TSL3102 Lecture 9 Syntax

7/29/2019 TSL3102 Lecture 9 Syntax

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THE SENTENCE PATTERNS OFLANGUAGE

SYNTAX


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The origin of the word SYNTAX

SYNTAX Greek >>>> a setting out together /arrangement of elements in the linear structure ofthe sentence

System of rules and principles that allows us to

combine words into larger units. Eg: 1. The girl goes on many longwalks.

2. The girlwalks the dogs.

Noun ? Verb ?

>>> the position of a word in the sentencedetermines the syntactic category

(parts of speech/wc)


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Words can be grouped / combined in certain ways

>>>>sentence are not simply flat strings of words.They have some kind of internal structure pretty

strong intuitions


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OBJECTIVES

Distinguish simple, compound and complex sentences inanalysis of texts. Features of simple sentences

Patterns or structures in English

SV SVO

SVOO

SVC

SVA

SVOC

SVOA

Features of compound sentences

Features of complex sentences


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SYNTAX

Knowledge of sentences & their

structures.


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Grammatical or Ungrammatical?

a) The boy found the ball.b) The boy found quickly.c) The boy found in the house.d) The boy found the ball in the house.

e) Disa slept the baby.f ) Disa slept soundly.g) Sue believes Rob to be a good man.h) Sue believes to be a good man.i ) Zack tries Matt to be a gentleman.j ) Zack tries to be a gentleman.


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Grammatical or Ungrammatical?

How do you come to the

conclusion?Can you identify some of the rules

in the sentences?


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Judgments of Grammaticality

determined by syntactic rules ofgrammarthe rules are shared by the speakers

of the language.the speakers have unconscious

knowledge of the rules


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So what are syntactic rules?

It must account for:

1. the speakers ability to produce &

understand an infinite number ofsentences

2. the grammaticality of sentences

3. the ambiguity (presence of moremeaning) of sentences


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1. Syntactic Rules Account for the CreativeAspect of Language

The kind-hearted boy had manygirlfriends.

The kind-hearted, intelligent boy hadmany girlfriends.

The kind-hearted, intelligent, handsomeboy had many girlfriends.

Can you produce even longer sentences?


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2. Syntactic Rules DetermineOrder of Words

Words in a sentence occur in a certain linearorder.

Every sentence is a string of words, but is every

string of words a sentence?k ) The girl loves the cat.

l ) Girl the loves cat the.

m) Loves the girl the cat.

n ) The girl cat the loves.


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2. Syntactic Rules DetermineOrder of Words- cont

o) She has what a man wants.

p) She wants what a man has.

q) The large spider frightened Aunt Meg.

r) Aunt Meg frightened the large spider.

The meaning of a sentence depends largely on theorder in which words occur in a sentence.


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3. Syntactic Rules Determine Grammatical Relations

E.g. the relation between subject &direct object & how they are understoodin a sentence.

Mary hired Bill.Bill hired MaryBill was hired by MaryKill BillKill, BillBill was killed by someone.


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3. Syntactic Rules Determine Grammatical Relations cont.

Whether Different Structures Have DifferingMeanings or the Same Meaning The Chief Justice swore in the new President.

The Chief Justice swore the new President in. The child found the puppy.

The puppy found the child.

The puppy was found by the child.


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4. Syntactic rules determine the order of words in asentence, & how the words are grouped

Divide the sentence into sub-groups.

The girl loves the cat

(The girl) (loves the cat)(The girl) (loves) (the cat)

Natural groupings of a sentence is called constituents. Reflects the speakers intuitions about the natural

groupings of words in sentence A sentence can be viewed as having a hierarchical

structure made up of constituents of varying sizes.

The structure can be represented as a tree structure.


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A Tree Diagram




The cat


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Clauses


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Compare these sentences

I suddenly remembered something.

I suddenly remembered that I had an appointment.

Your failureis most regrettable. That you failed the exam is most regrettable.

The police questioned every local resident. The police questioned every person who lived in the

neighbourhood.


