Turkey - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediawildehistory.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/7/0/16706304/turkey... · Turkey - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ... major atrocities were committed

Republic of TurkeyTürkiye Cumhuriyeti

Flag

Motto: Egemenlik, kayıtsız şartsız Milletindir[1]

"Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the Nation"

Anthem: İstiklal MarşıIndependence March

Capital Ankara39°55′N 32°50′E

Largest city Istanbul41°1′N 28°57′E

Official languages Turkish

Ethnic groups (2008[2]) 70–75% Turks18% Kurds7–12% others

Demonym Turkish

Government Unitary parliamentaryconstitutional republic

TurkeyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Turkey ( i/ˈtɜr.ki/; Turkish: Türkiye,pronounced [tyrkije]), officially the Republic of Turkey(Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, pronounced [tyrkijed͡ʒumhurijeti] ( )), is a contiguous transcontinentalparliamentary republic, with its smaller part inSoutheastern Europe and its larger part in Western Asia(i.e. the Balkans and Anatolia, respectively). Turkey isbordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest;Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia,Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to theeast; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. TheMediterranean Sea is to the south; the Aegean Sea tothe west; and the Black Sea to the north. The Sea ofMarmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (whichtogether form the Turkish Straits) demarcate theboundary between Thrace and Anatolia; they alsoseparate Europe and Asia.[7] Turkey's location at thecrossroads of Europe and Asia makes it a country ofsignificant geostrategic importance.[8]

Turkey has been inhabited since the paleolithic age,[9]

including various Ancient Anatolian civilizations,Aeolian and Ionian Greeks, Thracians and Persians.[10][11][12] After Alexander the Great's conquest, thearea was Hellenized, which continued with the Romanrule and the transition into the Byzantine Empire.[11][13]

The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the11th century, starting the process of Turkification,which was greatly accelerated by the Seljuk victoryover the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in1071.[14] The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatoliauntil the Mongol invasion in 1243, upon which itdisintegrated into several small Turkish beyliks.[15]

Starting from the late 13th century, the Ottomans unitedAnatolia and created an empire encompassing much ofSoutheastern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa,becoming a major power in Eurasia and Africa duringthe early modern period. The empire reached the peakof its power between the 15th and 17th centuries,especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent(r. 1520–1566). After the second Ottoman siege ofVienna in 1683 and the end of the Great Turkish War in

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Turkey - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey

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- President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan - Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu - Speaker of the

ParliamentCemil Çiçek

Legislature Grand National Assembly

Succession to the Ottoman Empire - Government of the

Grand NationalAssembly

23 April 1920

- Treaty of Lausanne 24 July 1923 - Declaration of Republic 29 October 1923 - Current constitution 7 November 1982

Area - Total 783,562 km2 (37th)

302,535 sq mi - Water (%) 1.3

Population - 2013 census 76,667,864 [3] (18th) - Density 100 [3]/km2 (108th)

259/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2014 estimate - Total $1.512 trillion[4] (17th) - Per capita $19,556[4] (61st)

GDP (nominal) 2014 estimate - Total $813.316 billion[4] (18th) - Per capita $10,518[4] (67th)

Gini (2010) 40.2[5]

medium · 56th

HDI (2013) 0.759[6]

high · 69th

Currency Turkish lira ( ) (TRY)

Time zone EET (UTC+2) - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)

Date format dd/mm/yyyy (AD)

Drives on the right

Calling code +90

ISO 3166 code TR

Internet TLD .tr

1699, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period ofdecline. The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century,which aimed to modernize the Ottoman state, proved tobe inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop thedissolution of the empire.[16] The Ottoman Empireentered World War I (1914–1918) on the side of theCentral Powers and was ultimately defeated. During thewar, major atrocities were committed by the Ottomangovernment against the Armenians, Assyrians andPontic Greeks.[17] Following WWI, the hugeconglomeration of territories and peoples that formerlycomprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into severalnew states.[18] The Turkish War of Independence(1919–1922), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk andhis colleagues in Anatolia, resulted in the establishmentof the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Atatürkas its first president.[19]

Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutionalrepublic with a diverse cultural heritage.[2][20] Thecountry's official language is Turkish, a Turkic languagespoken natively by approximately 85% of thepopulation.[21] About 70-75% of the population areethnic Turks and about 30-35% of the populationconsists recognized (Armenians, Greeks and Jews) andungrecognized (Kurds, Circassians, Albanians,Georgians etc.) minorities.[22][2] The vast majority ofthe population is Muslim.[2] Turkey is a member of theUN, NATO, OECD, OSCE, OIC and the G-20. Afterbecoming one of the first members of the Council ofEurope in 1949, Turkey became an associate member ofthe EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995and started full membership negotiations with theEuropean Union in 2005.[23] Turkey's growingeconomy and diplomatic initiatives have led to itsrecognition as a regional power.[24][25][26][27]

Contents

1 Etymology2 History

2.1 Prehistory of Anatolia and EasternThrace


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2.2 Antiquity and Byzantine Period2.3 The Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire2.4 Republic of Turkey

3 Administrative divisions4 Politics

4.1 Law4.2 Foreign relations4.3 Military

5 Geography5.1 Biodiversity5.2 Climate

6 Economy6.1 History6.2 Tourism6.3 Infrastructure6.4 Science and technology

7 Demographics7.1 Religion7.2 Education7.3 Healthcare

8 Culture8.1 Arts8.2 Architecture8.3 Sports8.4 Cuisine8.5 Media

9 See also10 References11 Further reading12 External links

EtymologyThe name of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye) is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term"Türk" or "Türük" as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks (Celestial Turks)of Central Asia (c. 8th century).[28] The English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is


