WORKINGPAPER

Trust in international news media in partially free media environments A case study of ve markets in Africa and South Asia

Anne Geniets

February 2011

REUTERSINSTITUTE for theSTUDY ofJOURNALISM

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Preface

Executivesummary

1Introduction

1.1Purposeofthestudy

1.2Researchquestions

1.3Background

1.4Methodology

1.5Structureofthereport

2Theculturallifeofnews

2.1Introduction

2.2Newsstoriesandinterestinnewsacrossthefivemarkets

2.3Typesofmediausedtoaccessthenews

2.4Connectingthedots

3Awareness,usageandperceptionsofdifferentlocal,nationaland

internationalnewsmedia

3.1Kenya

3.2Egypt

3.3Senegal

3.4India

3.5Pakistan

3.6Summary

4Trustandconsumption

4.1Changesinnewsconsumption

4.2Trustacrossthefivemarkets

4.3Trustininternationalanddomesticmediaandconsumption

4.4Summary

5Conclusion

5.1Developments

5.2Outlook

References

Appendix

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This report is the third part of a oneyear independent studysupportedbytheCarnegieCorporationofNewYork,BBCGlobalNewsandFrance24.TheresearchpresentedhereisbasedonfindingsfromfieldworkinSenegal,Egypt,Kenya,IndiaandPakistan, and thepresentation of inhousepublications ofVoice ofAmerica, BBCandFrance 24. The fieldwork was made possible by the assistance of the BBC and France 24.Particular thanks are due to Anne Barnsdale, Jeremy Nye and Colin Wilding of BBCAudience InsightsLondon, toDezmadeMelo from BBCAudience Insights SouthAsia, toMosesOdhiambofromBBCGlobalNewsKenyaand toDanielNobiandHlneRzefromFrance24,fortheirguidanceandusefuldiscussions.

Thanks to theprojectandadministrative teammembersat theReuters Institute,DrDavid Levy, as well as Sara Kalim, Kate HannefordSmith, Amanda Armstrong and AlexReidfor theirhelpandcontributions in the runuptothefieldworkandduringmy travels.SpecialthanksareduetoSaraKalimforhertirelessengagementinbudgetingthisambitiousproject, negotiating contracts with research agencies and being available as contact personthroughout the fieldwork. Particular thanks also to Ranjita Rajan for conducting ourfieldwork inMumbai, to Simon Terrington for feedback on the design of our focus groupresearch,toHlneNeveuKringelbachforadviceonfieldworkinSenegal,toEvelynTagbo,AbdallaHassanandMohamedElSayedforadviceonfieldworkinNigeriaandEgypt,andtotheteammembersoftheresearchagenciesinSenegal,Egypt,Kenya,IndiaandPakistanfortheircontributionstothefieldworkandforengagingdiscussions.

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PREFACE: This report is the third stage of a threephase project on International News:Provision, Consumption and Trust in aRapidlyChangingBroadcastingEnvironment. Theprojectexamineseightcountriesandaimstoexploretheincreasinglycompetitiveprovisionof news by international media, changing patterns of news consumption and the ways inwhichtrustmaybechanginginaworldofnewsabundanceasopposedtonewsscarcity.Theprojectisthefirstacademicstudythatlooksatchangingprovision,consumptionandtrustininternationalmedia in thesecountries simultaneouslyandacross thewholepopulation,notjust opinion leaders. Thisworkingpaperpresents the findings of the last of three researchphases.Itexaminesthechangingattitudestotrustininternationalbroadcastnewssuppliersinfivecountries:Kenya,Egypt,Senegal,IndiaandPakistan.

The report collates audienceresearch findings from fieldwork carried out in thesefivemarkets.Foreach of the five countriesand their uniquehistoric, cultural,politicalandsociodemographicbackgrounds,weaimedtoexaminethroughthisstudytheroleoftrustinthe perception and consumption of local, domestic and international broadcast newssuppliers.

