least intrusive
prompt that will facilitate the response. The goal at the early
stages of discrimination training is to introduce the item and make
the child successful not to teach them to adapt to corrective
feedback. 4. There is not a procedure called the no-no prompt in
the UCLA model this evolved due to a somewhat altered understanding
of the correct manner in which this kind of feedback would be
employed.
Slide 13
Advantages of Using No as Corrective Feedback 1. Teaches the
child to adapt and change his or her behavior in response to the
absence of reinforcement. In other words, it offers the child an
opportunity to try something different. 2. The ability to adapt and
change your behavior in response to the absence of reinforcement is
a skill required in incidental learning situations (i.e., real
life). 3. No is a naturally occurring consequence in every persons
life.
Slide 14
Using No Correctly Example of Using No with the Current Target
in Random Rotation 1. S D 1-------correct---------reinforce 2. S D
2-------correct-------- reinforce 3. S D
1-------correct----------reinforce (switch positions) 4. S D
2--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions) 5. S D
3--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions) 6. S D
3--------correct----------reinforce 7. S D
1--------correct-----------reinforce 8. S D 2----incorrect-------
No 9. S D 2---------incorrect------------- No 10. S D 2
(prompt)------correct------reinforce (switch position) 11. S D
2---------correct-------------reinforce 12. S D
3---------correct----------- reinforce 13. S D
2---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position) 14. S D
3---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position) 15. S D
2---------correct-------------reinforce S D 1: Touch toothbrush S D
2: Touch shoe S D 3: Touch cup
Slide 15
Advantages of Using No as Corrective Feedback 4. Teaches
children to avoid negative consequences. 5. Strong contrast between
when response is incorrect vs. correct may make social praise more
reinforcing. 6. May reduce dependency on prompts.
Slide 16
Disadvantages of Using No as Corrective Feedback 1. Child may
demonstrate problem behavior in response to its presentation. 2.
Child may have a period of responding incorrectly on purpose in
order to hear No. (NOTE: This same kind of behavior may be
demonstrated by typically developing children when they do or say
things incorrectly in order to get a reaction from their parent,
teachers etc. so is it REALLY a disadvantage?) 3. Therapists may
default to employing No too often which may result in problem
behavior due to excessive failure.
Slide 17
Definitions 14. Stimulus Control: Some specific behavior is
more likely to occur in the presence of some specific S D. For
example: Tell a child to touch the cup and then prompt him by
pointing to the cup. The child then touches the cup. The S D that
is most likely controlling the childs response is the instructors
point and not the verbal instruction, touch the cup.
Slide 18
Definitions 15. Transfer Trial: The first trial is prompted
followed by a second unprompted trial. For example, if the child is
told to touch the cup and then the instructor points to the cup,
the childs response is under stimulus control of the instructors
point. If immediately following the prompted trial the instructor
tells the child to touch the cup and the child responds correctly
the instructor has shifted stimulus control from the point to the
verbal instruction.
Slide 19
Using Near-errorless Teaching Procedures INITIAL PRESENTATION
OF STIMULUS Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY PROMPT)----------Correct
Response -------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (2 sec
DELAY)---------------Correct Response---------SR (~1-3 interceding
trials consisting of mastered responses) Stimulus 1 (2 sec
DELAY)---------------Correct Response-------------SR (Future
Presentations of the stimulus will be presented with a 2 second
delay) These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent
J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout
from March 2004.
Slide 20
Using Near-errorless Teaching Procedures Using Near-errorless
Teaching Procedures Example: 1.Instructor says, Touch the shoe and
then prompts the child to touch the shoe. 2.Instructor switches the
position of the item in the field and repeats, Touch the shoe 3.The
child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor. 4.The
instructor says, Clap your hands (mastered response). As the child
responds, the instructor switches the position of the item in the
field. 5.Child responds appropriately. 6.The instructor says, What
am I doing? as she knocks on the table (mastered response) 7.The
child responds, knocking 8.The instructor says, Do this. and
touches her nose (mastered response) 9.The child imitates the
instructors action. 10.The instructor says, Touch the shoe. 11.The
child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor.
Slide 21
Using Near-errorless Teaching Procedures: Correction Procedure
Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY PROMPT)------------------Correct Response
--------------- SR Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY
PROMPT)------------------Correct Response --------------- SR
TRANSFER TRIAL TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (2 sec
DELAY)------------Incorrect or NO Response Stimulus 1 (2 sec
DELAY)------------Incorrect or NO Response CORRECTION TRIAL
CORRECTION TRIAL Re-Present Stimulus 1 (0 sec
DELAY)------------------Correct Response------------------SR
Re-Present Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY)------------------Correct
Response------------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus
1 (2 sec DELAY) ---------------------Correct
Response---------------------------SR Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY)
---------------------Correct Response---------------------------SR
(If learner is incorrect again on the transfer trial, return to 0
second delay to achieve correct response and move on, BUT ASK
YOURSELF, Why is the transfer not occurring?) SEVERAL RESPONSES
LATER SEVERAL RESPONSES LATER Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY
[Phoneme/Mimetic Prompt])-----Correct Response---------------SR
Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY [Phoneme/Mimetic Prompt])-----Correct
Response---------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1
(2 sec DELAY) -----------------Correct
Response----------------------------SR Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY)
-----------------Correct Response----------------------------SR
These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J.
Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout from
March 2004. These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr.
Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop
handout from March 2004.
Slide 22
Advantages of Errorless Teaching 1. Reduces learner errors
through teaching methods that insure high levels of correct
responding. 2. Using of transfer trials and intermixing of easy and
difficult demands may have a positive effect on the childs
motivation to continue responding and reduce the motivation to
escape. 3. Fast paced instruction may have a positive effect on the
childs motivation to continue responding and reduce the motivation
to escape.
Slide 23
Disadvantages of Errorless Teaching 1. If not employed
correctly, child may become prompt dependent. 2. Does not offer the
child an opportunity to respond to corrective feedback. 3. Typical
learning environments do not offer fast paced instruction therefore
programming for more natural learning contingencies is a necessity
that may easily be overlooked.
Slide 24
Definitions 16. Mastery Criteria: Criteria that is established
to determine if a specific response or set of responses has been
learned. Typically with Trial-by-Trial data mastery criteria may be
set at 90-100% independent/correct responding across three
consecutive sessions or teachers or days. When using Probe Data, a
response or set of responses may have been learned by the child
once he/she has scored three consecutive Ys. 17. Percent Correct
Graph: This graph should be completed at the end of each session.
Each instructor should calculate the percent of correct responding
in each program and plot a point on the graph. 18. Cumulative
Graph: The total number of responses mastered each week will be
graphed at the end of each week. Each consecutive week the total
acquired for the week is added to the previous weeks number. This
kind of graph can be used if you are colleting probe data or trial
by trial data. (For example, is week one a child may master 3
responses, therefore a point would be plotted on the graph at 3.
During week two the child masters 5 more responses, the next point
on the graph would therefore be 8.)
Slide 25
Discrimination Learning Discrimination Learning This procedure
is used to teach the child to This procedure is used to teach the
child to discriminate between the first two items discriminate
between the first two items within a program. within a program. The
procedure outlined is for programs involving the use of stimuli.
The procedure outlined is for programs involving the use of
stimuli. Slight modifications will need to be made for those
programs not involving stimuli. Slight modifications will need to
be made for those programs not involving stimuli.
Slide 26
Discrimination Learning Step A: Choose Targets which are
maximally discriminable in: Step A: Choose Targets which are
maximally discriminable in: Physical appearance (e.g., a block and
car). Sound (e.g., cup vs. dinosaur). Function (e.g., a ball and
truck vs. a shoe and sock). For targets that do not involve the use
of stimuli different response topography (e.g., hands vs. feet).
(e.g., hands vs. feet).
Slide 27
Discrimination Learning Step B: Mass Trial Target Item #1 Step
B: Mass Trial Target Item #1 Repeatedly present target item #1 with
prompts. Gradually and systematically fade the prompts. Place the
item in different locations around the table between trials. For
programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding
to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a
distracter object. The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little
to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin could be
used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position
of the objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3
distracters. Once the child is correctly responding to target item
#1 at 80% or greater accuracy (with distracters), introduce target
item #2.
Slide 28
Discrimination Learning Step C: Mass Trial Target Item #2 Step
C: Mass Trial Target Item #2 Repeatedly present target item #2 with
prompts. Gradually and systematically fade prompts. Place the item
in different locations around the table between trials. For
programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding
to target item #2 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a
distracter object. The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little
to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin could be
used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position
of the objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3
distracters. Once the child is correctly responding to target item
#1 at 80% or greater accuracy (with distracters), move to Step
D.
Slide 29
Discrimination Learning Step D: Mass Trial item #2 in the
presence of #1 Step D: Mass Trial item #2 in the presence of #1
Repeatedly present item #2 with item #1 also on the table. Rotate
the position of the objects on the table between trials. Continue
to ask only for target item # 2. Once 80% or greater accuracy is
achieved move to Step E.
Slide 30
Discrimination Learning Step E: Mass Trial item #1 in the
presence of #2 Step E: Mass Trial item #1 in the presence of #2
Repeatedly present item #1 with item #2 also on the table. Rotate
the position of the objects on the table between trials. Continue
to ask only for target item #1. Once 80% or greater accuracy is
achieved move to Step F.
Slide 31
Discrimination Learning Step F: Block Trials (moving toward
random rotation) Step F: Block Trials (moving toward random
rotation) Begin with either target item #1 or target item #2 and
present each in blocks of trials as outlined below. Present a block
of trials of target item #1 in the presence of target item #2 for
approximately 6 trials (make sure at least the last 2 trials are
independent correct responses before going to the next step). Give
the child a break (i.e., a short play break). Present a block of
trials of target item #2 in the presence of target item #1 for
approximately 6 trials. Prompt the correct response on the switch
trial (i.e., when switching from one target to the other).
Slide 32
Discrimination Learning Over time, as the child demonstrates
consistency: Over time, as the child demonstrates consistency:
Decrease the number of trials per block. Decrease the length of the
break until you are conducting both blocks within the same sitting.
Fade the level of prompting on the switch trial.
Slide 33
Discrimination Learning Step G: Random Rotation Step G: Random
Rotation Randomly present the S D for target item #1 and target
item #2 (i.e., free from pattern as if flipping a coin repeatedly).