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The Lion Gate at Hattusa, capital ofthe Hittite Empire. The city's historydates back to the 6th millenniumBC.[35]

derived from Medieval Latin Turchia.[29]

The Greek cognate of this name, Tourkia (Greek: Τουρκία) was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholarConstantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio,[30][31] though in his use, "Turks"always referred to Magyars.[32] Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the northern shoresof the Black and Caspian seas, was referred to as Tourkia (Land of the Turks) in Byzantine sources.[33] TheOttoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its contemporaries.[34]

HistoryPrehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace

The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is oneof the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. VariousAncient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, beginning withthe Neolithic period until conquest of Alexander the Great.[11] Manyof these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the largerIndo-European language family.[36] In fact, given the antiquity of theIndo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars haveproposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which theIndo-European languages radiated.[37] The European part of Turkey,called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since forty thousandyears ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about6000 B.C. with its inhabitants starting the practice of agriculture.[12]

Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religiousstructure, a temple dating to 10,000 BC,[38] while Çatalhöyük is a

very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 wasinscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[39] The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age andcontinued into the Iron Age.[40]

The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peopleswho inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittitescame to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first majorempire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. The Assyriansconquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC.[41][42] Urarture-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria.[43]

Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achievedascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC.[44]

Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC.[45] The most powerful ofPhrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.[46]

Antiquity and Byzantine Period


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Originally a church, later a mosque,and now a museum, the Hagia Sophiawas built by the Byzantines in the 6thcentury.

Mevlana Museum in Konya was builtby the Seljuk Turks in 1274. Konyawas the capital of the Sultanate ofRum.[52]

Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled byAeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were foundedby these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna and Byzantium,the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. Thefirst state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was thestate of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts ofeastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC. In Northwest Turkey,the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians,founded by Teres I.[47]

Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire duringthe 6th and 5th centuries BC and later fell to Alexander the Great in334 BC,[48] which led to increasing cultural homogeneity andHellenization in the area.[11] Following Alexander's death in 323 BC,Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistickingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[49] The process ofHellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuriesAD the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greeklanguage and culture.[13][50]

In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome.Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between histwo sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople became the capital of theEastern Roman Empire. This, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruledmost of the territory of what is today Turkey until the Late Middle Ages.[51]

The Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire

The House of Seljuk was a branch of the Kınık Oğuz Turks whoresided on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the YabghuKhaganate of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian andAral Seas, in the 9th century.[53] In the 10th century, the Seljuksstarted migrating from their ancestral homeland into Persia, whichbecame the administrative core of the Great Seljuk Empire.[54]

In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuks began penetratinginto the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuk Turksdefeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, startingTurkification of the area; the Turkish language and Islam wereintroduced to Anatolia and gradually spread over the region and theslow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speakingAnatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one wasunderway.[55]

In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowlydisintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would, over the next 200years, evolve into the Ottoman Empire, expanding throughout Anatolia, the Balkans, the Levant and North


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Topkapı and Dolmabahçe palaceswere the primary residences of theOttoman Sultans and theadministrative center of theempire between 1465 to 1856[57]

and 1856 to 1922,[58] respectively.

Africa. In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital,Constantinople.[56]

In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the Empire'ssouthern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safaviddynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottomanrule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea.Subsequently, a competition started between the Ottoman andPortuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the IndianOcean, with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Seaand the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean wasperceived as a threat for the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient tradingroutes between East Asia and Western Europe (later collectively namedthe Silk Road). This important monopoly was increasingly compromisedfollowing the discovery of a sea route around Africa by Portugueseexplorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488, which had a considerable impact onthe Ottoman economy.[59]

The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17thcenturies, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. Theempire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steadyadvance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern

part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[60] At sea, the Ottoman Navy contended with several HolyLeagues (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knightsof St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy) for control of theMediterranean Sea. In the east, the Ottomans were occasionally at war with Safavid Persia over conflictsstemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries.[61]

From the beginning of the 19th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. As it graduallyshrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland inAnatolia,[62][63] along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. The decline of theOttoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among the various subject peoples, leading to increasedethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians.[64]

The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.During the war, the empire's Armenians were deported from Eastern Anatolia to Syria as part of theArmenian Genocide. As a result, an estimated 1,500,000 Armenians were killed.[65][66][67][68] The Turkishgovernment denies that there was an Armenian Genocide and claims that Armenians were only relocatedfrom the eastern war zone.[69] Large-scale massacres were also committed against the empire's other minoritygroups such as the Greeks and Assyrians.[70][71][72] Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918,the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.[56]

Republic of Turkey

The occupation of Constantinople and Smyrna by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted theestablishment of the Turkish National Movement.[73] Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, amilitary commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of


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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder andfirst President of the Republic ofTurkey.

Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of theTreaty of Sèvres.[74]

By 18 September 1922, the occupying armies were expelled, and theAnkara-based Turkish regime, which declared itself the legitimategovernment of the country in April 1920, started to formalize thelegal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republicanpolitical system. On 1 November, the newly founded parliamentformally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years ofmonarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newlyformed "Republic of Turkey" as the continuing state of the OttomanEmpire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.[75] The Lausanne treatystipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey,whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.[76]

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President and subsequentlyintroduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the oldOttoman-Turkish state into a new secular republic.[77] With the Surname Law of 1934, the TurkishParliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks).[74]

Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the closing stages of the war on the side ofthe Allies on 23 February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter member of the UnitedNations.[78] Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a communist rebellion, along with demandsby the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare theTruman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkeyand Greece, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. Both countries were included inthe Marshall Plan and OEEC for rebuilding European economies in 1948,[79] and subsequently becamefounding members of the OECD in 1961.[80]

After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952,becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Following a decade of Cypriotintercommunal violence and the coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitaryorganization, which overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro-Enosis (union with Greece) NikosSampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974.[81] Nine years later the Turkish Republic ofNorthern Cyprus, which is recognized only by Turkey, was established.[82]

The single-party period ended in 1945. It was followed by a tumultuous transition to multiparty democracyover the next few decades, which was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960, 1971, and 1980, as well asa military memorandum in 1997.[83][84] In 1984, the PKK, a Kurdish separatist group, began an insurgencycampaign against the Turkish government, which to date has claimed over 40,000 lives.[85] Peace talks areongoing.[86][87] Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyedstronger economic growth and greater political stability.[88] In 2013, widespread protests erupted in manyTurkish provinces, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but growing into general anti-governmentdissent.[89]


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Administrative divisionsTurkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factorsshaping the Turkish public administration. When three powers (executive, legislature and judiciary) are takeninto account as the main functions of the state, local administrations do not have almost any power. In otherwords, there are not units called “states” in Turkey and the provinces and cities come after the centraladministration. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government isrepresented by the governors and city governors. Besides the governors and the city governors, other seniorpublic officials are also appointed by the central government rather than to be appointed by mayors or electedby constituents.[90]

Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts,for a total of 923 districts.[91]

Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economicpurposes; this does not refer to an administrative division.[92]

PoliticsTurkey is a parliamentary representative democracy. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey hasdeveloped a strong tradition of secularism.[93] Turkey's constitution governs the legal framework of thecountry. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state.The President of the Republic is the head of state and has a largely ceremonial role. The president is electedfor a five-year term by direct elections and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is first president elected by direct voting.

Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers which make up thegovernment, while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the Grand National Assemblyof Turkey. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court is

Ankara

KırklareliEdirne

Tekirdağ

ÇanakkaleBalıkesir

Bursa

Yalova

IstanbulKocaeli

SakaryaDüzce

Zonguldak

BoluBilecik

EskişehirKütahya

Manisa

İzmir

Aydın

Muğla

DenizliBurdur

Uşak Afyon

Isparta

Antalya

Konya

Mersin

Karaman

Aksaray

KırşehirKırıkkale

ÇankırıKarabük

BartınKastamonu

Sinop

Çorum

Yozgat

Nevşehir

Niğde

Adana

Hatay

Osmaniye

K. MaraşKayseri

Sivas

Tokat

AmasyaSamsun

Ordu Giresun

Erzincan

Malatya

GaziantepKilis

Şanlıurfa

Adıyaman

GümüşhaneTrabzon

Rize

BayburtErzurum

Artvin Ardahan

Kars

AğrıIğdır

Tunceli

Elâzığ

Diyarbakır

Mardin

BatmanSiirtŞırnak

Bitlis

Bingöl MuşVan

Hakkâri


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Tayyip ErdoğanPresident

Ahmet DavutoğluPrime Minister

charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees withthe constitution. The Council of State is the tribunal of last resortfor administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for allothers.[94]

The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote ofconfidence in the government and is most often the head of theparty having the most seats in parliament. The prime minister isAhmet Davutoğlu who is also the leader of the Justice andDevelopment Party (AKP) since 27 August 2014.

Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughoutTurkey since 1933, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18years of age has the right to vote. There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year termby a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts. The Constitutional Court canstrip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existencealtogether.[95][96] The electoral threshold is 10% of the votes.[97]

Supporters of Atatürk's reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from Islamists, representing twoextremes on a continuum of beliefs about the proper role of religion in public life.[98] The Kemalist positiongenerally combines a kind of democracy with a laicist constitution and westernised secular lifestyle, whilesupporting state intervention in the economy, education, and other public services.[98] Since the 1980s, a risein income inequality and class distinction has given rise to Islamic populism, a movement that in theorysupports obligation to authority, communal solidarity and social justice, though what that entails in practice isoften contested.[98]

Human rights in Turkey have been the subject of some controversy and international condemnation. Between1998 and 2008 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey forhuman rights violations, particularly regarding the right to life, and freedom from torture. Other issues, suchas Kurdish rights, women's rights, and press freedom, have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rightsrecord continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU.[99] According to the Committeeto Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged one of the world's biggest crackdowns on pressfreedoms.[100] A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of "terrorism" and "anti-stateactivities" such as the Ergenekon and Balyoz cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges suchas "denigrating Turkishness" or "insulting Islam" in an effort to sow self-censorship.[100] In 2012, the CPJidentified 76 jailed journalists in Turkey, including 61 directly held for their published work, more than inIran, Eritrea or China.[100] A former U.S. State Department spokesman, Philip J. Crowley, said that theUnited States had "broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey."[101]

Law

Turkey has a legal system which has been wholly integrated with the system of continental Europe. Forinstance, the Turkish Civil Law has been modified by incorporating elements mainly of the Swiss Civil Code,the Code of Obligations and the German Commercial Code. The Administrative Law bears similarities withits French counterpart, and the Penal Code with its Italian counterpart.[102]

Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this principle, judicial power is


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After becoming one of the firstmembers of the Council of Europe in1949, Turkey became an associatemember of the EEC in 1963, joinedthe EU Customs Union in 1995 andstarted full membership negotiationswith the European Union in 2005.[23]

exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation. The independence and organization of thecourts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors,the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organization, and the powersand duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution.[103]

