TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND SPORT

TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND

SPORTSPORT

MODERN PHYSICAL MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATIONEDUCATION

•1893—Thomas Wood1893—Thomas Wood—"The great —"The great thought in physical education is thought in physical education is not the education of the physical not the education of the physical nature, but the relation of nature, but the relation of physical training to complete physical training to complete educationeducation, and then the effort to , and then the effort to make the physical contribute its make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the full share to the life of the individual, in environment, individual, in environment, training, and culture."training, and culture."

THOMAS WOODTHOMAS WOOD

THOMAS WOODTHOMAS WOOD

• 1891-1901—Stanford—physical education and 1891-1901—Stanford—physical education and health undergraduate curricula establishedhealth undergraduate curricula established

• 1901-1932—Teachers College—physical 1901-1932—Teachers College—physical education and health undergraduate and education and health undergraduate and graduate curricula (1927—moved into health graduate curricula (1927—moved into health education)education)

• Emphasized educational goals through "natural Emphasized educational goals through "natural activities"—sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, activities"—sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, and recreation.and recreation.

• 1927—1927—The New Physical Education The New Physical Education with with Rosalind CassadyRosalind Cassady

LUTHER GULICKLUTHER GULICK


• YMCA Training School (1887-1900)YMCA Training School (1887-1900)• Director of Physical Training for New Director of Physical Training for New

York City Public Schools (1903-1908)York City Public Schools (1903-1908)• 1903—Public Schools Athletic League in 1903—Public Schools Athletic League in

New YorkNew York–Class athletics—track and field; Class athletics—track and field;

basketball; baseballbasketball; baseball–Athletic badge tests—dash; broad Athletic badge tests—dash; broad

jump; pull-upsjump; pull-ups– Interschool athletics—Madison Square Interschool athletics—Madison Square

GardenGarden


• Jesse Bancroft Jesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for served as Assistant Director for physical training in New Yorkphysical training in New York

• Elizabeth Burchenal Elizabeth Burchenal directed the Girls' directed the Girls' Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, which featured folk dancingwhich featured folk dancing

• 1906—Playground Association of America1906—Playground Association of America• 1913—Campfire Girls1913—Campfire Girls• Play was the most important educational Play was the most important educational

aspectaspect

CLARK HETHERINGTONCLARK HETHERINGTON


• Stanford under Wood (1893-1896—student Stanford under Wood (1893-1896—student and instructor)and instructor)• Clark University under G. Stanley Hall—Clark University under G. Stanley Hall—

child-study and developmentalismchild-study and developmentalism• 1900-1910—Missouri—rid athletics of 1900-1910—Missouri—rid athletics of

abuses (supported women's activities)abuses (supported women's activities)• 1923-1929—New York University—physical 1923-1929—New York University—physical

education curriculumeducation curriculum• 1929-1938—Stanford1929-1938—Stanford


• Play was a child's chief business in lifePlay was a child's chief business in life

• Stressed attainment of educational Stressed attainment of educational goals in physical activitiesgoals in physical activities

• 1910—Four phases 1910—Four phases of the educational of the educational processprocess

–Organic educationOrganic education

–Psychomotor educationPsychomotor education

–Character educationCharacter education

–Intellectual educationIntellectual education

JAY NASHJAY NASH

JAY NASHJAY NASH

• New York University (1926-New York University (1926-1953)1953)

• Influenced by HetheringtonInfluenced by Hetherington

• RecreationRecreation—part of total life —part of total life experiences for all agesexperiences for all ages

• Emphasis on carry-over sportsEmphasis on carry-over sports

JESSE WILLIAMSJESSE WILLIAMS

JESSE WILLIAMSJESSE WILLIAMS

• Teachers College of Columbia Teachers College of Columbia University (1919-1941)University (1919-1941)• Expanded Wood's ideas of Expanded Wood's ideas of

physical education as part of physical education as part of education, e.g., social education education, e.g., social education (John Dewey), unified whole, and (John Dewey), unified whole, and living in a democratic societyliving in a democratic society• "Education through the physical""Education through the physical"• Physical development is a means Physical development is a means

to an end (educational objectives)to an end (educational objectives)

