Tsunami

3/28/2015 TsunamiWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami 1/18

2011Thokuearthquakeandtsunami,AnaerialviewofdamageintheSendairegionwithblacksmokecomingfromtheNipponOilSendaioilrefinery

TsunamiFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Atsunami(plural:tsunamisortsunamifromJapanese:,lit."harbourwave"[1]Englishpronunciation:/sunmi/or/tsunmi/[2]),alsoknownasaseismicseawaveorasatidalwave,isaseriesofwavesinabodyofwatercausedbythedisplacementofalargevolumeofwater,generallyinanoceanoralargelake.Earthquakes,volcaniceruptionsandotherunderwaterexplosions(includingdetonationsofunderwaternucleardevices),landslides,glaciercalvings,meteoriteimpactsandotherdisturbancesaboveorbelowwaterallhavethepotentialtogenerateatsunami.[3]Inbeinggeneratedbythedisplacementofwater,atsunamicontrastsbothwithanormaloceanwavegeneratedbywindandwithtides,whicharegeneratedbythegravitationalpullofthemoonandthesunonbodiesofwater.

Tsunamiwavesdonotresemblenormalseawaves,becausetheirwavelengthisfarlonger.Ratherthanappearingasabreakingwave,atsunamimayinsteadinitiallyresemblearapidlyrisingtide,andforthisreasontheyareoftenreferredtoastidalwaves.Tsunamisgenerallyconsistofaseriesofwaveswithperiodsrangingfromminutestohours,arrivinginasocalled"wavetrain".[4]Waveheightsoftensofmetrescanbegeneratedbylargeevents.Althoughtheimpactoftsunamisislimitedtocoastalareas,theirdestructivepowercanbeenormousandtheycanaffectentireoceanbasinsthe2004IndianOceantsunamiwasamongthedeadliestnaturaldisastersinhumanhistorywithatleast230,000peoplekilledormissingin14countriesborderingtheIndianOcean.

TheGreekhistorianThucydidessuggestedinhislate5thcenturyBCHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,thattsunamiswererelatedtosubmarineearthquakes,[5][6]buttheunderstandingofatsunami'snatureremainedslimuntilthe20thcenturyandmuchremainsunknown.Majorareasofcurrentresearchincludetryingtodeterminewhysomelargeearthquakesdonotgeneratetsunamiswhileothersmalleronesdotryingtoaccuratelyforecastthepassageoftsunamisacrosstheoceansandalsotoforecasthowtsunamiwaveswouldinteractwithspecificshorelines.

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TakenatAoNang,KrabiProvince,Thailand,duringthe2004IndianOceanearthquakeandtsunamiinThailand

3Dtsunamisimulation

Contents

1Terminology1.1Tsunami1.2Tidalwave1.3Seismicseawave

2History3Generationmechanisms

3.1Seismicity3.2Landslides3.3Meteotsunamis3.4Manmadeortriggeredtsunamis

4Characteristics5Drawback6Scalesofintensityandmagnitude

6.1Intensityscales

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2004-tsunami.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krabi_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao_Nanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand



TsunamiwarningbilingualsigninUleeLheue,BandaAcehinAcehneseandIndonesian

6.2Magnitudescales7Warningsandpredictions

7.1Forecastoftsunamiattackprobability

8Mitigation9Seealso10Footnotes11References12Furtherreading13Externallinks

Terminology

VarioustermsareusedinEnglishspeakingcountriestodescribewavescreatedinabodyofwaterbythedisplacementofwater.Noneofthetermsincommonuseareentirelyaccurate.

Tsunami

Thetermtsunami,meaning"harborwave"inliteraltranslation,comesfromtheJapanese,composedofthetwokanji(tsu)meaning"harbour"and(nami),meaning"wave".(Fortheplural,onecaneitherfollowordinaryEnglishpracticeandaddans,oruseaninvariablepluralasintheJapanese.[7])

Thereareonlyafewotherlanguagesthathaveanequivalentnativeword.InAcehneselanguage,thewordsareibeuna[8]oralnbuluk[9](dependingonthedialect).InTamillanguage,itisaazhiperalai.OnSimeulueisland,offthewesterncoastofSumatrainIndonesia,inDevayanlanguagethewordissmong,whileinSigulailanguageitisemong.[10]

InSingkil(inAcehprovince)andsurrounding,thepeopleusethewordgloro/galorofortsunami.[11][12]

InNiaslanguage,itiscalledoloro/galoro[13]andinEndeitiscalledaemesinukatanalala[14]

Tidalwave

Tsunamiaresometimesreferredtoastidalwaves.[15]Thisoncepopulartermderivesfromthemostcommonappearanceoftsunami,whichisthatofanextraordinarilyhightidalbore.Tsunamiandtidesbothproducewavesofwaterthatmoveinland,butinthecaseoftsunamitheinlandmovementofwatermaybemuchgreater,givingtheimpressionofanincrediblyhighandforcefultide.Inrecentyears,theterm"tidalwave"hasfallenoutoffavor,especiallyinthescientificcommunity,becausetsunamiactuallyhavenothingtodowithtides,whichareproducedbythegravitationalpullofthemoonandsun

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TsunamiaftermathinAceh,Indonesia.

Lisbonearthquakeandtsunamiin1755

TheRussiansofPavelLebedevLastochkininJapan,withtheirshipstossedinlandbyatsunami,meetingsomeJapanesein1779

ratherthanthedisplacementofwater.Althoughthemeaningsof"tidal"include"resembling"[16]or"havingtheformorcharacterof"[17]thetides,useofthetermtidalwaveisdiscouragedbygeologistsandoceanographers.