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EXECUTIVESUMMARY:Thisreportisfocusedonattitudestotrustininternationalmedia.Itcollatesfindingsfrom36focusgroupsand11immersioninterviewsconductedinNairobi(Kenya),Cairo(Egypt),Dakar(Senegal),Mumbai(India)andLahore(Pakistan)inthesummerandautumnof2010.Thefindingsaimtoprovideananalysisoftheattitudestotrustininternationalmediainthesefivehighlycompetitivemarketsandanenvironmentofplenty.ThemedialandscapeinAfricaandSouthAsiahasseendramaticchangesoverthepastfewyears,notleastduetopolitical,infrastructuralandeconomicchanges.ThesechangeshaveresultedintheincreasedinfluenceofprivatedomesticbroadcastersasopposedtostaterunorinternationalbroadcastersinthewakeofincreasedmedialiberalisationinmanyAfricanandSouthAsiancountries.Thestudysuggeststhatthesechangesarereflectedinattitudestotrusttowardsinternationalmedia.

The report explores three core questions for each market. What news are peopleinterested in? Which providers do people trust and why? How does trust affect theconsumptionofnewsfromdifferentprovidersandacrossdifferentplatforms?Whileforeachmarkettherearedifferentresponsestothesequestions,thefindingsalsoidentifyanumberofoverarchingtrendsacrossthefivemarkets.

InKenya ,TVemergedasthemostpopularandmosttrustednewsmediuminthefocusgroups.ThisisnotsurprisingsincethegroupswereconductedinthecapitalcityofNairobiwhereelectricityiswidespread.Ifthestudyweretocoverruralareas,radiowouldprobablybe themainmediumfor news.Urbandwellersmainlyuse radiowhen theyareaway fromtheir homes or travelling in the matatus (main public transportation), and often access itthrough theirmobilephones.Most focusgroupparticipants seemed toconsume localnewsmost and were only slightly interested in international news. With liberalisation andimproved freedomofexpression,manyof the localnewsprovidershavebecomebolder intheirnewsreporting,thusearningthetrustandrespectofconsumers.Thischangeinattitudetowards local providers has affected how international news is consumed. Althoughinternational news channels such as CNN, BBC and AlJazeera, which are the maininternational providers, are highly trusted, internationalmedia are mainly consumed by asocioeconomic and educational elite in Kenya. Generally the respondents felt thatinternationalmediaprovided indepth information in their reportingwithout holdingbackinformation, but that international providers tended to report more negative stories aboutAfrica. The languageused inmost international stations that are relayed inKenya (mainlyEnglish)wasperceivedasahindrancebymanyfocusgroupparticipants,asmanyKenyansare not comfortable with the English language. There was a mixed reaction towards thepartnershipbetween internationalprovidersandnationalproviders in the focusgroups,aslocalprovidersonlyrelayinternationalnewslateatnightwhenmostpeopleareasleep.OneofthereasonswhyAlJazeeraseemedtobepopularamongsttheparticipantswasbecauseitisbroadcastdirectlyonitsownterrestrialchannel,thereforeviewerscanwatchitthroughoutthe day. Appreciation for local providers seems to have increased also because of thedramatic increase in vernacular radio stations in recent years. The vernacular stations aremainlyrelayedthroughFMtechnologywhichhaspenetratedbothruralandurbanslumsinKenya. Itwasevident in the focusgroups that the level ofawareness of these stationswashigh.Thelocalprovidersweremainlyappreciatedandtrustedbecauseofthelocallanguageused, whichmakes it easy to comprehend. The responses of the focus group participantsfurther suggest that the vernacular stationshavegainedpopularityamongstvariousethniccommunities because of the language and through reporting stories that are of greatestinterest to the people. However, local providers are limited by their restricted networkcoverage and sometimes superficial stories. Word of mouth through family membersemergedasthemosttrustedsourceofinformation.Politiciansweretheleasttrustedsourceofinformation.