Rotate the position of the items on the table between trials. Both
items are considered mastered once the child responds correctly to
at least 80% of the trials in random rotation.
Slide 34
Expanded Trials What is that?
Slide 35
Expanded Trials Why, its the systematic increasing of the
number of distracters between the presentations of the target
response in order to increase the childs memory for the target
responsesilly!
Slide 36
Expanded Trials This procedure is used to promote retention of
information across time by systematically increasing the length of
time across which the child must retain the information. It is
particularly helpful if a child is not able to move past block
trials or has difficulty learning to discriminate between items. It
is particularly helpful if a child is not able to move past block
trials or has difficulty learning to discriminate between items.
This procedure may also be used if the child has difficulty
retaining newly acquired items across sessions or days when placed
in random rotation. This procedure may also be used if the child
has difficulty retaining newly acquired items across sessions or
days when placed in random rotation.
Slide 37
Expanded Trials Program: Receptive Instructions New Target:
clap Step 1: Present the target response. Prompt as needed so the
child experiences immediate success. Step 2: Fade prompts until the
child is responding independently. Step 3: Begin Expanded
Trials.
Slide 38
Expanded Trials Here is an abbreviated example of how expanded
trials may look over several sittings: Target item: Clap Sitting 1
Sitting 2Sitting 3 Clap Clap Clap Wave Stomp Stand-up Clap Knock
Kick Jump Clap Wave Clap Kick Clap Kick Stand-up Knock Clap Point
Point Jump Clapkick Pointwave Clap Clap
Slide 39
Expanded Trials Guidelines Guidelines 1. If the child responds
incorrectly to one of the distracter responses, do not begin
prompting this response. Instead, continue with the expansion of
the target response. Review the incorrect response later during the
session. 2. If the target response is incorrect at any point during
expansion, return to the previous level of success (i.e., number of
distracters where the child experienced success). 3. Work to extend
the procedure across the day, working with time intervals rather
than the number of interceding trials.
Slide 40
Collapsing Trials Q: What is that? A: A procedure that can be
employed when a child is demonstrating consistent discrimination
errors between two or more target responses.
Slide 41
Collapsing Trials 1. Follows same rules as Expanded Trials
regarding distracter trials. 2. Here is an abbreviated example of
how Collapsing Trials may look over several sittings:
Discrimination Error in Receptive Object Labeling: fork vs. spoon
Sitting 1 Sitting 2 Sitting 3 Sitting 4 touch Fork touch spoon give
me the spoon find the fork touch car Stomp feet Stand-up do this
whats your name ? a dog is an.... touch head touch airplane Jump
Clap a cup is for find the spoon Clap Do this touch the fork. This
is . give me the fork etc. Spoon 3. Continue reducing the number of
distracter trials until the two targets are back to back. 4. When
there are discrimination errors, it is highly recommended that you
collect trial by trial data. 5. Have a separate section in the
logbook for discrimination errors. Do not let discrimination errors
hold up the rest of the program.
Slide 42
Generalization Generalization Stimulus Generalization Stimulus
Generalization Definition: The extent to which a behavior taught in
one situation is subsequently performed in another situation. a.
Across People - the childs ability to respond to people other than
those involved in original teaching. b. Across Environments - the
childs ability to respond in different locations other than the
table and chair (e.g., sitting on the couch, on the floor, at
school etc). (e.g., sitting on the couch, on the floor, at school
etc). c. Across S D s - the childs ability to respond to different
S D s (e.g., sit here, sit down, have a seat). d. Across Stimuli -
the childs ability to respond to different examples of the stimulus
used in teaching.
Slide 43
Generalization Response Generalization Response Generalization
Definition: The extent to which, by teaching one behavior, you see
changes in other behaviors although these other behaviors were not
explicitly taught (e.g., you teach a child to put away toys to the
S D clean up and the child also begins to throw away garbage and
put books away on the shelf).
Slide 44
Generalization Maintenance Maintenance Definition: The extent
to which behaviors are maintained across time (e.g., a behavior is
taught at time 1, and the child maintains the behavior at times 2,
3, and 4). R R R R R R R R
I-----------------I--------I--------------------I
I-----------------I--------I--------------------I T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2
T3 T4
Slide 45
Generalization General Techniques for Promoting Generalization
General Techniques for Promoting Generalization Vary stimulus
conditions over time. Vary stimulus conditions over time. a. Have
multiple teachers and styles. b. Vary the stimuli. c. Vary the
wording of instructions and questions. d. Vary the teaching
environment.
Slide 46
Generalization General Techniques for Promoting Generalization
General Techniques for Promoting Generalization e. Make antecedents
(S D s) natural. f. Making reinforcers natural. g. Make trials less
discrete and more similar to typical interactions. h. Do
"incidental" teaching. i. Build retention of information into your
teaching procedures.
Slide 47
Data Collection Trial-by-Trial 1. This form of data collection
requires every single response to be scored while the child and
instructor are working. Data collection would occur during the
inter-trial interval. 2. May provide the information needed to
determine if a child is demonstrating consistent discrimination
errors between two or more items. Most efficient way to determine
if discrimination errors are being remediated. 3. Data calculated
as a percent correct at the end of every session and then graphed.
4. May be more sensitive to more subtle increases or decreases in
correct responding, incorrect responding and non- responding.