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Clauses

Aclause is a group of words containing a subjectand predicate and used as part of a sentence.

Independent clauses can stand alone and make completesense.

An independent clause written with a capital letter at thebeginning and a period at the end is a simple sentence.

The coupledances.subject (S) verb (V)


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Sentence Structure: Dependent Clauses (SubordinateClauses)

Dependent clauses help to clarify and add detail toan independent clause.

Dependent clauses may appear at the beginning,

middle, or end of a sentence. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone.


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Types of Subordinate Clauses

There are three types of subordinate clauses:

adjective clauses

subordinate clause modifies a noun or pronoun

adverb clauses

subordinate clause modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb

noun clauses

subordinate clause functions as subject, object, predicatenominative, etc.


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Adjective Clause

An adjective clause is a subordinate clause thatmodifies a noun or pronoun. The house where he was born has been made a national

shrine. (adj. clause modifies house)

She is one who earned her honours. (adj. clausemodifies one)

The assignment, which I did last week, received a gradeofA+. (adj. clause modifies assignment)


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Adjective Clause (AdjC)

[S+V/] that acts like an adjective

Example: The story [that I am reading] is sad.

S V

This entire clause acts like anadjective, so it is an adjectiveclause.

AdjCs follow nouns

Often start with relative pronouns

relativepronoun

[thatIam reading]


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Relative Pronoun

Many subordinate adjective clauses begin with arelative pronoun.

The most common relative pronouns:

That Which Who Whom Whose

She didnt recognize the manwho had spoken.

K. Kangsar is the town that Bala came from.

The relative pronoun can be omitted if the clausehas another noun to serve as the subject Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.


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Adjective Clause

Two kinds of relative clause:

Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive

Defining vs. Non-defining


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Defining Adjective Clause

Explain which person or thing you are talking about.

I met the woman.

I met the womanwho lives next door.

Shortly after the robbery, the man died. Shortly after the robbery, the manwho had done it

died.


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The peoplewho work in my office are so uptight!

S essential phrase V

Without the essential phrase, this sentence does

not make complete sense : The people are so

uptight!


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The rendang that I had at Jahswas much betterthan this one!

S essential V

The word that is almost always an indicator

of an essential clause.


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A non-defining clause adds extra information to asentence.

This information can be eliminated from the

sentence without jeopardizing the meaning of thesentence.

Always place commas around non-defining clauses.


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Mybrother,who lives across town, plans to throw a party!

S non-essential V

Even without the phrase the sentence still makes

sense : My brother plans to throw a party!


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Stevesaid that he would propose to me onValentines Day,which is my favorite holiday!

S V non-essential


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Our two daughters, Hani and Ana, were born inPenang. (non-defining)

Our daughter Hani lives in Kedah. (assuming we

have more than one daughter) Our daughter, Hani, lives in Kedah. (assuming we

have only one daughter)


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Noun Clause (NC)

[S+V/] that acts like a noun

Example: I think [you are sick].

Ithink[you are sick].

S V O

Objects are nouns; this entire clauseacts like a singular noun, so it is anoun clause.


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Noun Clause

Anoun clause is a subordinate clause used as anoun.

Anounclause may begin with an indefinite relative

pronoun: that, what, whatever, who, which,whoever, whichever.

Anoun clause may begin with an indefinite relativeadjective: whose, which, whichever.

Anoun clause may begin with an indefinite relativeadverb: where, when, how, etc.


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Functions of noun clause

subject

object

object of preposition

complement


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Noun Clause:As Subject

That it snowed surprised me.

N Cl


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Noun Clause:As Subject Complement

The question was how to cross

the bridge.

Noun Clause:


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Noun Clause:As Object of Preposition

You give the drum to whoeverwants it.

Noun Clause:


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Noun Clause:As Direct Object

The boys know that reading is

fun.

Noun Clause:


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Noun Clause:As Indirect Object

Sally told whoever was nearby

her story about the fish.