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InEgypt, TV emerged in the focus groups as themost popular and themost trustedmedium. TV was followed by the internet, which was particularly popular and trustedamongst young participants across the socioeconomic groups. While many of the focusgrouprespondentsweregenerallynotoronlymarginallyinterestedininternationalnewsingeneral,unlesstherewasaninternationalsportingeventoracrisis,manyrespondentswerefollowing news on the Middle East and the neighbouring countries. International newschannels such as BBC or CNNwere trusted but mainlywatched by a socioeconomic andeducationalelite.Most respondentswerewaryabout thetrustandcredibility levelsof localTVchannelsandnewspapers,butsomeofthedomesticprivateandstateownedTVchannelsweretrustedmorebecauseofspecific,popularpresenters,whohaveearnedtheiraudiencestrustbybeingoutspokenandbychallengingunpopularpoliticians.WhilepanArabchannelssuchasAlJazeeraorAlArabiyawereverypopular amongst the focusgrouprespondents,localanddomesticmediacontinuetobepreferredbymostduetotwofactors:thelackofindepth coverage of local news stories in international media, and the perceived unfairportrayal ofEgyptby internationalmedia,particularly in thecaseofAlJazeera,whichwasviewed favourably by most participants in the past, but whose reputation seems to havetaken a hit due to negative coverage of Egypt in early 2010. It is unclear how long thisphenomenonwilllast.Mostrespondentsalsofeltthattherewasalackoftransparencyfromgovernmentcontrolledmedia. They appear to trust established internationalmediaplayerslike the BBC because of their lack of political restrictions, supported by advancedtechnologicalandjournalisticprofessionalism.

InSenegal ,themajorityofthefocusgroupparticipantsstatedthattheywouldconsumeprivate local media more than international media. The majority of the focus groupparticipantsreportedthattheyhadonlyalimitedinterestininternationalnews,andthattheyweremainlyinterestedinlocalandnationalcurrentaffairs.Internationalmediaweremainlyconsumed by the socioeconomic and educational elite, with the exception of RFI (RadioFranceInternational)whichhadabroaderappeal.Thistrendispartlyexplainedbyadegreeof media liberalisation of the media that has strengthened and improved the quality ofprivatedomesticbroadcasters;itmayalsobeduetothefactthatmostinternationalchannelsaredeliveredthroughlocalsupplierswhichchargerelativelyhighsubscriptionfees.Senegalisadevelopingcountrywith42.6%ofhouseholdslivingbelowthepovertyline..Thismakesaccessibility to foreign TV basically out of reach for half of the population. TV and radioemergedas themostpopularandthemost trustedmediainthefocusgroups.Internationalproviders, particularly RFI, were trusted for their independence, objectivity, reliability,professionalism and punctuality, but were repeatedly blamed in the focus groups forportraying a negative image of Africa. In addition, as Senegal is predominantly a liberalMuslimsociety(95%areMuslim),anumberoftherespondentssuggestedthatinternationalmediawerepartofWesterngovernmentsdesiretodiscreditIslamandequateittoterrorism.

In India , which has the most competitive and the most liberal of the five mediaenvironments,thefocusgroupparticipantsreportedthattheywoulduseinternationalnewsproviders on the following occasions only: to access international news and to get extrainformationoranindependenttakeonsomecriticaldomesticevents.Generally,respondentsexpressedagreaterinterestinnationalandlocalnewsthanininternationalnews.Interestininternationalnewsand internationalnewsproviders is,according to the respondents,at itshighestwhen thereare sportseventsorat the timeofadisaster orcalamity. Thechoice ofinternational news providers is limited. BBC and CNNwere the best known internationalprovidersinthefocusgroups,withtheBBCbeingbetterknown.Judgingbytheparticipantsresponses,theavailabilityoflocalEnglishnewschannelslikeCNNIBN,NDTV24/7,TimesNow, and Headlines Today has reduced the need for international news providers. Asignificant number of participants felt that the amount of international news provided on

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these localEnglishnewschannelswas sufficientmostof the time.TVemerged in the focusgroupsasthemainandmosttrustedmediumthroughwhichnewsisaccessedfollowedbynewspapers. The internet is still a relatively young medium in India, but is viewed as atrusted source. For most focus group participants their regular news channel was a localHindi channel. Aaj Tak, followed by Star News and Zee News were the popular newschannels. Most participants stated that they would switch between two to four newschannels.Severalfactorswereidentifiedinourfieldworkthatfostertrustinnewsprovidersin India: with localHindi channels it is the familiarity, likeability and perception of beingoneofus(i.e.Indianidentity,familiarlanguageandmannerisms)thathelpstobuildtrust.With international news channels it is the competence, professionalism and experienceassociatedwith themthatevokes trust.Participants felt that theemotional connectionwiththeseinternationalchannelsislow(theyareseenasunapproachable,eliteandforeign)buttheirexpertiseandprofessionalismisrecognised.