Slide 48
Data Collection Trial-by-Trial 5. Trial-by-trial data can be
employed as an excellent training tool for new instructors; these
data would allow the new instructor as well as their supervisor to
review the instructors teaching procedures. 6. Can be compared to
video tapes of a childs therapy session for measure of reliability.
7. Can accurately track the rate of acquisition from day to
day.
Slide 49
Data Collection Trial-by-Trial 8. Supervisors know exactly how
many trials per response or program are practiced over time. 9. May
be time consuming if instructor is not fluent at collecting these
data and therefore may interfere with the pace of instruction.
Slide 50
Slide 51
Data Collection Probe Data 1. Data collected one time per day.
Typically at the beginning of the first session of the day prior to
teaching. 2. When collecting probe data allow three seconds for
vocal responses and longer for complex motor or scanning responses.
3. If the response is correct (i.e., occurs within the allotted
time) score a Y for yes. 4. If the response does not occur within
the allotted time or the response is incorrect employ the
correction procedure and score the response with an N for No. 5.
Graph the total acquired at the end of each week on a cumulative
graph. 6. Does not provide information regarding specific
discrimination errors that may occur. 7. Is not sensitive to subtle
changes in the childs responding.
Slide 52
Slide 53
Definitions Definitions 19. Graph: Visual tool used to display
data. 20. Line Graph: Most commonly used when displaying data from
a program. 21. X-axis: The line on the bottom of the graph (i.e.,
horizontal axis).
Slide 54
Definitions Definitions 22. Y- axis: The line on the side of
the graph (i.e., vertical axis). 23. Phase/Condition Change Lines:
Vertical lines are noted when there are changes in program, target,
baseline, intervention etc. 24. Phase/Condition Labels: Written
along the top of the graph, these note the current phase.
Slide 55
Slide 56
Benefits of Graphing Data 1. All of the data from one program
or from one intervention are all in one place and easily
accessible. 2. This allows the team to determine if a response has
been mastered without having to look through weeks of raw data
(i.e., data sheets). 3. In the case of behavior reduction
procedures, it allows the team to know if the intervention is
working. 4. Displaying the data allows all team members to have a
better understanding of how the child is progressing within each
program, this may prove to motivate the team to generate new and
fresh ideas when the child is not progressing quickly. If the child
is progressing rapidly, the display of such progress can prove to
be reinforcing to the childs team.
Slide 57
Benefits of Graphing Data Benefits of Graphing Data 5. Allows
measurement of rate of progress across programs which in turn
provides the answers to such questions as How many more days should
we be on this target prior to dropping it? 6. You can show the
different dimensions of behavior including, frequency, intensity,
duration and latency. 7. Overall, lets everyone know if the child
is making any progress as a result of the intervention. 8. The
childs progress performance and achievement may be higher when
graphs are used to interpret progress. 9. Maximizes instructional
effectiveness if the graphs are frequently monitored.
Slide 58
Definitions Definitions 25. Accuracy: Typically measured by the
percent correct. These data let the team know that the child can
perform a task. 26. Fluency: How rapidly a child can perform a
task. 27. Rate: How rapidly a child can perform a task within a
given period of time.
Slide 59
Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data 1. Make No
Change. -The child is progressing well and as expected, there is no
need to change. Be sure to continue to frequently monitor the
graphs even if the child is doing well. 2. Change the goal. - The
child is not progressing as expected and it is apparent that the
current target or program is not appropriate. Discontinue the
program and reintroduce at a later date once prerequisites have
been met or discontinue the current target and select a new
target.
Slide 60
Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data 3. Slice
Back. - This means that the team should teach an easier version of
the same skill prior to reintroducing the current version. For
example, if the current target is imitation of two step actions and
the child is not progressing well, it may prove beneficial for the
team to have the child practice two step actions on objects. The
object may make the task more salient for the child and the current
skill of imitating two step actions is still being targeted. - This
means that the team should teach an easier version of the same
skill prior to reintroducing the current version. For example, if
the current target is imitation of two step actions and the child
is not progressing well, it may prove beneficial for the team to
have the child practice two step actions on objects. The object may
make the task more salient for the child and the current skill of
imitating two step actions is still being targeted. 4. Step Back: -
Be sure prerequisites are met. For example, if the child has been
practicing two step actions in an imitation program and is not
progressing, it may prove beneficial to discontinue the two step
actions and be sure that the child has mastered and generalized the
ability to imitate any single action. - Be sure prerequisites are
met. For example, if the child has been practicing two step actions
in an imitation program and is not progressing, it may prove
beneficial to discontinue the two step actions and be sure that the
child has mastered and generalized the ability to imitate any
single action.
Slide 61
Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data 5. Try a
Different Instructional Procedure - The team may be confident that
a current skill or target is appropriate and yet there is not
progress. The team should then work on finding an effective
prompting procedure or different stimuli or teaching procedure or
they may need to develop a prompt hierarchy for the team to follow.
- Prior to making these kinds of adjustments the first thing to
check is if the current procedure is being implemented correctly
and consistently across instructors.
Slide 62
Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data 6. Move on to
a New Phase of Learning - If the child has achieved mastery
criteria for a current target is it time to move on to a new
target? generalization phase? a fluency phase? - For example, if a
child can identify a number of objects by touching them when the
name of the object is presented, can he/she perform the same skill
quickly and fluently and for longer periods of time.