Seismicseawave

Thetermseismicseawavealsoisusedtorefertothephenomenon,becausethewavesmostoftenaregeneratedbyseismicactivitysuchasearthquakes.[18]Priortotheriseoftheuseoftheterm"tsunami"inEnglishspeakingcountries,scientistsgenerallyencouragedtheuseoftheterm"seismicseawave"ratherthantheinaccurateterm"tidalwave."However,like"tsunami,""seismicseawave"isnotacompletelyaccurateterm,asforcesotherthanearthquakesincludingunderwaterlandslides,volcaniceruptions,underwaterexplosions,landoriceslumpingintotheocean,meteoriteimpacts,oreventheweatherwhentheatmosphericpressurechangesveryrapidlycangeneratesuchwavesbydisplacingwater.[19][20]

History

WhileJapanmayhavethelongestrecordedhistoryoftsunamis,thesheerdestructioncausedbythe2004IndianOceanearthquakeandtsunamieventmarkitasthemostdevastatingofitskindinmoderntimes,killingaround230,000people[21].TheSumatran

regionisnotunusedtotsunamiseither,withearthquakesofvaryingmagnitudesregularlyoccurringoffthecoastoftheisland.[22]

TsunamisareanoftenunderestimatedhazardintheMediterraneanSearegionandEuropeingeneral.Ofhistoricalandcurrent(withregardtoriskassumptions)importancearee.g.the1755Lisbonearthquakeandtsunami(whichwascausedbytheAzoresGibraltarTransformFault),the1783Calabrianearthquakes,eachcausingseveraltenthousanddeathsandthe1908Messinaearthquakeandtsunami.Thelattertookmorethan123,000livesinSicilyandCalabriaandisamongthemostdeadlynaturaldisastersinmodernEurope.TheStoreggaSlideintheNorwegianseaandsomeexamplesofTsunamisaffectingtheBritishIslesrefertolandslideandmeteotsunamispredominatlyandlesstoearthquakeinducedwaves.

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Asearlyas426BCtheGreekhistorianThucydidesinquiredinhisbookHistoryofthePeloponnesianWaraboutthecausesoftsunami,andwasthefirsttoarguethatoceanearthquakesmustbethecause.[5][6]

"Thecause,inmyopinion,ofthisphenomenonmustbesoughtintheearthquake.Atthepointwhereitsshockhasbeenthemostviolenttheseaisdrivenback,andsuddenlyrecoilingwithredoubledforce,causestheinundation.WithoutanearthquakeIdonotseehowsuchanaccidentcouldhappen."[23]

TheRomanhistorianAmmianusMarcellinus(ResGestae26.10.1519)describedthetypicalsequenceofatsunami,includinganincipientearthquake,thesuddenretreatoftheseaandafollowinggiganticwave,afterthe365ADtsunamidevastatedAlexandria.[24][25]

Generationmechanisms

Theprincipalgenerationmechanism(orcause)ofatsunamiisthedisplacementofasubstantialvolumeofwaterorperturbationofthesea.[26]Thisdisplacementofwaterisusuallyattributedtoeitherearthquakes,landslides,volcaniceruptions,glaciercalvingsormorerarelybymeteoritesandnucleartests.[27][28]Thewavesformedinthiswayarethensustainedbygravity.Tidesdonotplayanypartinthegenerationoftsunamis.

Seismicity

Tsunamicanbegeneratedwhentheseafloorabruptlydeformsandverticallydisplacestheoverlyingwater.TectonicearthquakesareaparticularkindofearthquakethatareassociatedwiththeEarth'scrustaldeformationwhentheseearthquakesoccurbeneaththesea,thewaterabovethedeformedareaisdisplacedfromitsequilibriumposition.[29]Morespecifically,atsunamicanbegeneratedwhenthrustfaultsassociatedwithconvergentordestructiveplateboundariesmoveabruptly,resultinginwaterdisplacement,owingtotheverticalcomponentofmovementinvolved.Movementonnormalfaultswillalsocausedisplacementoftheseabed,butthesizeofthelargestofsucheventsisnormallytoosmalltogiverisetoasignificanttsunami.

Drawingoftectonicplateboundarybeforeearthquake

Overridingplatebulgesunderstrain,causingtectonicuplift.

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Plateslips,causingsubsidenceandreleasingenergyintowater.

Theenergyreleasedproducestsunamiwaves.

Tsunamishaveasmallamplitude(waveheight)offshore,andaverylongwavelength(oftenhundredsofkilometreslong,whereasnormaloceanwaveshaveawavelengthofonly30or40metres),[30]whichiswhytheygenerallypassunnoticedatsea,formingonlyaslightswellusuallyabout300millimetres(12in)abovethenormalseasurface.Theygrowinheightwhentheyreachshallowerwater,inawaveshoalingprocessdescribedbelow.Atsunamicanoccurinanytidalstateandevenatlowtidecanstillinundatecoastalareas.

OnApril1,1946,amagnitude7.8(RichterScale)earthquakeoccurredneartheAleutianIslands,Alaska.ItgeneratedatsunamiwhichinundatedHiloontheislandofHawai'iwitha14metrehigh(46ft)surge.TheareawheretheearthquakeoccurrediswherethePacificOceanfloorissubducting(orbeingpusheddownwards)underAlaska.

ExamplesoftsunamioriginatingatlocationsawayfromconvergentboundariesincludeStoreggaabout8,000yearsago,GrandBanks1929,PapuaNewGuinea1998(Tappin,2001).TheGrandBanksandPapuaNewGuineatsunamiscamefromearthquakeswhichdestabilisedsediments,causingthemtoflowintotheoceanandgenerateatsunami.Theydissipatedbeforetravelingtransoceanicdistances.

ThecauseoftheStoreggasedimentfailureisunknown.Possibilitiesincludeanoverloadingofthesediments,anearthquakeorareleaseofgashydrates(methaneetc.).

The1960Valdiviaearthquake(Mw9.5),1964Alaskaearthquake(Mw9.2),2004IndianOceanearthquake(Mw9.2),and2011Thokuearthquake(Mw9.0)arerecentexamplesofpowerfulmegathrustearthquakesthatgeneratedtsunamis(knownasteletsunamis)thatcancrossentireoceans.Smaller(Mw4.2)earthquakesinJapancantriggertsunamis(calledlocalandregionaltsunamis)thatcanonlydevastatenearbycoasts,butcandosoinonlyafewminutes.