Newsmedia in Pakistan have evolved in the past few years, and TV channels havemushroomed, offeringmore variety to thePakistaniTVaudience.Focusgroupparticipantsconsideredthemediaingeneraltobemuchfreertodaythanadecadeago.TVemergedasthemost trusted and used medium, followed by the internet, mobile phones, radio andnewspapers,whichwereconsideredsecondarybyrespondentsas theyrequiresomesortofeffortorattentionfromtheuser.BBCUrduemergedasthemostpopularradionewsstationand respondents reported tuning in particularly when there is no access to television (i.e.duringpowercuts, etc.).The internetwasusedbymany focusgroupparticipants toaccessinformationwhichisbannedfromlocalchannels.Manyparticipantsalsoreportedthat theywouldusetheirmobilephonestolistentotheradiofornewsortoreceivetextmessageswithnewsupdatesfromfriendsandfamily.Onlyafewoftheparticipantsstatedthattheywouldsubscribetonewsalertsfromtheirmobileserviceproviders.Thereisageneralawarenessofinternational channelsbutviewership is limitedmostly toBBCandCNN. InternationalTVchannels were trusted amongst the focus group participants because of their accurate,unbiased reporting. However, language was considered a key barrier when it comes toconsumption of news from these international providers. Local channels such as Geo andExpressemergedasthemostpopularandmosttrustedTVchannels,astheywereperceivedas the fastest andmostuptodate channels on national and local affairs.According to theparticipants, Geo, Express, BBC and CNN are trusted because they were the first fewchannels in the market to provide detailed and unbiased news. However, focus groupparticipants emphasised that they would turn to international channels only if domesticchannelswerenotprovidinginformationonaparticularstoryofpublicinterest,suchasthetrial of DrAafia Siddiqui or the threat to burn theQuran in theUnited States in autumn2010.

Severaltrendsresultfromtheseindividualdevelopmentsthattranscendtheculturalandgeopoliticaluniquenessofthesefivemarkets:

Private channels and private radio stations in the fivemarkets are generallymoretrusted than statebroadcasters,whichareseenas mouthpiecesof thegovernmentandviewedwithsomesuspicion.

Internationalprovidersarehighlytrustedandregularlyusedby thesocioeconomicandeducationalelitesinthefivemarkets.

PanAfrican networkswere more trusted than international providers in Kenya bythemajorityofthefocusgroupparticipants.ThiswasalsopartlythecaseinSenegal,although there, RFI, as an international broadcaster, is highly trusted by elite andmainstream consumers alike. Similarly, in Egypt, panArab broadcasters are

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generally more trusted than international broadcasters by all consumers. In India,which is the freest of all markets and has a high degree of local and domesticprovision, international providers are perceived as trustworthy, but are mainlywatchedbyanelite.

People across the population tend to watch news from international providers intimesofnationalorinternationalcrises.

Peoplerelyonwordofmouthandfamilyforinformationandnewsthattheytrustineverydaylife.They thenfollowthisinformationupviathemedia.Wherepeoplehaveaccesstosocialnetworkingsites,theytrusttheinformationoffriends.

Consumers trust information from traditionalmediasuchasTV, theprintedpressandtheradiomorethantheytrusttheinternetacrossthefivecountries.

Consumersinallfivemarketsturnedouttobemedialiterate, inthesensethattheycould make relatively sophisticated judgements about the bias and reliability ofdifferentmedia sources, even people from lower socioeconomic classes whowerenotnecessarilyeducated.

These findings confirm the necessity of international providers as reliable resources foraccurate information in times of national and international crises, but at the same timeencourage an assessment and discussion about the strategic positioning of individualinternational broadcasters as elite versusmainstreammedia in an increasingly competitivemediaenvironment.Ata timewheninsomecountrieslocalandpanArabbroadcastersaresucceeding in reaching mass audiences, there may be opportunities for traditionalinternationalbroadcasters toreachbeyond theelite,butthisinturnaddsnewchallengesofsecuringregularaccessfromandconnectingtomassaudiencesinamuchmorecompetitiveandpolarisedmediaenvironment.

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1Introduction

Thestudyinvestigates theroleof trust in theconsumptionandprovisionofnews from international providers in five countries in the context ofglobalisation. The five countries investigated are: Kenya, Egypt, Senegal,IndiaandPakistan.