Slide 63
Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data 7. Move on to
a New Skill If the data show that a skill can be demonstrated
fluently, accurately and under a variety of conditions it may be
time to move on to a new program. Be sure to continue to monitor
previously acquired responses once new skills or concepts have been
introduced.
Slide 64
Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data 8. Begin
Compliance Training - In some cases the data reflect a high rate of
non-response. If the team agrees that the current target and
teaching procedures are appropriate and the child should be able to
perform the task, there may be a need for a program to be
implemented that involves the child complying with the instructors
directives.
Slide 65
Principles of Reinforcement Primary vs. Secondary 1. Primary
(Unconditioned) = things which are naturally reinforcing (e.g.,
food, drink). 2. Secondary (Conditioned) = things which acquire
reinforcing properties with learning (e.g., toys, games, praise,
grades, privileges etc.).
Slide 66
Principles of Reinforcement Contingent vs. Non- contingent 1.
Contingent = Delivered after child has responded to specific
instruction (e.g., responding to an S D ) 2. Non-contingent =
Delivered in the absence of a specific demand (e.g., Child is
sitting quietly on a couch watching television, an adult approaches
and hands the child an m&m.)
Slide 67
Principles of Reinforcement Varied vs. Differential 1. Varied =
Offering the child a variety of reinforcers across a number of
trials (e.g., hugs, toys, food etc. NOT monotonously saying Good
Job! over and over and over and over) 2. Differential = Most
powerful reinforcers are delivered for the best responses.
Slide 68
Principles of Reinforcement Positive vs. Negative 1. Positive =
ADDING something to the situation. 2. Negative= REMOVING something
from the situation.
Definitions 28. Positive Reinforcement - Adding something to
Increase behavior 29. Negative Reinforcement - Remove something to
Increase behavior 30. Positive Punishment - Add something to
Decrease behavior 31. Negative Punishment - Remove something to
Decrease behavior
Slide 71
What influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? What
influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? Immediacy
Reinforcement must be delivered immediately following the target
behavior (i.e., response). Contingency A relationship between a
response and a consequence in which the consequence is presented if
and only if the response occurs. Miltenberger (pg. 559, 2004)
Slide 72
What influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? What
influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? Deprivation Lack of
access to a reinforcing item increases the value of that item as a
reinforcer. Satiation Constant access to a reinforcing item
decreases the value of that item as a reinforcer. Once the item has
lost its value, it is no longer a reinforcer.
Slide 73
What influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? What
influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? Individual
Differences What may be a reinforcer for one child may not be a
reinforcer for another child. Magnitude The amount of a reinforcer
that is available may make that reinforcer stronger, thereby
strengthening the behavior that preceded it faster than less
reinforcement.
Slide 74
Schedules of Reinforcement Definition: Specifies which
responses will be followed by delivery of the reinforcer. -
Miltenberger (pg.565, 2004) Schedules of Reinforcement Definition:
Specifies which responses will be followed by delivery of the
reinforcer. - Miltenberger (pg.565, 2004) Extinction (EXT)
Intermittent (INT) Continuous (CRF) Three Main Schedules
Slide 75
Schedules of Reinforcement Extinction (EXT) Intermittent (INT)
Continuous (CRF) 1. Extinction (EXT): None of the target behaviors
are followed by reinforcement. 2. Continuous (CRF): All of the
target behaviors are followed by reinforcement. 3. Intermittent
(INT): Some occurrences of the target behavior are followed by
reinforcement.
Slide 76
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio Schedules Ratio
schedules require that a certain number of responses be emitted
before one response is reinforced. - Cooper, Heron, Heward
(1987,pg. 278) Interval Schedules Interval schedules require that a
given interval of time elapses before a response can be reinforced.
- Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987,pg. 278)
Slide 77
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio and Interval
schedules can be applied in a FIXEDor VARIABLE manner. Fixed Ratio
(FR): The ratio remains constant. Example: FR3 = after every third
correct response the child receives a reinforcer. Variable Ratio
(VR): The number of correct responses prior to reinforcement
varies. Example: VR3 = On average, after every third correct
response the child receives a reinforcer.
Slide 78
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval (FI): In
a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement, the first correct or
desired response after a designated and constant amount of time
produces the reinforcer. - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284) -
Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284) Example: FI 6 = After six
minutes, the first correct or desired response the child receives a
reinforcer. Example: FI 6 = After six minutes, the first correct or
desired response the child receives a reinforcer. Variable Interval
(VI): In a variable interval schedulereinforcement is contingent
upon the passage of time. - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284)
Example: VI 6 = On average, the child will receive reinforcement
after six minutes have elapsed.
Slide 79
Advantages of the Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement
1.The child cannot anticipate when the reinforcer will be delivered
thereby creating consistency of responding. 2. Increased rates of
responding. 3. Resistance to Extinction
Slide 80
On page 564 in Miltenberger, Resistance to Extinction is
defined asthe tendency for a person to continue to respond after
extinction is in effect for the behavior.
Slide 81
Punishment The most common misconception about punishment by
persons not in the field of behavior analysis is the
misinterpretation that PUNISHMENT is something that is meted out to
a person who has committed a crime or other inappropriate behavior.