Landslides

Inthe1950s,itwasdiscoveredthatlargertsunamisthanhadpreviouslybeenbelievedpossiblecouldbecausedbygiantsubmarinelandslides.Theserapidlydisplacelargewatervolumes,asenergytransferstothewaterataratefasterthanthewatercanabsorb.Theirexistencewasconfirmedin1958,whenagiantlandslideinLituyaBay,Alaska,causedthehighestwaveeverrecorded,whichhadaheightof524metres(over1700feet).[31]Thewavedidn'ttravelfar,asitstrucklandalmostimmediately.Twopeoplefishinginthebaywerekilled,butanotherboatamazinglymanagedtoridethewave.

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DevastationwroughtbyHurricaneIke'smeteotsunamicstormsurgeovertheBolivarPeninsulain2008.

Anotherlandslidetsunamieventoccurredin1963whenamassivelandslidefromMonteTocwentintotheVajontDaminItaly.Theresultingwaveovertoppedthe262m(860ft)highdamby250metres(820ft)anddestroyedseveraltowns.Around2,000peopledied.[32][33]Scientistsnamedthesewavesmegatsunami.Scientistsdiscoveredthatextremelylargelandslidesfromvolcanicislandcollapsesmaybeabletogeneratemegatsunamisthatcancrossoceans.

Ingeneral,landslidesgeneratedisplacementsmainlyintheshallowerpartsofthecoastline,andthereisconjectureaboutthenatureoftrulylargelandslidesthatendinwater.Thisisproventoleadtohugeeffectinclosedbaysandlakes,butanopenoceaniclandslidebigenoughtocauseatsunamiacrossanoceanhasnotyethappenedsincebeforeseismologyhasbeenamajorareaofscientificstudy,andonlyveryrarelyinhumanhistory.SusceptibleareasfocusfornowontheislandsofHawaiiandLasPalmasintheCanaryIslands,wherelargemassesofrelativelyunconsolidatedvolcanicshieldonslopesoccur.Considerabledoubtexistsabouthowlooselylinkedtheseslopesactuallyare.[34]

Meteotsunamis

Somemeteorologicalconditions,especiallydeepdepressionssuchastropicalcyclones,cangenerateatypeofstormsurgecalledameteotsunamiwhichraiseswaterheightsabovenormallevels,oftensuddenlyattheshoreline.[35]

Inthecaseofdeeptropicalcyclones,thisisduetoverylowatmosphericpressureandinwardswirlingwindscausinganuplifteddomeofwatertoformunderandtravelintandemwiththestorm.Whenthesewaterdomesreachshore,theyrearupinshallowsandsurgelaterallylikeearthquakegeneratedtsunamis,typicallyarrivingshortlyafterlandfallofthestorm'seye.[36][37]

Manmadeortriggeredtsunamis

Therehavebeenstudiesandatleastoneattempttocreatetsunamiwavesasatectonicweaponorwhetherhumanbehaviormaytriggertsunamis,e.g.inthe(debunked)Clathrategunhypothesis.

InWorldWarII,theNewZealandMilitaryForcesinitiatedProjectSeal,whichattemptedtocreatesmalltsunamiswithexplosivesintheareaoftoday'sShakespearRegionalParktheattemptfailed.[38]

Therehasbeenconsiderablespeculationonthepossibilityofusingnuclearweaponstocausetsunamisneartoanenemycoastline.EvenduringWorldWarIIconsiderationoftheideausingconventionalexplosiveswasexplored.NucleartestinginthePacificProvingGroundbytheUnitedStatesseemedtogeneratepoorresults.OperationCrossroadsfiredtwo20kilotonnesofTNT(84TJ)bombs,oneintheairandoneunderwater,aboveandbelowtheshallow(50m(160ft))watersoftheBikiniAtolllagoon.Firedabout6km(3.7mi)fromthenearestisland,thewavestherewerenohigherthan34m(9.813.1ft)uponreachingtheshoreline.Otherunderwatertests,mainlyHardtackI/Wahoo(deepwater)andHardtackI/Umbrella(shallowwater)confirmedtheresults.Analysisoftheeffectsofshallowanddeepunderwaterexplosionsindicatethattheenergyoftheexplosionsdoesn'teasilygeneratethekindofdeep,alloceanwaveformswhicharetsunamismostoftheenergycreatessteam,causesverticalfountainsabovethewater,andcreatescompressionalwaveforms.[39]Tsunamisarehallmarkedbypermanentlargeverticaldisplacementsofverylargevolumesofwaterwhichdon'toccurinexplosions.

Characteristics

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Whenthewaveentersshallowwater,itslowsdownanditsamplitude(height)increases.

Thewavefurtherslowsandamplifiesasithitsland.Onlythelargestwavescrest.

Anillustrationoftherhythmic"drawback"ofsurfacewaterassociatedwithawave.Itfollowsthataverylargedrawbackmayheraldthearrivalofaverylargewave.

Tsunamiscausedamagebytwomechanisms:thesmashingforceofawallofwatertravellingathighspeed,andthedestructivepowerofalargevolumeofwaterdrainingoffthelandandcarryingalargeamountofdebriswithit,evenwithwavesthatdonotappeartobelarge.

Whileeverydaywindwaveshaveawavelength(fromcresttocrest)ofabout100metres(330ft)andaheightofroughly2metres(6.6ft),atsunamiinthedeepoceanhasamuchlargerwavelengthofupto200kilometres(120mi).Suchawavetravelsatwellover800kilometresperhour(500mph),butowingtotheenormouswavelengththewaveoscillationatanygivenpointtakes20or30minutestocompleteacycleandhasanamplitudeofonlyabout1metre(3.3ft).[40]Thismakestsunamisdifficulttodetectoverdeepwater,whereshipsareunabletofeeltheirpassage.

ThereasonfortheJapanesename"harbourwave"isthatsometimesavillage'sfishermenwouldsailout,andencounternounusualwaveswhileoutatseafishing,andcomebacktolandtofindtheirvillagedevastatedbyahugewave.

Asthetsunamiapproachesthecoastandthewatersbecomeshallow,waveshoalingcompressesthewaveanditsspeeddecreasesbelow80kilometresperhour(50mph).Itswavelengthdiminishestolessthan20kilometres(12mi)anditsamplitudegrowsenormously.Sincethewavestillhasthesameverylongperiod,thetsunamimaytakeminutestoreachfullheight.Exceptfortheverylargesttsunamis,theapproachingwavedoesnotbreak,butratherappearslikeafastmovingtidalbore.[41]Openbaysandcoastlinesadjacenttoverydeepwatermayshapethetsunamifurtherintoasteplikewavewithasteepbreakingfront.