CHARLES MCCLOYCHARLES MCCLOY

CHARLES MCCLOYCHARLES MCCLOY

• YMCA—22 years of service at home YMCA—22 years of service at home and abroadand abroad• State University of Iowa (1930-1954)State University of Iowa (1930-1954)• Organic unity—physical dimension—Organic unity—physical dimension—

the major aspect of the whole beingthe major aspect of the whole being• ““Education of the physical”Education of the physical”• Educational objectives—secondary to Educational objectives—secondary to

the development of the physicalthe development of the physical• Measurement—to develop skill and Measurement—to develop skill and

strengthstrength

PLAYGROUND PLAYGROUND MOVEMENTMOVEMENT

•First playgrounds in urban settingsFirst playgrounds in urban settings–1880s1880s—Boston—sand boxes—later —Boston—sand boxes—later in schoolsin schools

–1890s—New York (Central Park), 1890s—New York (Central Park), Boston, and Chicago provided Boston, and Chicago provided green space for the upper class; green space for the upper class; opened playgrounds for othersopened playgrounds for others

–1894—Chicago—Jane Addams' Hull 1894—Chicago—Jane Addams' Hull House—one of several settlement House—one of several settlement houses where play opportunities houses where play opportunities were provided for childrenwere provided for children

PLAYGROUND MOVEMENTPLAYGROUND MOVEMENT

• Commonalities of early playgroundsCommonalities of early playgrounds–Preadolescent childrenPreadolescent children–Summer months initiallySummer months initially–Outdoor equipmentOutdoor equipment– In urban (populated) areasIn urban (populated) areas–Philanthropic support (donated Philanthropic support (donated land); later cities financedland); later cities financed

–Supervisors were mothers and Supervisors were mothers and policepolice

• South Park in Chicago—fields, South Park in Chicago—fields, gymnasium, and other activity spacesgymnasium, and other activity spaces

• Sport was used as a means of social Sport was used as a means of social control for the assimilation of control for the assimilation of immigrants' cultures and the immigrants' cultures and the socialization of American youthsocialization of American youth

• Began with playgrounds for children Began with playgrounds for children and transitioned into recreation for alland transitioned into recreation for all–1906—Playground Association of 1906—Playground Association of AmericaAmerica

–1906—Boys' Clubs of America1906—Boys' Clubs of America

PLAYGROUND MOVEMENTPLAYGROUND MOVEMENT

PLAYGROUNDS TO RECREATIONPLAYGROUNDS TO RECREATION

•19101910—Boy Scouts of America—Boy Scouts of America•1911—Playground and Recreation 1911—Playground and Recreation

Association of AmericaAssociation of America•19121912—Girl Scouts—Girl Scouts•1913—Campfire Girls of America1913—Campfire Girls of America•1930—National Recreation Association1930—National Recreation Association•1965—National Recreation and Park 1965—National Recreation and Park

AssociationAssociation•Clark Hetherington—Clark Hetherington—The Normal Course The Normal Course

in Playin Play—to train recreation workers—to train recreation workers

RECREATION MOVEMENTRECREATION MOVEMENT

•Depression—increased leisure Depression—increased leisure time—softball and bowlingtime—softball and bowling

• Industrial Recreation—1940sIndustrial Recreation—1940s— facilities and equipment — facilities and equipment provided for leisure time provided for leisure time usage by workers—softball, usage by workers—softball, bowling, and basketballbowling, and basketball

•1950s—beginning of outdoor 1950s—beginning of outdoor education movement—hiking, education movement—hiking, camping, and backpackingcamping, and backpacking

FITNESSFITNESS

• 1965—Lifetime Sports Foundation—1965—Lifetime Sports Foundation—carry-over sports to play throughout lifecarry-over sports to play throughout life–ArcheryArchery–BowlingBowling–BadmintonBadminton–GolfGolf–TennisTennis

• 1970s—Fitness boom—jogging; tennis; 1970s—Fitness boom—jogging; tennis; racquetball; aquatic sportsracquetball; aquatic sports

ORGANIZED YOUTH ORGANIZED YOUTH SPORTSSPORTS

• 1920s—American Legion baseball1920s—American Legion baseball

• 1930—Pop Warner Football—Joe Tomlin1930—Pop Warner Football—Joe Tomlin

• 1939—Little League Baseball—Carl 1939—Little League Baseball—Carl StoltzStoltz

• 1950—Biddy Basketball—Joe Archer1950—Biddy Basketball—Joe Archer

• 1950—AAU age-group swimming; later 1950—AAU age-group swimming; later wrestling, skiing, and track and fieldwrestling, skiing, and track and field