In this context, punishment involves not only the hope that the
behavior will cease, but also elements of retribution or
retaliation; part of the intent is to hurt the person that has
committed the crime. Authority figures such as governments, police,
churches, or parents impose punishment to inhibit inappropriate
behavior-that is, to keep people from breaking laws or rules.
Punishment may involve prison time, the electric chair, fines, the
threat of going to hell, spanking or scolding. However the every
day meaning of punishment is very different from the technical
definition of punishment used in behavior modification.
-M-M-M-Miltenberger (pg. 114, 2004)
Slide 82
Punishment In Behavior Modification the term punishment only
refers to a consequence that makes a particular behavior less
likely to occur in the future. - Miltenberger (pg. 112, 2004)
Slide 83
Punishment Punishment Positive Punishment 1. The occurrence of
a behavior 2. is followed by the presentation of an aversive
stimulus 3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur
in the future. Example 1: While driving in traffic, you look down
to find the cell phone that is ringing You are not aware that the
car in front of you has stopped, you hit the car fast enough to
deploy the airbag which hits you full force causing lacerations and
contusions. The next time you are driving in traffic you have a
hands free unit in order to avoid having to look down to answer the
phone.
Slide 84
Punishment Positive Punishment 1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus 3. and,
as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 2: 1. A child is near a hot stove 2. T he child touches the
hot stove and gets a mild burn on his hand 3. T he child is less
likely to touch the hot stove in the future.
Slide 85
Punishment Negative Punishment 1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the removal of a reinforcing stimulus 3. and, as
a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 1: A child who is earning tokens contingent on responding
to the teacher in a specialized classroom is staring at the lights
in the class and does not respond when the teacher tells him to
take out a pencil The childs aide removes one of the tokens The
child stops looking at the lights
Slide 86
Punishment Negative Punishment 1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the removal of a reinforcing stimulus 3. and, as
a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 2: 1. A little girl who attended a preschool hit the other
children if they tried to play with her toys 2. T he teacher put
her in time-out 3. a nd, as a result the little girl no longer hits
the other children.
Slide 87
Problems with Punishment 1. Punishment may produce aggression
or other emotional side effects. 2. The use of punishment may
result in escape or avoidance behaviors by the person whose
behavior is being punished. 3. The use of punishment may be
negatively reinforcing for the person using punishment and thus may
result in the misuse or the overuse of punishment.
Slide 88
4. When punishment is used, its use is modeled and observers or
people whose behavior is punished may be more likely to use
punishment themselves in the future. 5. Punishment is associated
with a number of ethical issues and issues of acceptability.
Slide 89
All that reinforcement and punishment stuff is interesting but
how do I motivate the kids I work with?
Slide 90
How do we Motivate? Establishing Operation (E O ) Establishing
Operation (E O ) Any change in the environment which alters the
effectiveness of some object or event as reinforcement and
simultaneously alters the momentary frequency of the behavior that
has been followed by that reinforcement. Michael (1982) Michael
(1982)
Slide 91
Examples of E O s 1. Technical: Food deprivation makes food a
more effective form of reinforcement and increases the current
frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced with food.
Michael (2000) 2. Real Life: Child has not eaten for a few hours,
smells pizza and says, I want pizza. Why? What do you do next?
Slide 92
Examples of E O s 3. Real Life: A child is called to the work
table. The child complies (but is not happy about it) sits in the
chair fidgeting and not offering eye contact. The instructor
delivers social praise for leaving a preferred activity to return
to the work area. The instructor then presents the child with a
small box that contains a number of the childs highly preferred
items and before the instructor can say anything the child eagerly
says, Chip...chip.I want chip and offers eye contact and stops
fidgeting. Why? What do you think caused the change in the childs
motivation?
Slide 93
How? 1. Capture opportunities to build on language when the
child speaks first. Dont just have a preconceived notion of what
should happen next during the therapy session. 2. Contrive
opportunities for the child to speak first by making changes to the
environment that will stimulate the child to speak first; thereby
allowing the instructors to offer reinforcement and to expand on
the language that is being used.
Slide 94
Blah, blah, extinction, blah blah, reinforce, blah, blah, blah,
EO, blah, blah, blah, blah, I supposed to be programming this kid.
What behavioral curricula are available to me?
Slide 95
Curricula 1. UCLA (Lovaas) Curriculum: Not readily available to
the public. A Work in Progress is available which was written two
consultants who trained at the UCLA Clinic. Early learning programs
are outlined in both of Dr. Lovaas books. 2. The ABLLS: The
Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills. Sundberg and
Partington. Readily available to the public. Readily available to
the public. 3. The IGS (Individual Goal Selection) Curriculum.
Romanczyk, Lockshin and Matey. Readily available to the public.
Readily available to the public.
Slide 96
Programming Using the UCLA or IGS Curriculum 1. Receptive
Programs: Programs that require a child to respond non-verbally. 2.
Expressive Programs: Programs that require the child to respond
vocally. 3. Imitation Programs: Programs that require the child to
imitate the actions of others. 4. Conversation Programs: Teach
children to engage in contrived conversational exchanges that may
lead to more natural conversation skills. Teaching primarily
involves discrete trial teaching utilizing the three term
contingency (S D---- R ---- S R ) and incidental teaching away from
the teaching table. Note: There are other domains within these
curricula, but they are not the focus of discussion.