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Adverb Clause

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause thatmodifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

She plays golfas though she was in a hurry. [how]

She plays golfwhenever she can.[when] She plays golfwherever she travels.[where]

She plays golfbecause she enjoys it.[why]

She plays golfif the weather permits.[under what

conditions]


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Adverb Clause

Adverb clauses may also modify adjectives and otheradverbs:

She is confident that she will win.[modifies adjectiveconfident]

He played better than I did. [modifies adverb better]


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Adverb Clause

A conjunction that begins an adverb clause iscalled a subordinating conjunction. It joins theclause to the rest of the sentence and establishesthe relationship between the clause and the mainsentence.

Common subordinating conjunctions includeafter, although, because, before, if, since, than,

though, unless, until, when, where, whether,while, etc.


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Adverb Clause

[S+V] that acts like an adverb

Example: [After we drove to the mall] , we looked for abookstore.

This clause gives information abouthow or why the action happened, soit acts like an adverb.


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When and Where

The words when and where are quiteversatile. They can introduce nounclauses.

(Where I buy my groceries) is mybusiness. (nominalsubject)

I like (where I buy my groceries).(nominaldirect object)


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When and Where

They can also introduce adverb andadjective clauses.

Mary is shopping (where I buy mygroceries). (adverbmodifies is shopping)

The store (where I buy my groceries) isSeng Hup. (adjectivemodifies store)


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Non-finite Clauses

Infinitive

Participial


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Infinitive

Definition

A group of words consisting of an infinitive and allthe words related to it. An infinitive usually begins

with to.

to speak

(the infinitive)


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Infinitive Clause

My teachers wish to climb Mount Kinabalu couldhappen.

The girls like to study hard.

The trick was to carry the egg slowly. To snow hard is a wonder.


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Participial Clause

Definition: a group of words consisting of aparticiple and words related to it (present ends in -ing; past ends in -ed or -en)

Participial Clause:


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Participial Clause:Examples (present and past)

Tapping my foot, I looked out the window with longing.

Filled with anger, the woman stormed into the building.


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Types of Sentences

Classified by structure, there are three kinds ofsentences:

Simple: one independent clause, no subordinate clauses.

Compound: two independent clauses, no subordinateclauses.

Complex: one independent clause, at least onesubordinate clause.


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The Simple Sentence

One independent clause, no subordinate clauses.

A clause which can stand alone as a sentence has asubject and a verb.

It may also have other elements: an object, acomplement, or an adverbial.

Each element plays its part in the structure of aclause.


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Basic Clause structure: SV

Ive eaten.

My head aches.


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Basic Clause structure: SVO

Majid has several cats.

The elephant destroyed the plantations.


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Basic Clause structure: SVC

Kerry is clever.

Kerry is a teacher.


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Basic Clause structure: SVA

The games ended yesterday.

The kids were playing in the field.


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Basic Clause structure: SVOO

They gave Sam a pen.

We should give the kids some money.

Other verbs like give, combining with to, are: lendoffer pass pay sell sendtake write

He explained the situation to me.

Similarly: announce, describe, introduce


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Basic Clause structure: SVOO

They bought Sam a pen.

They bought a pen for Sam.

Other verbs like buy, combining with for, are:

choose, cook, do, fetch, get, keep, order, save


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Basic Clause structure: SVOC

They made Sam chairman. The project kept everyone very busy.

The group made Simon their spokesman.

Similarly: appoint, call, label, name, vote


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Basic Clause structure: SVOA

I put my credit card in my handbag. The police got the car out of the ravine.

C d S


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Compound Sentence

Acompound sentence contains twoindependent clauses that are joined together.

She works in the city, but she lives in the suburbs.

Independent Clause Independent Clause

C d S t


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Compound Sentence

You can make a compound sentence by joiningtwo logically related independent clauses by using

- a semicolon

- a coordinating conjunction

U i S i l


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Using a Semicolon

Independent Clause; Independent Clause

I love living in the city ; there are so many things to do.

Independent ClauseIndependent Clause

U i C di i C j i


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Using a Coordinating Conjunction

Independent Clause, coordinating conjunction Independent Clause

He couldnt watch the show , so he decided to tape

it.