• 1967—AAU Junior Olympics1967—AAU Junior Olympics

PHYSICAL FITNESSPHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1953—Results of the Kraus-Weber 1953—Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth failed one or more items, U.S. youth failed one or more items, while 9% of the European youth failed while 9% of the European youth failed (tested flexibility)(tested flexibility)–On stomach—Raise legs (10 seconds On stomach—Raise legs (10 seconds each)each)

–On stomach—Raise upper bodyOn stomach—Raise upper body –On back—Raise legsOn back—Raise legs–Straight leg sit-upStraight leg sit-up–Bent-knee sit-upBent-knee sit-up–Touch toesTouch toes


•1956—President Eisenhower 1956—President Eisenhower through an Executive Order through an Executive Order established the President's Council established the President's Council on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's Conference on the President's Conference on Physical FitnessPhysical Fitness

•1956—AAHPER Fitness Conference1956—AAHPER Fitness Conference• June 1 -7, 1958—National Fitness June 1 -7, 1958—National Fitness

WeekWeek


• 1957—AAHPER's National Research Council 1957—AAHPER's National Research Council developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Testdeveloped the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test– Pull-ups (boys)Pull-ups (boys)– Flexed-arm hang (girls)Flexed-arm hang (girls)– Sit-upsSit-ups– Shuttle runShuttle run– Standing broad jumpStanding broad jump– 50-yard dash50-yard dash– 600-yard run-walk600-yard run-walk– Softball throwSoftball throw

•1958—Operation Fitness 1958—Operation Fitness sponsored by AAHPER to stimulate sponsored by AAHPER to stimulate fitness nationallyfitness nationally

•1958—Results of the AAHPER 1958—Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test showed poor Fitness Youth Test showed poor performance by youth (8500 boys performance by youth (8500 boys and girls tested in grades 5-12) and girls tested in grades 5-12)

PHYSICAL FITNESS

•1961—President's Council on Youth 1961—President's Council on Youth Fitness published the "Blue Book" Fitness published the "Blue Book" with suggestions for a school-with suggestions for a school-centered programcentered program–Identify the physically Identify the physically underdeveloped student and work underdeveloped student and work to improveto improve

–Provide at least 15 minutes of Provide at least 15 minutes of vigorous activity daily for allvigorous activity daily for all

–Use valid fitness tests to determine Use valid fitness tests to determine abilities and evaluate progressabilities and evaluate progress

PHYSICAL FITNESS

•1994—Physical Best (AAHPERD's 1994—Physical Best (AAHPERD's educational materials) combined with educational materials) combined with the FITNESSGRAM developed by the the FITNESSGRAM developed by the Cooper InstituteCooper Institute–Aerobic capacity in a one-mile Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or pacer for young childrenwalk/run or pacer for young children

–Body compositionBody composition–Muscular strength and endurance Muscular strength and endurance using curl-ups, push-ups, or using curl-ups, push-ups, or alternatively pull-ups, modified pull-alternatively pull-ups, modified pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift

–Flexibility using sit-and-reachFlexibility using sit-and-reach

PHYSICAL FITNESS

• 1963—President Kennedy changed name 1963—President Kennedy changed name to the President's Council on Physical to the President's Council on Physical FitnessFitness

• 1965—Retesting of youth with AAHPER 1965—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed improvement Youth Fitness Test showed improvement in students' fitness levels in students' fitness levels

• 1968—1968—AerobicsAerobics (Kenneth Cooper) (Kenneth Cooper)– male = 30 points per weekmale = 30 points per week– female = 24 points per weekfemale = 24 points per week

• 1974—Retesting of youth with AAHPER 1974—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed no overall Youth Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in fitness levels since 1965improvement in fitness levels since 1965

PHYSICAL FITNESS

•1981—AAHPERD Lifetime Health-Related 1981—AAHPERD Lifetime Health-Related Physical Fitness TestPhysical Fitness Test–Body composition using skin-fold Body composition using skin-fold measuresmeasures

–Function of heart and circulatory Function of heart and circulatory system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute runrun

–Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 seconds (number done)seconds (number done)

–Flexibility using straight leg with arm Flexibility using straight leg with arm extensionextension

PHYSICAL FITNESS

REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973, REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973, SECTION 504—INDIVIDUALS WITH SECTION 504—INDIVIDUALS WITH

DISABILITIES IN EDUCATIONDISABILITIES IN EDUCATION

““No otherwise qualified No otherwise qualified handicapped person shall handicapped person shall on the basis of handicap, be on the basis of handicap, be excluded from participation excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits in, be denied the benefits of, or otherwise be of, or otherwise be subjected to discrimination subjected to discrimination under any program which under any program which receives or benefits from receives or benefits from Federal financial Federal financial assistance.”assistance.”