Whenthetsunami'swavepeakreachestheshore,theresultingtemporaryriseinsealevelistermedrunup.Runupismeasuredinmetresaboveareferencesealevel.[41]Alargetsunamimayfeaturemultiplewavesarrivingoveraperiodofhours,withsignificanttimebetweenthewavecrests.Thefirstwavetoreachtheshoremaynothavethehighestrunup.[42]

About80%oftsunamisoccurinthePacificOcean,buttheyarepossiblewherevertherearelargebodiesofwater,includinglakes.Theyarecausedbyearthquakes,landslides,volcanicexplosions,glaciercalvings,andbolides.

Drawback

Allwaveshaveapositiveandnegativepeak,i.e.aridgeandatrough.Inthecaseofapropagatingwavelikeatsunami,eithermaybethefirsttoarrive.Ifthefirstparttoarriveatshoreistheridge,amassivebreakingwaveorsuddenfloodingwillbethefirsteffectnoticedonland.Howeverifthefirstparttoarriveisatrough,adrawbackwilloccurasthe

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tsunami2.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_borehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_shoalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shallow_water_wave.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishermenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength



shorelinerecedesdramatically,exposingnormallysubmergedareas.Drawbackcanexceedhundredsofmetres,andpeopleunawareofthedangersometimesremainneartheshoretosatisfytheircuriosityortocollectfishfromtheexposedseabed.

Atypicalwaveperiodforadamagingtsunamiisabout12minutes.Thismeansthatifthedrawbackphaseisthefirstpartofthewavetoarrive,theseawillrecede,withareaswellbelowsealevelexposedafter3minutes.Duringthenext6minutesthetsunamiwavetroughbuildsintoaridge,andduringthistimetheseaisfilledinanddestructionoccursonland.Duringthenext6minutes,thetsunamiwavechangesfromaridgetoatrough,causingfloodwaterstodrainanddrawbacktooccuragain.Thismaysweepvictimsanddebrissomedistancefromland.Theprocessrepeatsasthenextwavearrives.

Scalesofintensityandmagnitude

Aswithearthquakes,severalattemptshavebeenmadetosetupscalesoftsunamiintensityormagnitudetoallowcomparisonbetweendifferentevents.[43]

Intensityscales

ThefirstscalesusedroutinelytomeasuretheintensityoftsunamiweretheSiebergAmbraseysscale,usedintheMediterraneanSeaandtheImamuraIidaintensityscale,usedinthePacificOcean.ThelatterscalewasmodifiedbySoloviev,whocalculatedtheTsunamiintensityIaccordingtotheformula

where istheaveragewaveheightalongthenearestcoast.Thisscale,knownastheSolovievImamuratsunamiintensityscale,isusedintheglobaltsunamicataloguescompiledbytheNGDC/NOAA[44]andtheNovosibirskTsunamiLaboratoryasthemainparameterforthesizeofthetsunami.

In2013,followingtheintensivelystudiedtsunamisin2004and2011,anew12pointscalewasproposed,theIntegratedTsunamiIntensityScale(ITIS2012),intendedtomatchascloselyaspossibletothemodifiedESI2007andEMSearthquakeintensityscales.[45]

Magnitudescales

Thefirstscalethatgenuinelycalculatedamagnitudeforatsunami,ratherthananintensityataparticularlocationwastheMLscaleproposedbyMurty&Loomisbasedonthepotentialenergy.[43]Difficultiesincalculatingthepotentialenergyofthetsunamimeanthatthisscaleisrarelyused.Abeintroducedthetsunamimagnitudescale ,calculatedfrom,

wherehisthemaximumtsunamiwaveamplitude(inm)measuredbyatidegaugeatadistanceRfromtheepicentre,a,bandDareconstantsusedtomaketheMtscalematchascloselyaspossiblewiththe

momentmagnitudescale.[46]

Warningsandpredictions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Seismic_Intensity_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Macroseismic_Scale



Tsunamiwarningsign

Drawbackscanserveasabriefwarning.Peoplewhoobservedrawback(manysurvivorsreportanaccompanyingsuckingsound),cansurviveonlyiftheyimmediatelyrunforhighgroundorseektheupperfloorsofnearbybuildings.In2004,tenyearoldTillySmithofSurrey,England,wasonMaikhaobeachinPhuket,Thailandwithherparentsandsister,andhavinglearnedabouttsunamisrecentlyinschool,toldherfamilythatatsunamimightbeimminent.Herparentswarnedothersminutesbeforethewavearrived,savingdozensoflives.Shecreditedhergeographyteacher,AndrewKearney.

Inthe2004IndianOceantsunamidrawbackwasnotreportedontheAfricancoastoranyothereastfacingcoaststhatitreached.Thiswasbecausethewavemoveddownwardsontheeasternsideofthefaultlineandupwardsonthewesternside.ThewesternpulsehitcoastalAfricaandotherwesternareas.

Atsunamicannotbepreciselypredicted,evenifthemagnitudeandlocationofanearthquakeisknown.Geologists,oceanographers,andseismologistsanalyseeachearthquakeandbasedonmanyfactorsmayormaynotissueatsunamiwarning.However,therearesomewarningsignsofanimpendingtsunami,andautomatedsystemscanprovidewarningsimmediatelyafteranearthquakeintimetosavelives.Oneofthemostsuccessfulsystemsusesbottompressuresensors,attachedtobuoys,whichconstantlymonitorthepressureoftheoverlyingwatercolumn.