According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organization, duties and jurisdiction of the courts,their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the aforementioned article of theTurkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three maincategories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts and Military Courts. Each category includesfirst instance courts and high courts. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases thatcannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system.[103]

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several departments (such as the General Directorate of Securityand Gendarmerie General Command) and agencies, all acting under the command of the Prime Minister ofTurkey or mostly the Minister of Internal Affairs. According to figures released by the Justice Ministry, thereare 100,000 people in Turkish prisons as of November 2008, a doubling since 2000.[104]

Foreign relations

Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945),[105] theOECD (1961),[106] the OIC (1969),[107] the OSCE (1973),[108] theECO (1985),[109] the BSEC (1992),[110] the D-8 (1997)[111] and theG-20 major economies (1999).[112] Turkey was a member of theUnited Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and2009-2010.[113] In September 2013, Turkey became a member of theAsia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD).

In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europehave always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkeybecame one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949,applied for associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of theEuropean Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963.After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for fullmembership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of theWestern European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since2005.[23] Today, EU membership is considered as a state policy and astrategic target by Turkey.[114] Turkey's support for Northern Cyprusin the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to thecountry's EU accession bid.[115]

The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy is the country's strategic alliance with the United States.The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with Washington. Subsequently Turkey benefited from the UnitedStates' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join theEuropean Union.[116] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards itsproximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.[117]


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The Turkish Armed Forcescollectively rank as the second largeststanding military force in NATO,after the U.S. Armed Forces. Turkeyjoined the alliance in 1952.[127]

The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a commoncultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep intoCentral Asia,[118] thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline fromBaku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part ofTurkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit to the West. However Turkey's border withArmenia, a state in the Caucasus, was closed by Turkey in support of Azerbaijan during the Nagorno-Karabakh War and remains closed.[119] Under the AK Party government, Turkey's influence has grown in theMiddle East based on the strategic depth doctrine, also called Neo-Ottomanism.[120][121] This policy has ledto tensions with Arab countries, such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, andwith Egypt following the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi.[122][123]

Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950,including peacekeeping missions in Somalia and former Yugoslavia, and support to coalition forces in theFirst Gulf War. Turkey maintains 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus, though their presence iscontroversial.[124] Turkey has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the United States stabilizationforce and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) since2001.[125] Since 2003, Turkey contributes military personnel to Eurocorps and takes part in the EUBattlegroups.[126]

Military

The Turkish Armed Forces consists of the Land Forces, the NavalForces and the Air Force. The Gendarmerie and the Coast Guardoperate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime,although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commandsrespectively in wartime, during which they have both internal lawenforcement and military functions.[128]

The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President and isresponsible to the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers isresponsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and theadequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country.However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the TurkishArmed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces tobe stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.[128]

Turkey has the second largest standing armed force in NATO, after the US Armed Forces, with an estimatedstrength of 495,000 deployable forces, according to a 2011 NATO estimate.[129] Turkey is one of five NATOmember states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany,Italy, and the Netherlands.[130] A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 ofwhich are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires theapproval of NATO.[131]

Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period rangingfrom three weeks to a year, dependent on education and job location.[132] Turkey does not recogniseconscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[133]


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Topographic map of Turkey

Geography

Turkey is a transcontinental[134] Eurasian country. Asian Turkey,which includes 97% of the country, is separated from EuropeanTurkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles.European Turkey comprises 3% of the country.[135]

The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) longand 800 km (500 mi) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape.[136] Itlies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 25° and 45° E.Turkey's area, including lakes, occupies 783,562[137] squarekilometres (300,948 sq mi), of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 sq mi) are in Southwest Asia and23,764 square kilometres (9,174 sq mi) in Europe.[136] Turkey is the world's 37th-largest country in terms ofarea. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the northand the Mediterranean to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.[138]

The European section of Turkey, East Thrace, forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria. TheAsian part of the country, Anatolia, consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between theKöroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. Eastern Turkey hasa more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras,and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 ft),[138][139] and Lake Van, thelargest lake in the country.

Turkey is divided into seven census regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, EasternAnatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along theBlack Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's totalland area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresseseastward.[138]

Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region overthousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcaniceruptions. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkeythat led to the creation of the Black Sea. There is an earthquake fault line across the north of the country fromwest to east, along which a major earthquake occurred in 1999.[46]

Biodiversity

Turkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity.[140]

Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture,and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for mankind still grow in Turkey. Thediversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora. The number of animal species throughoutEurope as a whole is about 60,000; in Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 counting subspecies).[141]

The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the PonticMountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range.The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Golden Eagle, Eastern ImperialEagle, Lesser Spotted Eagle, Caucasian Black Grouse, Red-fronted Serin, and Wallcreeper.[142] The narrow


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Sümela Monastery on the PonticMountains. These mountains form anecoregion with diverse temperaterainforest types, flora and fauna.