PUBLIC LAW 94-142PUBLIC LAW 94-142

•The Education of all Handicapped Children Act of 1975

•Required the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for every child with special needs, including specifically for physical education

IDEAIDEA

The Individuals with Disabilities The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has fostered Education Act (IDEA) has fostered significant changes in the lives of significant changes in the lives of children with disabilities and children with disabilities and their families and in the roles of their families and in the roles of schools and teachers in the schools and teachers in the education of children with education of children with disabilities. The basic tenets of disabilities. The basic tenets of IDEA have remained intact since IDEA have remained intact since the original passage of the law in the original passage of the law in 1975. However, each set of 1975. However, each set of amendments has strengthened amendments has strengthened the original law.the original law.

• Statement of the child’s present levels Statement of the child’s present levels of educational performance (PLP)of educational performance (PLP)

• Statement of measurable annual goals, Statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term including benchmarks or short-term objectives objectives

• Statement of special education and Statement of special education and related servicesrelated services

• Statement of any individual Statement of any individual modifications in the administration of modifications in the administration of state or district wide assessment of state or district wide assessment of student achievementstudent achievement

• Dates, frequency, location, and duration Dates, frequency, location, and duration of services of services

• Transition servicesTransition services

INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM

•Physical limitations•Deaf•Blind•Hard of hearing•Orthopedically impaired•Speech impaired•Visually handicapped• Injured•Low skilled

CATEGORIES

•Mental limitations•Mentally challenged•Learning disabled

•Behavioral limitations•Attention-deficit disorder•Emotionally disturbed

• Interrelated (multiple handicaps)

CATEGORIES

ADAPTED PHYSICAL ADAPTED PHYSICAL EDUCATIONEDUCATION

Adapted physical education is for exceptional students who are so different in mental, physical, emotional, or behavioral characteristics that in the interest of quality of educational opportunity, special provisions must be made for their proper education.

HISTORICALLYHISTORICALLY

•Excused•Corrective or remedial• Individualized•Mainstreaming • Inclusion—integration of

children with special needs with students in regular classes

•Least restrictive environment

MEN'S ATHLETICSMEN'S ATHLETICS

•Socially elite—horse racing, dancing, Socially elite—horse racing, dancing, gambling, cards, and yachtinggambling, cards, and yachting

•Baseball (1744—England; not 1839 in Baseball (1744—England; not 1839 in America) America)

•Cycling—late 1800sCycling—late 1800s•Tennis—1874 from EnglandTennis—1874 from England•Golf—ScotlandGolf—Scotland•Cricket and croquet clubs—late 1800sCricket and croquet clubs—late 1800s•1891—Basketball—James Naismith at 1891—Basketball—James Naismith at

the YMCA Training School the YMCA Training School•1896—Volleyball—William Morgan at 1896—Volleyball—William Morgan at

YMCAYMCA

AMATEUR SPORTS—1850-AMATEUR SPORTS—1850-1900s1900s

• Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic Club)—provided sports Athletic Club)—provided sports opportunities for members (especially opportunities for members (especially track and field)track and field)

• 1879—Amateur Athletic Union (1888)1879—Amateur Athletic Union (1888)—"check the evils of professionalism —"check the evils of professionalism and promote amateur sport"and promote amateur sport"

• 1912—538 athletic clubs and the AAU 1912—538 athletic clubs and the AAU had 19,000 membershad 19,000 members

• Competition offered (and said to Competition offered (and said to control) 40 sports; later 16 sports—control) 40 sports; later 16 sports—especially basketball, track and field, especially basketball, track and field, and boxingand boxing

MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICSATHLETICS

•Students promoted, financed, Students promoted, financed, and controlled athletics—and controlled athletics—faculty and administrators did faculty and administrators did not want to be involved (no not want to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility standard rules or eligibility regulations)regulations)–Rowing—1852—Harvard over Rowing—1852—Harvard over YaleYale