Regionswithahightsunamirisktypicallyusetsunamiwarningsystemstowarnthepopulationbeforethewavereachesland.OnthewestcoastoftheUnitedStates,whichispronetoPacificOceantsunami,warningsignsindicateevacuationroutes.InJapan,thecommunityiswelleducatedaboutearthquakesandtsunamis,andalongtheJapaneseshorelinesthetsunamiwarningsignsareremindersofthenaturalhazardstogetherwithanetworkofwarningsirens,typicallyatthetopofthecliffofsurroundingshills.[47]

ThePacificTsunamiWarningSystemisbasedinHonolulu,Hawaii.ItmonitorsPacificOceanseismicactivity.Asufficientlylargeearthquakemagnitudeandotherinformationtriggersatsunamiwarning.WhilethesubductionzonesaroundthePacificareseismicallyactive,notallearthquakesgeneratetsunami.ComputersassistinanalysingthetsunamiriskofeveryearthquakethatoccursinthePacificOceanandtheadjoininglandmasses.

TsunamihazardsignatBamfield,BritishColumbia

AtsunamiwarningsignonaseawallinKamakura,Japan,2004

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kamakura_tsunami.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phuket_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honoluluhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura,_Kanagawahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Tsunami_Warning_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maikhao_beach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_warning_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TsunamiHazardSign.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilly_Smith



OneofthedeepwaterbuoysusedintheDARTtsunamiwarningsystem

ThemonumenttothevictimsoftsunamiatLaupahoehoe,Hawaii

TsunamimemorialinKanyakumaribeach

ATsunamihazardsign(SpanishEnglish)inIquique,Chile.

TsunamiEvacuationRoutesignagealongU.S.Route101,inWashington

AsadirectresultoftheIndianOceantsunami,areappraisalofthetsunamithreatforallcoastalareasisbeingundertakenbynationalgovernmentsandtheUnitedNationsDisasterMitigationCommittee.AtsunamiwarningsystemisbeinginstalledintheIndianOcean.

Computermodelscanpredicttsunamiarrival,usuallywithinminutesofthearrivaltime.Bottompressuresensorscanrelayinformationinrealtime.Basedonthesepressurereadingsandotherseismicinformationandtheseafloor'sshape(bathymetry)andcoastaltopography,themodelsestimatetheamplitudeandsurgeheightoftheapproachingtsunami.AllPacificRimcountriescollaborateintheTsunamiWarningSystemandmostregularlypracticeevacuationandotherprocedures.InJapan,suchpreparationismandatoryforgovernment,localauthorities,emergencyservicesandthepopulation.

SomezoologistshypothesisethatsomeanimalspecieshaveanabilitytosensesubsonicRayleighwavesfromanearthquakeoratsunami.Ifcorrect,monitoringtheirbehaviorcouldprovideadvancewarningofearthquakes,tsunamietc.However,theevidenceiscontroversialandisnotwidelyaccepted.ThereareunsubstantiatedclaimsabouttheLisbonquakethatsomeanimalsescapedtohigherground,whilemanyotheranimalsinthesameareasdrowned.ThephenomenonwasalsonotedbymediasourcesinSriLankainthe2004IndianOceanearthquake.[48][49]Itispossiblethatcertainanimals(e.g.,elephants)mayhaveheardthesoundsofthetsunamiasitapproachedthecoast.Theelephants'reactionwastomoveawayfromtheapproachingnoise.Bycontrast,somehumanswenttotheshoretoinvestigateandmanydrownedasaresult.

AlongtheUnitedStateswestcoast,inadditiontosirens,warningsaresentontelevisionandradioviatheNationalWeatherService,usingtheEmergencyAlertSystem.

Forecastoftsunamiattackprobability

KunihikoShimazaki(UniversityofTokyo),amemberofEarthquakeResearchcommitteeofTheHeadquartersforEarthquakeResearchPromotionofJapanesegovernment,mentionedtheplantopublicannouncementoftsunamiattackprobabilityforecastatJapanNationalPressClubon12May2011.The

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Rimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_National_Press_Clubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanyakumarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laupahoehoehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tsunami_Memorial_Kanyakumari.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Alert_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_(island)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dart_tsunamicover.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_101_in_Washingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Weather_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_monument_to_the_victims_of_tsunami.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tokyohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iquique



AseawallatTsu,Japan

forecastincludestsunamiheight,attackareaandoccurrenceprobabilitywithin100yearsahead.Theforecastwouldintegratethescientificknowledgeofrecentinterdisciplinarityandaftermathofthe2011Thokuearthquakeandtsunami.Astheplan,announcementwillbeavailablefrom2014.[50][51][52]

Mitigation

Insometsunamipronecountriesearthquakeengineeringmeasureshavebeentakentoreducethedamagecausedonshore.

Japan,wheretsunamiscienceandresponsemeasuresfirstbeganfollowingadisasterin1896,hasproducedevermoreelaboratecountermeasuresandresponseplans.[53]Thatcountryhasbuiltmanytsunamiwallsofupto12metres(39ft)hightoprotectpopulatedcoastalareas.Otherlocalitieshavebuiltfloodgatesofupto15.5metres(51ft)highandchannelstoredirectthewaterfromincomingtsunami.However,theireffectivenesshasbeenquestioned,astsunamioftenovertopthebarriers.

TheFukushimaDaiichinucleardisasterwasdirectlytriggeredbythe2011Thokuearthquakeandtsunami,whenwavesthatexceededtheheightoftheplant'sseawall.[54]IwatePrefecture,whichisanareaathighriskfromtsunami,hadtsunamibarrierswallstotalling25kilometres(16mi)longatcoastaltowns.The2011tsunamitoppledmorethan50%ofthewallsandcausedcatastrophicdamage.[55]

TheOkushiri,HokkaidtsunamiwhichstruckOkushiriIslandofHokkaidwithintwotofiveminutesoftheearthquakeonJuly12,1993createdwavesasmuchas30metres(100ft)tallashighasa10storybuilding.TheporttownofAonaewascompletelysurroundedbyatsunamiwall,butthewaveswashedrightoverthewallanddestroyedallthewoodframedstructuresinthearea.Thewallmayhavesucceededinslowingdownandmoderatingtheheightofthetsunami,butitdidnotpreventmajordestructionandlossoflife.[56]

Seealso

DeepoceanAssessmentandReportingofTsunamisDisasterpreparednessEarthquakeEarlyWarning(Japan)HigherGroundProjectIndexofwavearticlesListofearthquakesListofnaturaldisastersMinoaneruptionRoguewaveSeicheSneakerwaveSupervolcano