Climate diagram of Turkey[146]

coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is hometo the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of theworld's few temperate rainforests.[143]

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserveareas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments inTurkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, MountNemrut National Park, Ancient Troya National Park, Ölüdeniz NaturePark and Polonezköy Nature Park[144]

Ankara, the capital of Turkey, is renowned for the Angora cat, Angorarabbit and Angora goat. Another national cat breed of Turkey is theVan cat. The national dog breeds are the Anatolian Shepherd, Kangal,Malaklı and Akbaş.[145]

Climate

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea and theMediterranean Sea have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot,dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.[146] The coastal areasbordering the Black Sea have a temperate Oceanic climate withwarm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[146] The TurkishBlack Sea coast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and isthe only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughoutthe year.[146] The eastern part of that coast averages 2,200 millimetres(87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.[146]

The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have atransitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate Oceanic climate with warmto hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[146] Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Seaof Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no more than a few days.[146]

However snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of theMediterranean Sea.[146]

Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the centralAnatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[146]

Winters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe.[146] Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to−40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia.[146] Snow may remain at least 120 days of the year.[146] In the west,winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F).[146] Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures oftenabove 30 °C (86 °F) in the day.[146] Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres (15 in), with actualamounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annualrainfall is often less than 300 millimetres (12 in). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July andAugust are the driest.[146]

Economy


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Skyscrapers of Levent business district in Istanbul,Turkey's largest city and leading economicalcenter.[147]

Turkey has the world's 15th largest GDP by PPP[148] and17th largest nominal GDP.[149] The country is among thefounding members of the OECD and the G-20 majoreconomies.[106][112]

The EU – Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to anextensive liberalization of tariff rates, and forms one ofthe most important pillars of Turkey's foreign tradepolicy.[150] Turkey's exports were $143.5 billion in 2011and they reached $163 billion in 2012 (main exportpartners in 2012: Germany 8.6%, Iraq 7.1%, Iran 6.5%,UK 5.7%, UAE 5.4%). However, larger imports whichamounted to $229 billion in 2012 threatened the balanceof trade (main import partners in 2012: Russia 11.3%, Germany 9%, China 9%, USA 6%, Italy 5.6%).[2]

Turkey has a large automotive industry, which produced over a million motor vehicles in 2012, ranking as the16th largest producer in the world.[151] Turkish shipbuilding exports were worth US$1.2 billion in 2011.[152]

The major export markets are Malta, Marshall Islands, Panama and the United Kingdom. Turkish shipyardshave 15 floating docks of different sizes and one dry dock.[152] Tuzla, Yalova, and İzmit have developed intodynamic shipbuilding centres.[153] In 2011, there were 70 active shipyards in Turkey, with another 56 beingbuilt.[153] Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.[153]

Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and homeappliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in newtechnologies related to these fields.[154][155][156]

Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles,oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. In 2010, theagricultural sector accounted for 9% of GDP, while the industrial sector accounted for 26% and the servicessector for 65%.[2] However, agriculture still accounted for a quarter of employment.[157] In 2004, it wasestimated that 46% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while thelowest 20% received only 6%.[158] The rate of female employment in Turkey was 30% in 2012,[159] thelowest among all OECD countries.[160]

Foreign direct investment (FDI) was $8.3 billion in 2012, a figure expected to rise to $15 billion in 2013.[161]

In 2012, Fitch Group upgraded Turkey's credit rating to investment grade after an 18-year gap;[162] this wasfollowed by a ratings upgrade by Moody's in May 2013, as the service lifted Turkey's government bondratings to the lowest investment grade Baa3.[163][164]

In the early years of the 21st century, the chronically high inflation was brought under control; this led to thelaunch of a new currency, the Turkish new lira in 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reformsand erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.[165] In 2009, the new Turkish lira was renamed back to theTurkish lira, with the introduction of new banknotes and coins. As a result of continuing economic reforms,inflation dropped to 8% in 2005, and the unemployment rate to 10%.[166]


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Most of the beach resorts in Turkeyare located in the Turkish Riviera.

History

During the first six decades of the republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey generally adhered to a quasi-statist approach with strict government planning of the budget and government-imposed limitations overprivate sector participation, foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, and foreign direct investment. However in1983 Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist,insulated system to a more private-sector, market-based model.[88]

The reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of funding from foreign loans, spurred rapid economicgrowth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (following theearthquake of that year),[167] and 2001;[168] resulting in an average of 4% GDP growth per annum between1981 and 2003.[169] Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing public sector deficitsand widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak banking sector and increased macroeconomicvolatility.[170] Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time,Kemal Derviş, inflation has fallen to single-digit numbers, investor confidence and foreign investment havesoared, and unemployment has fallen.[166]

Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls onforeign trade and investment and the privatization of publicly owned industries, and the liberalization ofmany sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[171] The public debt toGDP ratio peaked at 75.9% during the recession of 2001, falling to an estimated 26.9% by 2013.[172]

The real GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 6.8% annually,[173] which made Turkey one of thefastest growing economies in the world during that period. However, growth slowed to 1% in 2008, and in2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the global financial crisis, with a recession of 5%. The economywas estimated to have returned to 8% growth in 2010.[2] According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capitaadjusted by purchasing power standard stood at 52% of the EU average in 2011.[174]

Tourism

Tourism in Turkey has experienced rapid growth in the last twentyyears, and constitutes an important part of the economy. In 2013, 37.8million foreign visitors arrived in Turkey, which ranked as the 6thmost popular tourism destination in the world; they contributed $27.9billion to Turkey's revenues.[175] In 2012, 15% of the tourists werefrom Germany, 11% from Russia, 8% from the United Kingdom, 5%from Bulgaria, 4% each from Georgia, the Netherlands and Iran, 3%from France, 2% each from the USA and Syria, and 40% from othercountries.[176] Turkey has 13 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such asthe "Historic Areas of Istanbul", the "Rock Sites of Cappadocia", the"Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük", "Hattusa: the Hittite Capital", the"Archaeological Site of Troy", "Pergamon and its Multi-LayeredCultural Landscape", "Hierapolis – Pamukkale", and "Mount Nemrut";[177] and 51 World Heritage Sites intentative list, such as the archaeological sites or historic urban centers of Göbekli Tepe, Gordion, Ephesus,Aphrodisias, Perga, Lycia, Sagalassos, Aizanoi, Zeugma, Ani, Harran, Mardin, Konya and Alanya.[178]