Slide 97
Programming Using Skinners Analysis of Verbal Behavior as
Outlined in the Sundberg and Partington Manuals 1. Mand: A request
that occurs under the control of the control of the childs
motivation (i.e., EO/MO). 2. Tact : Programs that require the child
to verbally label items, pictures etc. 3. Receptive: Programs that
require the child to identify items non-verbally. 4. Intraverbal:
Programming that requires the child to answer questions or fill-in
the blank. 5. Motor Imitation: Programs that require the child to
imitate the actions of another person. 6. Echoic: Imitating the
vocalizations of another person.
Slide 98
Programming Using Skinners Analysis of Verbal Behavior as
Outlined in the Sundberg and Partington Manuals Teaching primarily
focuses on the four term contingency (EO/S D -----R----S R ) and
NET (natural environment teaching) as the focus of teaching the
mand.
Slide 99
FUNCTIONS OF BEHAVIOR What is a function of behavior? What is a
function of behavior? Generally speaking, the variable maintaining
a given behavior (e.g., what might be reinforcing the behavior?). a
given behavior (e.g., what might be reinforcing the behavior?). -
Newman, Reeve, Reeve, and Ryan (2003 pg.51)
Slide 100
Four Classes of Reinforcing Consequences According to the
Functional Analysis Model Four Classes of Reinforcing Consequences
According to the Functional Analysis Model Social Positive
Reinforcement When a positively reinforcing consequence is
delivered by another person after the target behavior -Miltenberger
(2004 pg.261) When a positively reinforcing consequence is
delivered by another person after the target behavior -Miltenberger
(2004 pg.261) Social Negative Reinforcement Social Negative
Reinforcement When another person terminates an aversive
interaction, task, or activity after the occurrence of a target
behavior -Miltenberger (2004 pg.261) Automatic Positive
Reinforcement Automatic Positive Reinforcement the reinforcing
consequence of a target behavior is not mediated by another person
but occurs as an automatic consequence of the behavior itself.
-Miltenberger (2004 pg.262) Automatic Negative Reinforcement
Automatic Negative Reinforcement when the target behavior
automatically reduces or eliminates an aversive stimulus as a
consequence of the behavior. -Miltenberger (2004 pg.262)
-Miltenberger (2004 pg.262)
Slide 101
Four General Classes of Controlling Variables according to the
Communication Model 1. Attention 2. Escape or Avoidance 3. Access
to Materials or Activities 4. Sensory or Perceptual
Consequences
Slide 102
Behavior Reduction Behavior Reduction Descriptive Analysis
Operationally define the behavior. - Include a brief description of
how the staff have been addressing the behavior. - Conduct Baseline
measure to determine frequency, duration etc. - Collect A-B-C
(antecedent-behavior-consequence) data. - Identify the maintaining
reinforcer (i.e., function). - Identify potential replacement
behaviors. - Implement the behavior plan with a timeline for
reassessment. - Graph the data. - If the behavior plan has had
little or no effect REASSESS!
Slide 103
Two main reasons why behavior plans fail: 1. I NCONSISTENCY! 2.
W RONG PLAN!
Slide 104
Behavior Reduction Some reasons why behavior plans succeed: 1.
M aintaining contingency has been properly identified. 2. O
pportunity for the child to engage in appropriate replacement
behavior is frequently contrived (i.e., proactive) thereby allowing
team to deliver high rates of reinforcement for the replacement
behavior. 3. T he team has CONSISTENTLY followed through on all
components of intervention. 4. I ntervention consists of proactive
as well as reactive strategies.
Slide 105
Behavior Reduction General Rule: Use the least intrusive and
most natural technique that is effective. Remember: If mom and dad
cannot follow through with the intervention, choose another
intervention!
Slide 106
Basic Techniques for Reducing Behaviors Extinction Definition:
Removal of all reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior.
- Often used with aggression, attention-seeking behaviors,
tantrums, and verbal protest. - Attention is not paid to the
behavior nor are demands reduced as a result of the behavior. Do
not say no in response to the behavior. Continue with the
presentation of instructions without changing inflection in your
voice. Prompt the child, if necessary, to respond to your
instruction and provide a consequence to the response or lack
thereof to your SD. Avoid obvious changes in body language (e.g.,
facial expressions); children are often able to pick up even the
smallest of cues. - In order to remain consistent, it is necessary
to avoid inadvertently attempting to either comfort or quiet the
child when they are crying, which is a natural response to that
behavior. - Extinction is not effective for intrinsically
reinforcing behavior such as self- stimulatory behavior.
Slide 107
Basic Techniques for Reducing Behaviors DRO: Differential
Reinforcement of Other Behavior Definition: Any appropriate
behavior other than the behavior selected for reduction will be
reinforced. In other words, catch the child engaging in appropriate
behavior and deliver reinforcement. DRI/DRA: a. Differential
Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior b. Differential
Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior Definitions: a. A behavior
that is incompatible with the behavior selected forreduction is
followed by reinforcement. b. A behavior that has been selected to
replace the behavior selected for reduction is followed by
reinforcement.