–Baseball—1859—Amherst Baseball—1859—Amherst over Williamsover Williams

–Football—1869 (actually Football—1869 (actually rugby)—Rutgers over rugby)—Rutgers over PrincetonPrinceton


• Social functionSocial function• Winning=fans=money=winning=fansWinning=fans=money=winning=fans

=money=money• RecruitingRecruiting• Professional coachesProfessional coaches• Newspaper coverageNewspaper coverage• Graduate managersGraduate managers• Walter Camp controlled the collegiate Walter Camp controlled the collegiate

football rules committee (1879-1925)football rules committee (1879-1925)

• Control established in collegesControl established in colleges– Injuries; property damage; class Injuries; property damage; class absences; rule confusion; absences; rule confusion; gambling; drunkenness; gambling; drunkenness; professionalism; commercialism; professionalism; commercialism; loss of valuesloss of values

–Benefits—improved health; taught Benefits—improved health; taught values such as fair play and values such as fair play and teamwork; diminished use of teamwork; diminished use of tobacco and alcohol; reduced tobacco and alcohol; reduced rowdyism; improved discipline; rowdyism; improved discipline; enhanced school spiritenhanced school spirit


•Late 1800s—students unified various Late 1800s—students unified various rules of sportsrules of sports

•Harvard faculty attempted to control Harvard faculty attempted to control class absences and to regulate athletic class absences and to regulate athletic abusesabuses–1882—Harvard model with three faculty1882—Harvard model with three faculty–1885—added two students and one 1885—added two students and one alumnus; alumnus;

–1888—three faculty; three students; 1888—three faculty; three students; three alumnithree alumni

•1895—Midwestern 1895—Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate colleges (Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Conference of Faculty Representatives)Representatives)

»Required to be Required to be studentsstudents

»Six months residence Six months residence for transfersfor transfers

»Must remain eligible Must remain eligible academicallyacademically


•Representatives from 13 colleges attended Representatives from 13 colleges attended the initial meeting in December, 1905, called the initial meeting in December, 1905, called by President MacCracken of New York by President MacCracken of New York University to investigate the future of University to investigate the future of football due to deaths and injuries, football due to deaths and injuries, dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; in dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; in January, 1906, a second meeting led to the January, 1906, a second meeting led to the establishment of the NCAA and the reform of establishment of the NCAA and the reform of football to prevent injuries and deaths; football to prevent injuries and deaths; legalized the forward passlegalized the forward pass

•19061906—National Collegiate Athletic —National Collegiate Athletic Association was established by 28 colleges Association was established by 28 colleges

AAU AND NCAA AAU AND NCAA CONFLICTSCONFLICTS

•Olympic team Olympic team selection (1920s to the selection (1920s to the 1970s)1970s)–National Amateur National Amateur Athletic Federation—Athletic Federation—19221922

•Sanctioning of eventsSanctioning of events•Certification of recordsCertification of records•1978—Amateur Sports 1978—Amateur Sports

ActAct

•1929—Savage study of college 1929—Savage study of college athletics found problems as athletics found problems as reported in reported in American College American College AthleticsAthletics–CommercialismCommercialism–Loss of educational valuesLoss of educational values


• Faculty control—institutional or home ruleFaculty control—institutional or home rule• Conferences—save money; fewer classes Conferences—save money; fewer classes

missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry • No seasonal coaches—in departments of No seasonal coaches—in departments of

physical education to gain faculty statusphysical education to gain faculty status• Rules of sports standardized and provide Rules of sports standardized and provide

national tournaments (track and field—national tournaments (track and field—1921)1921)

• Recruitment and scholarship policies—Recruitment and scholarship policies—Sanity Code (1948-1951)Sanity Code (1948-1951)

PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONDUCT OF PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONDUCT OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICSINTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

•National Junior College Athletic National Junior College Athletic Association—1938Association—1938

•National Association of Intercollegiate National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics—1940 (only basketball until Athletics—1940 (only basketball until 1952) 1952)

•High schoolsHigh schools–Following the examples of the colleges Following the examples of the colleges in structurein structure

–1922—National Federation of State 1922—National Federation of State High School Athletic AssociationsHigh School Athletic Associations