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_eruptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earthquakeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsu,_Miehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneaker_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896_Meiji-Sanriku_earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_wave_articleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_Early_Warning_(Japan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_tsunami#1993:_Okushiri.2C_Hokkaido.2C_Japan_.28.E5.8C.97.E6.B5.B7.E9.81.93.E5.8D.97.E8.A5.BF.E6.B2.96.E5.9C.B0.E9.9C.87.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodgatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_disastershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwate_Prefecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Hokkaido_earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_preparednesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Ground_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tsunami_wall.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okushiri,_Hokkaid%C5%8Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiche



Footnotes

TauredunumeventTsunamisinlakesTsunamiproofbuildingTsunamiSocietyTsunamisintheUnitedKingdomKaikouraCanyonlandslidetsunamihazard

1. "TsunamiTerminology"(http://nthmphistory.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.html).NOAA.Retrieved20100715.2. Wells,JohnC.(1990).Longmanpronunciationdictionary.Harlow,England:Longman.p.736.ISBN0582

053838.Entry:"tsunami"3. BarbaraFerreira(April17,2011)."Whenicebergscapsize,tsunamismayensue"

(http://blogs.nature.com/barbaraferreira/2011/04/17/whenicebergscapsize).Nature.Retrieved20110427.4. Fradin,JudithBloomandDennisBrindell(2008).WitnesstoDisaster:Tsunamis

(http://shop.nationalgeographic.com/ngs/product/books/kidsbooksandatlases/animalsandnature/witnesstodisaster%3Atsunamis).WitnesstoDisaster.Washington,D.C.:NationalGeographicSociety.pp.42,43.

5. Thucydides:AHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,3.89.14(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1)

6. Smid,T.C.(April1970).'Tsunamis'inGreekLiterature.Greece&Rome17(1)(2nded.).pp.100104.7. [a.Jap.tsunami,tunami,f.tsuharbour+namiwaves.OxfordEnglishDictionary]8. ProposingTheCommunityBasedTsunamiWarningSystem(http://www.seis.nagoya

u.ac.jp/kimata/ref/ICTW08_paper_CPM12JP.pdf)9. NovelAlonBuluek(http://books.google.co.id/books?

id=efBrY41Hm5QC&pg=PP7&lpg=PP7&dq=alon+buluek+ie+beuna+tsunami&source=bl&ots=1Hj_pswzTy&sig=V7PmAnPptfO7BNMWBAC5aWMGKGI&hl=id&sa=X&ei=etrETDgDMbPrQeRxcm6CQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=alon%20buluek%20ie%20beuna%20tsunami&f=false)

10. Tsunami1907:EarlyInterpretationanditsDevelopment(http://www.jtic.org/phocadownload/archived_old_files/pdf/SMGChapter3.pdf)

11. 13PulaudiAcehSingkilHilang(http://tribunnews.com/2010/04/19/13pulaudiacehsingkilhilang)12. Singkil,KisahKotayangTenggelam

(http://regional.kompas.com/read/2012/05/24/08460533/Singkil.Kisah.Kota.yang.Tenggelam)13. GempadanTsunamidiNiasdalamBukuNiasAmoeataHoeloNonoNihakaranganE.Fries

(http://niasonline.net/2007/01/16/gempadantsunamidiniasdalambuku%E2%80%9Cniasamoeatahoelonononiha%E2%80%9Dkaranganefries/)

14. PerjalananNamaTsunami(http://sains.kompas.com/read/2014/12/24/18281591/.Perjalanan.Nama.Tsunami)15. http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/tidal%20wave16. "Tidal",TheAmericanHeritageStedman'sMedicalDictionary.HoughtonMifflinCompany.11November

2008.Dictionary.reference.com(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tidal)17. al.(n.d.).Dictionary.comUnabridged(v1.1).RetrievedNovember11,2008,Dictionary.reference.com

(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/al)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Societyhttp://regional.kompas.com/read/2012/05/24/08460533/Singkil.Kisah.Kota.yang.Tenggelamhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/-alhttp://tribunnews.com/2010/04/19/13-pulau-di-aceh-singkil-hilanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-05383-8http://books.google.co.id/books?id=efBrY41Hm5QC&pg=PP7&lpg=PP7&dq=alon+buluek+ie+beuna+tsunami&source=bl&ots=1Hj_pswzTy&sig=V7PmAnPptfO7BNMWBAC5aWMGKGI&hl=id&sa=X&ei=etrET-DgDMbPrQeRxcm6CQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=alon%20buluek%20ie%20beuna%20tsunami&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami-proof_buildinghttp://www.seis.nagoya-u.ac.jp/kimata/ref/ICTW08_paper_CPM12JP.pdfhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tidal%20wavehttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://blogs.nature.com/barbaraferreira/2011/04/17/when-icebergs-capsizehttp://nthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.htmlhttp://shop.nationalgeographic.com/ngs/product/books/kids-books-and-atlases/animals-and-nature/witness-to-disaster%3A-tsunamishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis_in_the_United_Kingdomhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tidalhttp://www.jtic.org/phocadownload/archived_old_files/pdf/SMGChapter3.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis_in_lakeshttp://sains.kompas.com/read/2014/12/24/18281591/.Perjalanan.Nama.Tsunamihttp://niasonline.net/2007/01/16/gempa-dan-tsunami-di-nias-dalam-buku-%E2%80%9Cnias-amoeata-hoelo-nono-niha%E2%80%9D-karangan-e-fries/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikoura_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauredunum_event



18. TheCaribbeanDisasterEmergencyManagementAgency:TsunamiSmart:Glossary(http://weready.org/tsunami/index.php?option=com_glossary&letter=S&id=56)

19. EarthScienceAustralia:Tsunami...TidalWaves(http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/tsumami/tsunami.html)

20. AustralianGovernmentBureauofMeteorology:TsunamiFrequentlyAskedQuestions(http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/info/faq.shtml)

21. IndianOceantsunamianniversary:Memorialeventsheld(http://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia30602159)26December2014,BBCNews

22. The10mostdestructivetsunamisinhistory(http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/the10biggesttsunamisinhistory.htm/),AustralianGeographic,March16,2011.