Independent ClauseIndependent Clause

C di i C j i


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Coordinating Conjunctions

Logical Relationship CoordinatingConjunction

Addition And

Contrast But, yet

Choice Or, nor

Cause ForResult So

FANBOYS


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FANBOYS

For F And A

Nor N

But B Or O

Yet Y

So S

Another way to remember these is

C l S t


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John cannot set up his typewriter

because the wall has no outlet.

Complex Sentences

Acomplex sentence contains at least oneindependent clause and one dependent clause.

Independent Clause

Dependent ClauseSubordinating

Conjunction

E l C l S


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Example- Complex Sentence

Acomplex sentence contains at least oneindependent clause and one dependent clause.

She will go to school in the city

until she finds a job.

Independent Clause

Dependent ClauseSubordinatingConjunction


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Subordinate Clauses

Adjective/Relative/Adjectival a subordinate (or dependent) clause that functions as adjective

(tells more about the noun)

Noun

a subordinate (or dependent) clause that functions as noun (assubject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, objectof preposition, or appositive)

Adverb a subordinate (or dependent) clause that functions as adverb (tells

when, why, how, where, under what condition)


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Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions introducesubordinate clauses, which are clauses thatcannot stand by themselves as a completethought.

The subordinate conjunction connects asubordinate clause to an independent clause,

which can stand by itself.

Ex. We will go whale watching ifwe havetime.


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List of Subordinating Conjunctions

After

As As long as

As soon as

Before

In order thatSo thatThat

Since

UntilWhenWhenever

While

Time PurposeTime

Li t f S b di ti C j ti


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List of Subordinating Conjunctions

Manner

AsAs ifAs

though

Because

AsThan

Cause Comparison

Subordinating Conjunctions of


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Condition

Although Even though Though

As long as If Unless

Even if Provided that While

Complex Example


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p p

Although she worked hard to gainrecognition, many people did not know

who she was.

Although she worked hard to gain recognitionand who she was

are dependent clauses because they begin with thesubordinating conjunctionalthoughand the indefiniterelative pronoun who.

Many people did not knowwould be an independent

clause, therefore making the sentence a complexsentence.

Lets try an exercise


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y

On a scrap piece of paper, identify the followingtypes of sentences:

2. Although the volcano erupted long ago, thecollapsed mountaintop formed a lake bed that isstill hot.

3. I have always looked forward to my mid-term break.

4. Noorie plays basketball on Saturdays, and shegoes fishing on Sundays.

1. Living in Kuala Lumpur was one of the best

experiences that Carol had during college.

A


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Answers

1. Living in Kuala Lumpur was one of the best

experiences that Carol had during college.

This is a complex sentence:

Living in Kuala Lumpur was one of the best experiences=

independent clause

That Carol had during college= dependent clause

2 Although the volcano


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Complex sentence:

Although the volcano erupted long ago= dependent

clause

The collapsed mountaintop formed a lake bed=independent clause.

That is still hot= dependent clause.

2. Although the volcanoerupted long ago, the

collapsed mountaintopformed a lake bed that isstill hot.

3 I h l l k d f d id


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Simple Sentence:

I have always looked forward to my mid-termbreak= independent clause.

3. I have always looked forward to my mid-

term break.


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4. Noorie plays basketball on Saturdays,and she goes fishing on Sundays.

Compound sentence:

Noorie plays basketball on Saturdays= independent clause.

And= coordinating conjunction

She goes fishing on Sundays= independent clause.

Th S F


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The Sentence Fragment

A sentence fragment consists of one or allof the following: Dependent clause

Phrase Word

In other words, if the sentence does notcontain at least one independent clause,it is a fragment.

F t E l


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Fragment Examples

Because I was quite happy.This is a fragment: It has only onedependent clause.

The boy with the round face.

This is also a fragment: It consists of only

a phrase(s).

Tutorial Task


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Tutorial Task

Analyse two pieces of authentic text (e.g. aninstruction leaflet, and a short narrative piece) forsentence-types.


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TSL3102 Lecture 9 Syntax