•Activities among participants “within the walls” of an institution

•Begun in 1913 at the University of Michigan under Elmer D. Mitchell

• Initially organized and funded by Initially organized and funded by athleticsathletics

•Later, administered through Later, administered through departments of physical educationdepartments of physical education

•Today, comprehensive campus Today, comprehensive campus recreation opportunities are recreation opportunities are provided within student affairsprovided within student affairs

INTRAMURALSINTRAMURALS

•Constructive use of leisure time•Opportunity to experience success•Physical fitness•Mental and emotional health•Social interaction and contacts•Promote permanent participant

interest•Practice skills learned in physical

education classes•Training ground for future varsity

athletes

PURPOSES OF PURPOSES OF INTRAMURALSINTRAMURALS

•Club sports—groups of students, faculty, and staff who get together to share a mutual interest in a particular sport or activity; European concept that spread to this country, clubs are self-organized, administered, funded, coached, and otherwise maintained

•Funding–State appropriations (within physical education)

–Student fees

CLUB SPORTS AND FUNDING

HISTORY OF WOMEN’S HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTSSPORTS

•Colonial periodColonial period–Horseback riding; dancing; fox Horseback riding; dancing; fox huntinghunting

•Next 100 yearsNext 100 years–Riding; walking; dancing; Riding; walking; dancing; calisthenicscalisthenics

•Late 1800sLate 1800s–Croquet; cycling; hiking (with Croquet; cycling; hiking (with clothing restrictions)clothing restrictions)

–Tennis—1874Tennis—1874–Gymnastics in bloomersGymnastics in bloomers

•Basketball Basketball –1892—Smith College (Senda 1892—Smith College (Senda Berenson) Berenson)

–1896—Stanford defeated California 1896—Stanford defeated California in the first intercollegiate game in the first intercollegiate game

–1899—Standardized rules 1899—Standardized rules »No snatching the ball No snatching the ball »Could hold ball only three seconds Could hold ball only three seconds »Could bounce ball only three times Could bounce ball only three times »Divided court into three areas to Divided court into three areas to limit exertionlimit exertion


•Basketball Basketball –1936—two-division 1936—two-division game game

–1949—rover game 1949—rover game in AAU; 1962 in in AAU; 1962 in colleges colleges

–1970—full court 1970—full court game in collegesgame in colleges

•Colleges—track and Colleges—track and field; field hockey; field; field hockey; archery; rowing; golfarchery; rowing; golf


•Preferred events by physical Preferred events by physical education teacherseducation teachers–Field Day—interclass play Field Day—interclass play within a school within a school

–Play Day—mixed teams Play Day—mixed teams competed with a social competed with a social emphasis emphasis

–Sports Day—within own team, Sports Day—within own team, competition with a social competition with a social emphasis emphasis

–Telegraphic Meet—send scores Telegraphic Meet—send scores to a central locationto a central location


•Philosophical justifications for the Philosophical justifications for the opposition of women in opposition of women in competitive sportscompetitive sports–Competition might be physically Competition might be physically and emotionally harmfuland emotionally harmful

–Undesirable examples from Undesirable examples from men's programsmen's programs

–Philosophy of mass Philosophy of mass participationparticipation

–Societal belief of women as Societal belief of women as homemakers, not athleteshomemakers, not athletes

•Participation rather than competition Participation rather than competition in 1909—about half of the colleges in 1909—about half of the colleges had intercollegiate competition, had intercollegiate competition, especially in the West and Midwestespecially in the West and Midwest

•Allowed if these conditions met: Allowed if these conditions met: »Women officials and coachesWomen officials and coaches»Audience by invitation onlyAudience by invitation only»College-financed onlyCollege-financed only»No "win-at-all costs” attitude—for No "win-at-all costs” attitude—for fun and social interactionfun and social interaction

•Outside schools—Amateur Athletic Outside schools—Amateur Athletic Union sponsored leagues and Union sponsored leagues and tournamentstournaments


•High schools followed the High schools followed the colleges—but problems colleges—but problems arose: arose: –Males coached Males coached –Used boys' rules Used boys' rules –Spectators allowed Spectators allowed –Newspaper covered games Newspaper covered games –Competition was intenseCompetition was intense–All the above meant All the above meant pressure to winpressure to win


• 1917—APEA Committee on 1917—APEA Committee on Women's Athletics—set Women's Athletics—set standards and rules of sportsstandards and rules of sports