23. Thucydides:AHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,3.89.5(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1)

24. Kelly,Gavin(2004)."AmmianusandtheGreatTsunami".TheJournalofRomanStudies94(141):141167.doi:10.2307/4135013(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F4135013).JSTOR4135013(https://www.jstor.org/stable/4135013).

25. Stanley,JeanDaniel&Jorstad,ThomasF.(2005),"The365A.D.TsunamiDestructionofAlexandria,Egypt:Erosion,DeformationofStrataandIntroductionofAllochthonousMaterial(http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005AM/finalprogram/abstract_96386.htm)"

26. HaugenK,LvholtF,HarbitzC,KLovholt,FHarbitz,C(2005)."Fundamentalmechanismsfortsunamigenerationbysubmarinemassflowsinidealisedgeometries".MarineandPetroleumGeology22(12):209217.doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.016(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpetgeo.2004.10.016).

27. Margaritondo,G(2005)."Explainingthephysicsoftsunamistoundergraduateandnonphysicsstudents".EuropeanJournalofPhysics26(3):401.Bibcode:2005EJPh...26..401M(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EJPh...26..401M).doi:10.1088/01430807/26/3/007(https://dx.doi.org/10.1088%2F01430807%2F26%2F3%2F007).

28. Voit,S.S(1987)."Tsunamis".AnnualReviewofFluidMechanics19(1):217236.Bibcode:1987AnRFM..19..217V(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987AnRFM..19..217V).doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.19.010187.001245(https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.19.010187.001245).

29. "Howdoearthquakesgeneratetsunamis?"(http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/earthquake.html).UniversityofWashington.

30. Factsandfigures:howtsunamisform(http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/factsandfigureshowtsunamisform.htm/),AustralianGeographic,March18,2011.

31. GeorgePararasCarayannis(1999)."TheMegaTsunamiofJuly9,1958inLituyaBay,Alaska"(http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Tsunami1958LituyaB.html).Retrieved20140227.

32. Petley,Dave(Professor)(20081211)."TheVaiont(Vajont)landslideof1963"(http://www.landslideblog.org/2008/12/vaiontvajontlandslideof1963.html).TheLandslideBlog.Retrieved20140226.

33. Duff,Mark(20131010)."ItalyVajontanniversary:Nightofthe'tsunami' "(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldeurope24464867).BBCNews.Bbc.co.uk.Retrieved20140227.

34. PararasCarayannis,George(2002)."EvaluationofthethreatofmegatsunamigenerationfrompostulatedmassiveslopefailuresoftheislandvolcanoesonLaPalma,CanaryIslands,andontheislandofHawaii"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm).ScienceofTsunamiHazards20(5):251277.Retrieved7September2014.

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35. Monserrat,S.Vilibc,I.Rabinovich,A.B.(2006)."Meteotsunamis:atmosphericallyinduceddestructiveoceanwavesinthetsunamifrequencyband"(http://halsde.archivesouvertes.fr/docs/00/29/93/94/PDF/nhess610352006.pdf).NaturalHazardsandEarthSystemSciences6(6):10351051.doi:10.5194/nhess610352006(https://dx.doi.org/10.5194%2Fnhess610352006).Retrieved23November2011.

36. "Ike'sTexasSizedTalesOfSurvival"(http://www.cbsnews.com/news/ikestexassizedtalesofsurvival).CBSNews.17September2008.Retrieved19December2013.""Itwaslikeanatomicbombgoingoff.Rightaftertheeyepassed,wholehousescamebyusat30milesanhour.""

37. Eyewitnessvideo(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rS0gv4Xbw7w)ofSupertyphoonHaiyan'smeteotsunamicstormsurgeonNovember6,2013

38. "TheHaurakiGulfMarinePark,Part2".InsettoTheNewZealandHerald.3March2010.p.9.39. Glasstone,SamuelDolan,Philip(1977).ShockeffectsofsurfaceandsubsurfaceburstsTheeffectsof

nuclearweapons(thirdedition).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofDefenseEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAdministration.

40. Earthsci.org(http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/tsumami/tsunami.html),Tsunamis41. "LifeofaTsunami"(http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/basics.html).WesternCoastal&MarineGeology.

UnitedStatesGeographicalSurvey.22October2008.Retrieved20090909.42. Prof.StephenA.Nelson(28January2009)."Tsunami"

(http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/tsunami.htm).TulaneUniversity.Retrieved20090909.43. GusiakovV."TsunamiQuantification:howwemeasuretheoverallsizeoftsunami(Reviewoftsunami

intensityandmagnitudescales)"(http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/data/presentations/jtc/gusiakov.pdf).Retrieved20091018.

44. NationalGeophysicalDataCenter/(NGDC/WDS)GlobalHistoricalTsunamiDatabase(http://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu_db.shtml)

45. LekkasE.,AndreadakisE.,KostakiI.&KapouraniE.(2013)."AProposalforaNewIntegratedTsunamiIntensityScale(ITIS2012)"(http://www.bssaonline.org/content/103/2B/1493.abstract).BulletinSeismologicalSocietyofAmerica103(2B).doi:10.1785/0120120099(https://dx.doi.org/10.1785%2F0120120099).

46. AbeK.(1995).EstimateofTsunamiRunupHeightsfromEarthquakeMagnitudes(http://books.google.com/?id=5YjaGdQOJIwC&pg=PA21&dq=abe+magnitude+scale+tsunami+1981&q=abe%20magnitude%20scale%20tsunami%201981).Tsunami:progressinprediction,disasterprevention,andwarning.ISBN9780792334835.Retrieved20091018.

47. Chanson,H.(2010).TsunamiWarningSignsontheEnshuCoastofJapan(http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:203103).Shore&Beach,Vol.78,No.1,pp.5254.ISSN00374237(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/00374237).

48. Lambourne,Helen(20050327)."Tsunami:Anatomyofadisaster"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4269847.stm).BBC.

49. Kenneally,Christine(20041230)."SurvivingtheTsunami:WhatSriLanka'sanimalsknewthathumansdidn't"(http://www.slate.com/id/2111608).SlateMagazine.