1.1Purposeofthestudy

ThegoalofthisstudyistoexplorethechangingwaysinwhichpeoplelivinginKenya,Egypt,Senegal,IndiaandPakistandefine,encounterandevaluatenewsfrominternationalbroadcastersinthecontextofincreasedcompetitionbetweennewsproviders,aswellasintensifiedmediainteractivityandglobalconnectivity. Studies on media and trust can generally be divided intoofferingtwotypesofexplanations:thosestudiesthatfocusonthequalitiesofthe media and those that focus on the characteristics of the audience(Gunther,1992).Nostudiessofarhavelookedattrustandtheconsumptionof news across the whole population in the context of increased mediacompetition.1Thisreportaddressesthisvoidbylookingatattitudestotrustindomestic,internationalandregionalnewsmediaacrossthewholepopulation,notjustopinionleaders,inthecontextofglobalisation.Trustinmediacanbedefined in countless ways. As a working definition, we started out with avery unrefined conceptualisation of trust as the product of the perceivedfulfilment of a promise and expectations over time. This provisionalconceptualisation helped us to develop semistructured, openendedquestionsfor thediscussionguidethatwouldallowparticipantsratherthanresearcherstodefinetrustandnews,similartoColemanetal.s(2009)study.Thisconstructivistapproachwasadoptedinordertodetectpotentialculturaldifferencesinconceptualisationsoftrustandnewsacrossthefivecountries.

1.2Researchquestions

Against the background of these developments and on the basis of thefindingsof the second researchphaseof thisproject, the following researchquestions were asked in each of the five markets with regard to theirindividualcultureanduniquemediaenvironment:

1.Whattypeofnewsarepeopleinterestedin?

2. How do audiences perceive different international providers in thedifferentcountries,andwhichprovidersdotheytrust,andwhy?

1 Previous reports commissioned by broadcasters, like the report on trust in the BBC conducted by Human Capital, focused on elite audiences, and exclusively on consumers of BBC services.

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3.Howdoes trust affect the consumption of news fromdifferent providersandacrossdifferentplatforms?

1.3Background

With theexceptionof India,noneof theother fourcountries investigated inthisstudywere fullydemocratic (seeTables1.1and1.2).Asoutlined in thepreviousreport(Geniets,2010),inEgypt,therearetwostaterunnationalTVchannels and six regional channels, but many viewers turn to panArabchannels for their news. Egypt is a big force in satellite TV. Internationalproviders suchas theBBC,CNNorVOAareonly consumed to amarginaldegree by the general population, but much more frequently by opinionleaders.Onbalance,nationalprovidersseemtobestrongintheradiomarket,and panArab and national providers seem to be strong in the TVmarket.Formercolonialprovidersareviewedwithsomesuspicion.

In Senegal , radio is the most influential medium, at least in ruralareas,andcommercialandcommunitystationshave increasedrapidlysincethe1990s.ManypeopleaccessRFIontheradio.InurbanareassuchasDakar,private TV is the most influential medium for current affairs. The mostimportant and dominant providers are private channels, althoughinternationalchannelssuchasTV5orFrance24enjoypopularity,too.Privatedomestic channels are very popular. It seems that these private channelsprovideabalancetothegovernmentownedRTSchannels,whichareseenbymanyasthemouthpieceofthegovernment.

Kenyaenjoysarelativelyfreemediaenvironment.Whileinternationalproviders are seenby consumers as essential inofferinganalternative, lessbiased view than the national private and stateowned media, theconsumptionofinternationalmediagenerallyhasgonedown,particularlyinthecaseofradio.Thesteepincreaseinvernacularradiostationsoverthepastfew years in a context of limited media regulation and monitoring mightcontain the potential for fostering underlying ethnic tensions. InternationalTVproviders aremainlyusedby themiddle andupper classes as access iscostly.WhiletheTVmarketisdominatedbyEnglishandKiswahiliproviders,the radio market is dominated by many vernacular stations, reflecting theethnic and cultural diversity of Kenya. Regional providers are very strongandcolonialprovidersareviewedwithsomescepticism.