Turkey hosts two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which are the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and


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Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 14thbusiest airport in the world with 17million passengers.[180]

the Temple of Artemis.[179]

Infrastructure

As of 2009, there were 102 airports in Turkey, including eightinternational airports. The new (third) international airport of Istanbulis planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity toserve 150 million passengers per annum.[181] Turkish Airlines, flagcarrier of Turkey since 1933, was selected by Skytrax as Europe's bestairline for three consecutive years in 2011, 2012 and 2013.[182]

As of 2014, the country has a roadway network of 65,623 kilometres(40,776 mi).[183] The total length of the rail network was 10,991 kmin 2008, including 2,133 km of electrified and 457 km of high-speedtrack.[184][185] The Turkish State Railways started buildinghigh-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line becameoperational in 2011 while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in

2014.[185]

In 2008, 7,555 kilometres (4,694 mi) of natural gas pipelines and 3,636 kilometres (2,259 mi) of petroleumpipelines spanned the country's territory.[184] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest oilpipeline in the world, was inaugurated on May 10, 2005.[186]

In 2013, the energy consumption was 240 billion kilowatt hours.[187] As Turkey imported 72% of its energyin 2013, the government decided to invest in nuclear power to reduce imports.[187] Three nuclear powerstations are to be built by 2023.[187] Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermalpower in the world.[188] Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme.[189]

Turkey's first nuclear power plants are expected to be built in Mersin's Akkuyu district on the Mediterraneancoast; in Sinop's İnceburun district on the Black Sea coast; and in Kırklareli's İğneada district on the BlackSea coast.[190] Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in theworld.[188] Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics:enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energymarket principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projectsof common and regional interest.[189]

Science and technology

TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey.[192]

TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[193] TAEK is theofficial nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, andthe development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools.[194]

Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include TurkishAerospace Industries, Aselsan, Havelsan, Roketsan, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly,Integration and Test Center (UMET) is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of


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TAI ranks amongthe top 100 globalplayers in theaerospace anddefence sectors.[191]

Historical populationsYear Pop. ±% p.a.1927 13,554,000 — 1930 14,440,000 +2.13%1940 17,728,000 +2.07%1950 20,807,000 +1.61%1960 27,506,000 +2.83%1970 35,321,000 +2.53%1980 44,439,000 +2.32%1990 55,120,000 +2.18%2000 64,252,000 +1.54%2010 73,003,000 +1.29%2012 75,627,000 +1.78%

Source: Turkstat[198]

National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). TheTurkish Space Launch System (UFS) is a project to develop the satellite launchcapability of Turkey. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the development ofsatellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations.[195][196][197]

DemographicsAccording to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, thecountry's population was 74.7 million people in 2011,[199] nearly three-quarters ofwhom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, thepopulation is increasing by 1.35% each year. Turkey has an averagepopulation density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 agegroup constitute 67.4% of the total population; the 0–14 age groupcorresponds to 25.3%; while senior citizens aged 65 years or oldermake up 7.3%.[200] In 1927, when the first official census wasrecorded in the Republic of Turkey, the population was 13.6million.[201] The largest city in Turkey, Istanbul, is also the largestcity in Europe in population, and the third-largest city in Europe interms of size.[202][203]

Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyonewho is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship";therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish" as a citizen of Turkey isdifferent from the ethnic definition.[204] However, the majority of theTurkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. They are estimated at70–75% by the CIA World Factbook.[2] Reliable data on the ethnicmix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics onethnicity.[205] The three minority groups officially recognised in the Treaty of Lausanne are Armenians,Greeks and Jews. Other ethnic groups include Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks,Circassians, Georgians, Hamshenis, Laz, Crimean Tatars, Bulgarians, Pomaks, and Roma. The Kurds, adistinct ethnic group concentrated mainly in the southeastern provinces of the country, are the largestnon-Turkic ethnicity, variously estimated around 18%.[2] Minorities besides the Kurds are thought to make upan estimated 7–12% of the population.[2] Minorities other than the three officially recognized ones do nothave specific minority rights. The term "minority" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, while the Turkishgovernment is frequently criticized for its treatment of minorities.[206] Minorities of European origin includethe Levantines, who have been present in the country (particularly in Istanbul[207] and Izmir[208]) since themedieval period.

2.5% of the population are international migrants[209] and Turkey has accepted over a million Syrian refugeessince the beginning of the Syrian Civil War.[210] Turkey has accommodated most of its Syrian refugees in tentcities administered by the country's emergency management agency.[211]

The country's official language is Turkish, which is spoken by approximately 85% of the population asmother tongue. Around 12% of the population speaks Kurdish as mother tongue. Arabic and Zaza are themother tongues of more than 1% of the population each, and several other languages are the mother tongues


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Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul ispopularly known as the Blue Mosquedue to the blue İznik tiles whichadorn its interior.[214]

of smaller parts of the population.[21] Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyge,Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Judezmo, Kabard-Cherkes, Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek,Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, Western Armenian, and Zazaki.[212]

Religion

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the TurkishConstitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[215][216]

The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the yearssince the formation of Islamist parties.[217] For many decades, thewearing of the hijab was banned in schools and government buildingsbecause it was viewed as a symbol of political Islam. However, theban was lifted from universities in 2011, from government buildingsin 2013,[218] and from schools in 2014.[219]