50. Forecastofearthquakeprobabilityiswithin30yearsahead,howeverTsunamiattackprobabilityismuchlowerthanearthquakesothattheplanissettobewithin100yearsahead.YomiuriShimbun20110513ver.13Spage2,[NewlypublicannounceofTsunamiattackprobability...EarthquakeResearchcommitteeofJapan](http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110512OYT1T00947.htm).YomiuriShimbun(inJapanese).20110512.Retrieved20110513.

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References

IOCTsunamiGlossary(http://itic.iocunesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=en)bytheIntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission(IOC)attheInternationalTsunamiInformationCentre(http://itic.iocunesco.org/index.php)(ITIC)ofUNESCOTsunamiTerminology(http://nthmphistory.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.html)atNOAAInJune2011,theVOASpecialEnglishserviceoftheVoiceofAmericabroadcasta15minuteprogramontsunamisaspartofitsweeklyScienceintheNewsseries.TheprogramincludedaninterviewwithaNOAAofficialwhooverseestheagency'stsunamiwarningsystem.AtranscriptandMP3oftheprogram,intendedforEnglishlearners,canbefoundatTheEverPresentThreatofTsunamis.(http://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/home/sciencetechnology/LargeTsunamisDoNotHappenOftenButtheThreatisAlwaysPresent123226568.html)abelard.org.(http://www.abelard.org/briefings/tsunami.php)tsunamis:tsunamistravelfastbutnotatinfinitespeed.retrievedMarch29,2005.Dudley,WalterC.&Lee,Min(1988:1stedition)Tsunami!ISBN0824811259website(http://tsunami.org/references.html)Iwan,W.D.,editor,2006,SummaryreportoftheGreatSumatraEarthquakesandIndianOceantsunamisofDecember26,2004andMarch28,2005:EarthquakeEngineeringResearchInstitute,EERIPublication#200606,11chapters,100pagesummary,plusCDROMwithcompletetextandsupplementaryphotographs,EERIReport200606.ISBN193288419Xwebsite(http://www.eeri.org/)Kenneally,Christine(December30,2004)."SurvivingtheTsunami."Slate.website(http://www.slate.com/id/2111608/)Lambourne,Helen(March27,2005)."Tsunami:Anatomyofadisaster."BBCNews.website

51. IndiaTimes(http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=tsunamiwaveofchange)KunihikoShimazakispeaksduringapressconferenceinTokyoThursday,May12,2011

52. MargieMason(20110512)."Experts:EarlywarningsmitigatedJapandisaster"(http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/05/12/expertsearlywarningsmitigatedjapandisaster/).AssociatedPress.

53. "Journalist'sResource:ResearchforReporting,fromHarvardShorensteinCenter"(http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/tsunamijapan/).Content.hks.harvard.edu.20120530.Retrieved20120612.

54. PhillipLipscy,KenjiKushida,andTrevorIncerti.2013."TheFukushimaDisasterandJapansNuclearPlantVulnerabilityinComparativePerspective(http://www.stanford.edu/~plipscy/LipscyKushidaIncertiEST2013.pdf)."EnvironmentalScienceandTechnology47(May),60826088.

55. KyodoPress"Tsunamitoppledmorethan50%ofseawallinIwateprefecture"(JA)(http://www.47news.jp/CN/201104/CN2011041201000147.html)

56. 1993712(http://library.skr.jp/19930712_nanseioki.htm)(inJapanese).

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WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoTsunami.

(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm)Macey,Richard(January1,2005)."TheBigBangthatTriggeredATragedy,"TheSydneyMorningHerald,p11quotingDrMarkLeonard,seismologistatGeoscienceAustralia.InteractiveMapofHistoricalTsunamis(http://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/hazards/)fromNOAA'sNationalGeophysicalDataCenterTappin,D2001.Localtsunamis.Geoscientist.118,47.Girl,10,usedgeographylessontosavelives(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl10usedgeographylessontosavelives.html),Telegraph.co.ukPhilippineswarnedtoprepareforJapan'stsunami(http://www.noypi.ph/index.php/nation/3283keylocationsinphilippineswarnedtopreparefortsunami.html),Noypi.ph

Furtherreading

BorisLevin,MikhailNosov:Physicsoftsunamis.Springer,Dordrecht2009,ISBN9781402088551.Kontar,Y.A.etal.:TsunamiEventsandLessonsLearned:EnvironmentalandSocietalSignificance.Springer,2014.ISBN9789400772687(print)ISBN9789400772694(eBook)KristyF.Tiampo:Earthquakes:simulations,sourcesandtsunamis.Birkhuser,Basel2008,ISBN9783764387563.LindaMariaKoldau:Tsunamis.Entstehung,Geschichte,Prvention,(Tsunamidevelopment,historyandprevention)C.H.Beck,Munich2013(C.H.BeckReiheWissen2770),ISBN9783406646560(inGerman).WalterC.Dudley,MinLee:Tsunami!UniversityofHawaiiPress,1988,1998,Tsunami!UniversityofHawai'iPress1999,ISBN0824811259,ISBN9780824819699.

Externallinks

World'sTallestTsunami(http://geology.com/records/biggesttsunami.shtml)geology.comTsunamiDataandInformation(http://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu.shtml)NationalGeophysicalDataCenterIOCTsunamiGlossary(http://itic.iocunesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=en)InternationalTsunamiInformationCenter(UNESCO)Tsunami&EarthquakeResearchattheUSGS(http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/)UnitedStatesGeologicalSurveyIntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission(http://www.unesco.org/new/en/naturalsciences/iococeans/)IntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402088551http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=enhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783764387563http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824811259http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783406646560http://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu.shtmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commissionhttp://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/hazards/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824819699http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Maria_Koldauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Heraldhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geophysical_Data_Centerhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl-10-used-geography-lesson-to-save-lives.htmlhttp://www.noypi.ph/index.php/nation/3283-key-locations-in-philippines-warned-to-prepare-for-tsunami.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph.co.ukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400772687http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Surveyhttp://geology.com/records/biggest-tsunami.shtmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400772694



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