Slide 108
Behavior Reduction Behavior Reduction Basic Techniques for
Reducing Behaviors Time-Out From Positive Reinforcement Definition:
Removal of all reinforcing stimuli for a period of time contingent
upon the behavior. Note that this differs from extinction in that
during extinction, only reinforcement for the target behavior is
withheld. Typically carried out in a specific location, such as a
Time Out chair, in an uninteresting environment. In order for
Time-Out to be effective, the child needs to find the removal from
people or the environment undesirable. As a general rule, the
duration of the time-out should be approximately 1 minute per year
of the childs age.
Slide 109
Behavior Reduction All Time-Outs should be conducted in a
well-lit, open, and supervised area. If the child is crying or
protesting, he should not be excused from Time Out until a
specified period (e.g., 30 seconds) of appropriate behavior has
elapsed. Do not excuse the child the moment he stops crying or
protesting. Do not reward the child when he leaves the time-out
situation. The child should be excused in a matter-of-fact manner.
Limitations: 1. Not effective if it allows the child to leave the
situation he/she was trying to avoid. 2. Not effective if the child
can engage in self-stimulatory behavior while in time- out. 3. Not
effective unless the child has a good repertoire of alternative
behaviors for which he/she will miss out on being reinforced.
Slide 110
Common Treatment Mistakes Made with Early Learners 1. Not
making learning reinforcing in general. 2. Overusing the child's
name, which may result in the child tuning out their name. 3. Not
requiring eye contact when it is appropriate. 4. Forgetting to
reward the child for frequently occurring behaviors such as sitting
well or coming over to the teaching table. 5. Not following a
prompted trial with an unprompted trial. 6. Not providing a prompt
after two incorrect trials, thus allowing repeated failures. 7. Not
prompting frequently enough for newly introduced responses. 8.
Providing a primary reinforcer for a prompted trial (i.e., not
using differential reinforcement). 9. Not ensuring all trials are
discrete
Slide 111
Common Treatment Mistakes Made with Early Learners 10. Not
being creative with the delivery of reinforcement. 11. Not
programming for generalization. 12. Not actively gaining the childs
attention through redirection and effective reinforcement
techniques. Or spending too much time at the beginning of a sitting
gaining the childs attention, making the child reliant upon this.
13. Waiting passively for the child to attend prior to presenting
an S D. 14. Relying on an attentional cue (e.g., ready pal) before
presenting an S D. 15. Allowing the child to self-correct or engage
in multiple responses. 16. Waiting longer than 3-5 seconds
following a non-response to provide a consequence. 17. The number
of failures is disproportionate to the number of successes. 18.
Allowing the child to respond with a winstay : loseshift
pattern.
Slide 112
Common Treatment Mistakes Made with Early Learners 19. Not
having clear response criteria. 20. Prompting inadvertently. 21.
Not introducing new items or formats when the child has mastered
all current items or formats. 22. Having too many items or programs
on acquisition at one time. 23. Not structuring the childs free
play time. 24. Continuing a sitting too long and losing the childs
attention or reducing motivation for quick accurate responding. 25.
Having children 3 years old and younger at a table and chair for
most of their therapy time. 26. Using ONLY discrete trials to teach
new skills and concepts. 27. Focusing on data collection and not
the child. 28. Blaming the childs disability for slow or no
acquisition instead of reviewing the programming, behavioral
interventions, reinforcers, instructor consistency and teaching
environments. 29. Having unclear roles and responsibilities of
staff; no chain of command. 30. Not involving the parents in ALL
aspects of THEIR childs program.
Slide 113
Parents 1. The childs parents are the most important part of
the team! They are the ones that are home after all of the
therapists They are the ones that are home after all of the
therapists leave. If they dont know how to follow through, the
child leave. If they dont know how to follow through, the child
will not get maximum benefit from their therapies. will not get
maximum benefit from their therapies. 2. Work with parents to teach
them how to work with their child. This should empower them whereas
not teaching them the proper instructional and behavior management
methods will make them feel helpless. 3. Be patient! Some parents
do not just jump right in and start doing therapy from day one.
Encourage them, ask them what they are comfortable learning how to
do. If they refuse, do not write them off, continue to provide
guidance and answer any and all questions in a professional
manner.
Slide 114
Parents 4. Many parents feel overwhelmed, so do not look or act
disappointed when they do not make materials or if they do not
offer refreshments at team meetings. Divide the responsibilities
for making materials amongst the individual team members. If
refreshments are an issue, eat before the team meeting and grab a
bottle of water. 5. If your responsibility is as parent trainer
then TRAIN. Arrive at your clients home with an agenda and then
teach the parents in a hands on manner, dont just talk. 6. You dont
have to be friends with a parent in order to be a good therapist
for their child.
Slide 115
Parents 7. Always respect the parents wishes. You are a guest
in their home. If they request something you disagree with, honor
the request in the moment and then bring it up with your
supervisor. Do not argue with or confront parents. 8. Dont bring
your private problems to your clients home. Take a deep breath
before you go into their home and teach their child. 9. Many
parents are very friendly and can be engaging, do not take
advantage of this. Remember, that is their childs therapy session.
Keep the chit-chat to a minimum. 10. Above all else, never
criticize the parents, their home or their child! We are here to
help them. Always offer support and encouragement and be sure to
reinforce parents when they are following through.