Islam is the dominant religion of Turkey with 99.8% of the populationbeing registered as Muslim.[2][220] while some sources give a littlelower estimate of 96.4%,[221] with the most popular sect being theHanafite school of Sunni Islam. The highest Islamic religiousauthority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Turkish: Diyanetİşleri Başkanlığı), it interprets the Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of thecountry's 80,000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial imams.[222] Academics suggest theAlevi population may be from 15 to 20 million.[223][224] and according to Aksiyon magazine, the number ofShiite Twelvers (excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2%).[225] There are also some Sufi Muslims.[226] Roughly2% are non-denominational Muslims.[227]

The percentage of non-Muslims in Turkey fell from 19% in 1914 to 2.5% in 1927,[228] due to the populationtransfers[229] and emigration.[230] There are more than 120,000 people of different Christian denominations,representing less than 0.2% of Turkey's population,[231] including an estimated 80,000 OrientalOrthodox,[232] 35,000 Roman Catholics,[233] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[234] 5,000 Greek Orthodox[232] andsmaller numbers of Protestants.[235] Today there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey.[236] TheEastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Istanbul since the 4th century.[237][238]

There are about 26,000 people who are Jewish, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[239] There have beenJewish communities in Asia Minor since at least the 5th century BCE and many Spanish and Portuguese Jewsexpelled from Spain were welcomed into the Ottoman Empire in the late 15th century, twenty centuries later.Despite emigration during the 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewishpopulation.[240]

Education

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[242] This is compulsory and laststwelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and high school.[243] Less than half of 25-34year old Turks have completed at least upper secondary education, compared with an OECD average of over


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Istanbul University was founded in1453 as a Darülfünûn. On 1 August1933 it was reorganized and becameTurkey's first university.[241]

80%.[244] Basic education in Turkey is considered to lag behind otherOECD countries, with significant differences between high and lowperformers.[245] Turkey is ranked 32nd out of 34 in the OECD's PISAstudy.[243] Access to high-quality school heavily depends on theperformance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point thatsome students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are 10years old.[245] The overall adult literacy rate in 2011 was 94.1%,97.9% for males and 90.3% for females.[246]

By 2011, there were 166 universities in Turkey.[247] Entry to highereducation depends on the Student Selection Examination (ÖSS).[248]

In 2008, the quota of admitted students was 600,000, compared to1,700,000 who took the ÖSS exam in 2007.[249] Except for the OpenEducation Faculty (Turkish: Açıköğretim Fakültesi) at AnadoluUniversity, entrance is regulated by the national ÖSS examination, after which high school graduates areassigned to universities according to their performance.[250] According to the 2012–2013 Times HigherEducation World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University (inthe 201-225 rank range), followed by Bilkent University and Koç University (both in the 226-250 range),Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University (in the 276-300 bracket).[251]

Healthcare

Health care in Turkey used to be dominated by a centralized state system run by the Ministry of Health. In2003, the government introduced a sweeping health reform programme aimed at increasing the ratio ofprivate to state health provision and making healthcare available to a larger share of the population. TurkishStatistical Institute announced that 76.3 billion TL was spent for healthcare in 2012; 79.6% of which wascovered by the Social Security Institution and 15.4% of which was paid directly by the patients.[252] In 2012,there were 29,960 medical institutions in Turkey,[253] and on average one doctor per 583 people[254] and 2.65beds per 1000 people.[253]

Life expectancy stands at 71.1 years for men and 75.3 years for women, with an overall average of 73.2 yearsfor the populace as a whole.[255]

The first three groups of diseases that cause death, respectively; Diseases of the circulatory system (39.8%),cancer (21.3%), respiratory diseases (9.8%)[256]

CultureTurkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Oğuz Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman(which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture andtraditions, which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today. This mixoriginally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were intheir path during their migration from Central Asia to the West.[258][259] Turkish culture is a product of effortsto be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.[258]

Arts


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Whirling Dervishes of the MevleviOrder during a Sema. The ceremonyis one of the 11 elements of Turkeyon the UNESCO Intangible CulturalHeritage Lists.[257]

Turkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively startingfrom the mid 19th century. The very first painting lessons werescheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University (then theImperial Military Engineering School) in 1793, mostly for technicalpurposes.[260] In the late 19th century, human figure in the westernsense was being established in Turkish painting, especially withOsman Hamdi Bey. Impressionism, among the contemporary trends,appeared later on with Halil Paşa. The young Turkish artists sent toEurope in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such asFauvism, Cubism and even Expressionism, still very influential inEurope. The later "Group D" of artists introduced some trends thathad lasted in the West for thirty, forty years. Other importantmovements in Turkish painting were the "Yeniler Grubu" (TheNewcomers Group) of the late 1930s; the "On'lar Grubu" (Group ofTen) of the 1940s; the "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the1950s; and the "Siyah Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the1960s.[261]

Turkish music and literature are examples of a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the OttomanEmpire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and Europeantraditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts.[262] Turkish literature was heavily influenced byPersian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era. The Tanzimat reforms introduced previouslyunknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat periodwrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkishplay, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkishliterature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literarymovements during this period: the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn ofthe Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyyât (National Literature) movement. The first radical step ofinnovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style.Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip Movement. The mix of culturalinfluences in Turkey is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacingof cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[263]

Turkey has a diverse folkloric dance culture. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in the AegeanRegion, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region;Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea Region, Southern MarmaraRegion and Eastern Mediterranean Region; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay inEastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern AnatoliaRegion.[264]

Architecture

The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architectue ofCentral Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljukarchitecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman Statebetween 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman


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The Grand Post Office(1905–1909) in Istanbul and thefirst Ziraat Bank headquarters(1925–1929) in Ankara are amongthe examples of TurkishNeoclassical architecture in theearly 20th century

architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture.Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples ofclassical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of theOttoman Sultans for approximately 400 years.[265] Mimar Sinan(c.1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period inOttoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildingswhich were constructed in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire inthe 16th century.[266]

Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasinglyinfluenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in theTanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Feriye,Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces.[267] The Ottoman erawaterfront houses (yalı) on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion betweenclassical Ottoman and European architectural styles during theaforementioned period. The First National Architectural Movement(Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) in the early 20th century sought tocreate a new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk andOttoman architecture. The movement was also labelled TurkishNeoclassical or the National Architectural Renaissance.[268] The leadingarchitects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), MimarKemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982)and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[269] Notable buildings from this eraare the Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments(1919–1922),[270] Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926),[271] State Artand Sculpture Museum (1927–1930),[272] Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[273] the first ZiraatBank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929),[274] the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara(1926–1929),[275] Bebek Mosque,[276] and Kamer Hatun Mosque.[277][278]

Sports

The most popular sport in Turkey is association football (soccer).[279] Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup andUEFA Super Cup in 2000.[280] The Turkish national football team finished 3rd and won the bronze medal inthe 2002 FIFA World Cup and in the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup; while also reaching the semi-finals(finishing 3rd by goals difference) in the UEFA Euro 2008.[281]

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The Turkish men's nationalbasketball team won the silver medal in the finals of the 2010 FIBA World Championship and EuroBasket2001, which were both hosted by Turkey. They also won two gold medals (1987 and 2013), one silver medal(1971) and three bronze medals (1967, 1983 and 2009) in the Mediterranean Games. Turkish basketball clubAnadolu Efes S.K. won the FIBA Korać Cup in 1996, finished 2nd in the FIBA Saporta Cup of 1993, andmade it to the Final Four of Euroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001, finishing 3rd in both occasions.[282][283] Another Turkish basketball club, Beşiktaş, won the FIBA EuroChallenge in 2012.[284] The Final ofthe 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams,Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[285]


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Turkish coffee with Turkish delight.Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listedintangible cultural heritage of Turks.[293][294]

The Turkish women's national volleyball team won the silver medal in the 2003 European Championship, thebronze medal in the 2011 European Championship, and the bronze medal in the 2012 FIVB World GrandPrix. They also won a gold medal (2005), six silver medals (1987, 1991, 1997, 2001, 2009, 2013) and abronze medal (1993) in the Mediterranean Games.[286] Women's volleyball clubs in Turkey, namelyFenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women'sChampions League. Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions League,Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 FIVB Women's Club World Championship.[287][288][289]

The traditional Turkish national sport has been yağlı güreş (oiled wrestling) since Ottoman times.[290] Edirnehas hosted the annual Kırkpınar oiled wrestling tournament since 1361.[291] International wrestling stylesgoverned by FILA such as Freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with manyEuropean, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as anational team.[292]

Cuisine

Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which canbe described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian, Caucasian,Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Balkan cuisines.[295]

The country's position between the East and the Mediterranean Seahelped the Turks gain complete control of major trade routes, and anideal environment allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkishcuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the beginning of theOttoman Empire's six hundred-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in oliveoil, and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. Theempire, eventually spanning from Austria to northern Africa, used itsland and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over theworld. By the end of the 1500s, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Sincethe fall of the empire in World War I (1914–1918) and theestablishment of the Turkish Republic, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and western fast foodhave made their way into the modern Turkish diet.[296]

Media

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, aproductive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband internet use all make up a veryvibrant media industry in Turkey.[297] In 2003 a total of 257 television stations and 1,100 radio stations werelicensed to operate, and others operated without licenses. Of those licensed, 16 television and 36 radiostations reached national audiences.[298] The majority of the audiences are shared among public broadcasterTRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media havea very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[298] The Radio andTelevision Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[298] Bycirculation, the most popular daily newspapers are Zaman, Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.


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[299][300] Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and areamong the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.[301]

See also

Index of Turkey-related articlesOutline of TurkeyList of Turkic dynasties and countries

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Further reading

Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-615-2.Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004). Turkey Unveiled. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-581-4.Reed, Fred A. (1999). Anatolia Junction: a Journey into Hidden Turkey. Burnaby, B.C.: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p.,ill. with b&w photos. ISBN 0-88922-426-9Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey. Çitlembik.ISBN 9944-424-01-3.Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN1-903973-56-2.Turkey: A Country Study (1996). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0864-6.Cîrlig, Carmen-Cristina (2013). Turkey's regional power aspirations (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/120425/LDM_BRI(2013)120425_REV1_EN.pdf). Library of the EuropeanParliament. p. 8.

External links

Official website of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (http://www.tccb.gov.tr/pages/)Turkey (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html) entry at The WorldFactbookTurkey (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/turkey.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs


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Turkey (https://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Turkey) at DMOZTurkey profile (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17988453) from the BBC NewsTurkey (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/609790/Turkey) at Encyclopædia Britannica

Wikimedia Atlas of TurkeyTurkey's Official Tourism Portal (http://goturkey.com/)OECD Better Life Index (http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/turkey/)The Incredible Turk (1958 American film on the Turkish Revolution) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9EkewZea3k) on YouTube

Turkey travel guide from Wikivoyage

Geographic data related to Turkey (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/174737) atOpenStreetMap

Key Development Forecasts for Turkey (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TR) from International Futures

Trade

World Bank Trade Summary Statistics for Turkey 2012 (http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/TUR/Year/2012/Summary)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkey&oldid=632406111"

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