• 1917—Athletic Conference of 1917—Athletic Conference of American College WomenAmerican College Women–Opposed intercollegiate Opposed intercollegiate competitioncompetition

–Emphasis on participation by Emphasis on participation by allall

–Aligned with physical Aligned with physical education departments and education departments and teachersteachers


•1923—Women's Division of the 1923—Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic National Amateur Athletic FederationFederation–Opposed international Opposed international competitioncompetition

–Favored play days for girls and Favored play days for girls and womenwomen

–““A sport for every girl, and every A sport for every girl, and every girl in a sport"—National Section girl in a sport"—National Section on Women's Athleticson Women's Athletics


•1941—National 1941—National Tournament in golf—Tournament in golf—opposed by the opposed by the National Section on National Section on Women’s AthleticsWomen’s Athletics

• Industrial recreation Industrial recreation and and All-American All-American Girls’ Professional Girls’ Professional Baseball LeagueBaseball League


• Increased CompetitionIncreased Competition–Olympic development thrust after Olympic development thrust after defeat by Russians in 1956 and defeat by Russians in 1956 and 1960 Olympic Games1960 Olympic Games

–U. S. Olympic Development U. S. Olympic Development Committee in 1961—"to broaden Committee in 1961—"to broaden the base of participation for girls the base of participation for girls and women in Olympic sports and and women in Olympic sports and to provide better experiences for to provide better experiences for the skilled athlete" the skilled athlete"

–1963-1969—National Institutes on 1963-1969—National Institutes on Girls' Sports—to train teachers and Girls' Sports—to train teachers and coachescoaches


•1966-1967—Commission on 1966-1967—Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women—set up by the Division Women—set up by the Division of Girls and Women in Sport of Girls and Women in Sport –Encourage and govern Encourage and govern intercollegiate competition for intercollegiate competition for women at all levels women at all levels

–Sanction intercollegiate Sanction intercollegiate eventsevents

–Hold national Hold national tournaments—tournaments—first national tournaments in first national tournaments in track and field and in track and field and in gymnasticsgymnastics


•1969—Association for 1969—Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for WomenIntercollegiate Athletics for Women–Members were collegesMembers were colleges–Educational goals and purposesEducational goals and purposes

•Set standards and policies for Set standards and policies for women's athleticswomen's athletics–NAGWS game rulesNAGWS game rules–Separated from NAGWS in 1979Separated from NAGWS in 1979–39 championships in 17 sports 39 championships in 17 sports

•Ended June, 1982Ended June, 1982

TITLE IX OF THE EDUCATION TITLE IX OF THE EDUCATION AMENDMENTS OF 1972AMENDMENTS OF 1972

"No person shall on the basis of sex, be "No person shall on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, be treated differently from the benefits of, be treated differently from another person or otherwise be another person or otherwise be discriminated against in any discriminated against in any interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or intramural athletics offered by a recipient, intramural athletics offered by a recipient, or no recipient shall provide athletics or no recipient shall provide athletics separately on such basis."separately on such basis."

TITLE IX TIMELINE

•1975—Federal government published guidelines for Title IX

•1976—Schools and 1978 (colleges) required to be in full compliance with Title IX

•1979—Congress adopted its policy interpretation of Title IX

•1984—United States Supreme Court ruled in Grove City College v. Bell that Title IX was applicable only to educational programs that directly received federal funding

TITLE IX TIMELINE

•1988—Congress passed (over presidential veto) the Civil Rights Restoration Act, which stated that Title IX applied on an institution-wide basis, including athletics

•1992—United States Supreme Court ruled in Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools that plaintiffs could sue for compensatory and punitive damages in cases alleging intentional discrimination

TITLE IX TIMELINE

•1993—NCAA released the report of its Gender Equity Task Force report that showed that women comprised 35% of the varsity athletes; received 30% of the athletic grant-in-aid dollars; were allocated 17% of the recruiting dollars; received 23% of the operating budget dollars; had access to 37% of the athletic opportunities for participation

•1996—Females comprised 42% of the United States Olympic team competing in Atlanta; they won 38% of the medals awarded to athletes from the United States

•1997—United States Supreme Court refused to grant certiorari and hear the appeal of Cohen v. Brown University, thus affirming that schools and colleges must provide varsity athletic positions for males and females matching the overall percentage of the student body

TITLE IX TIMELINE

Documents

TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND SPORT