India has a very lively anddiverse, autonomousmediamarket thatmakesitdifficultforinternationalbroadcasterstotapinto.WhilemusicbasedFMstationsareverypopular,onlythepublicradiostationAllIndiaRadioisauthorisedtobroadcastnews.TVisthemostpopularmediuminIndia,andprivate domestic TV channels both inHindi aswell as English enjoy great

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popularity.However, theleadingchannelsaremostlyHindinewschannels.Thedistinctionbetweennewsandentertainmentonmostdomesticchannelsis often blurred, and many consumers are keenly aware and at timescomplain about the sensationalist tone of some of the content of domesticproviders.Onbalance,domesticprivatechannelsarethestrongestprovidersin the market for TV. International providers are seen as setting the goldstandard for domestic providers by many, but are viewed with somescepticismastheyareperceivedasforeignandthereforepotentiallybiasedagainstIndia.

Finally, Pakistan has a very restricted media environment. Mostpeople in urban areas watch private TV channels such as Geo News orExpressNews,orwatchthestateownedPTVchannels(particularlyPTV1)asopposedtointernationalchannels.PrivateFMradiostationshaveinthepastfewyearsstartedtobroadcastawiderspectrumofopinions,buttheyarenotallowed to broadcast their ownnews programmes. Since cable TV and FMstations are rarely available in rural areas, there remains aneed for reliablenews not influenced by domestic pressures and sectarian tendencies.Meanwhileinurbanareas,Pakistanimediaconsumersarerestrictedbystrictgovernmentrulesandpowerfulbroadcastingregulatorswhojeopardisetheiraccess to international broadcasters via local partner stations, as they canchoose to take relays of international radio stations or TV channels offairwhenever they like. This makes life difficult, both for internationalbroadcasters operating in Pakistan via partner stations, as well as forPakistanimediaconsumersinneedoffree,accurateandreliableinformationintimesofincreasedpoliticaltensionandinsecurity.

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Table 1.1 Country comparison by economic, social and political context

1 Freedom House, http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2010, accessed Oct. 2010.

2 UN data of 2009, as derived from BBC Monitoring country profile, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/country_profiles/default.stm, accessed Aug. 2010.

3 Worldbank data 2008, as derived from BBC Monitoring country profile, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/country_profiles/default.stm, accessed Aug. 2010.

4 % of ages 15 and older, total population: CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html, accessed Aug. 2010.

5 % of primary, secondary, tertiary enrolment: data from ICT statistics of the Worldbank as of 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTIC/0,,contentMDK:20487483~menuPK:64909262~pagePK:64909151~piPK:64909148~theSitePK:6950074~isCURL:Y,00.html, accessed May 2010. Numbers in italics specify years other than 2008

6CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html, accessed Aug. 2010.

_________________________________________________________________________________________ Egypt Senegal Kenya India Pakistan

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Freedom of press1 Partly free, 60 Partly free, 57 Partly free, 57 Partly free, 33 Not free, 61

Population (total in millions)2 83 12.5 39.8 1200 180.8

GNI per capita (in US$)3 1800 970 770 1070 980

Adult literacy rate4 71.4 39.3 85.1 61 49.9

Gross school enrolment5 70 44 59 63 42

Urban population (% of total) 43 42 22 29 36

____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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1 Data from ICT statistics of the Worldbank as of 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTIC/0,,contentMDK:204p87483~menuPK:64909262~pagePK:64909151~piPK:64909148~theSitePK:6950074~isCURL:Y,00.html, accessed May 2010. Numbers in italics specify years other than 2008

2 Data as of 2009, United Nations Information Economy Report 2010 (launched 14 Oct. 2010), Geneva, United Nations Publication, p.128cc.

3 Data as of 2007 (except for Egypt: as of 2008), CIA World Factbook, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/, accessed Sept. 2010

Table 1.2 Country comparison by sector performance

Despitetheirindividualhistorical,culturalandpoliticalbackgrounds,ineachofthesemarketstheconsumptionofnewsfrominternationalbroadcastershasundergone unprecedented changeduring the past few years, stimulated byincreased competition between news broadcasters both domestically andinternationally, new trends and technological advancements in thedevelopmentofmediaplatforms,andthe(relative)liberalisationofthesefivemedia environments. As the findings on consumption of news from

Egypt Senegal Kenya India Pakistan

Sector performance1

Telephone lines (per 100 people)2 12.4 2.2 1.6 3.0

2.2

Mobile phone subscriptions (per 100 people)2 66.6 55.0 48.6 43.8

56.9

Personal computers (per 100 people) 3.9 2.2 1.4 3.3

x

Households with a TV set (%) 97 43 19 46

56

Number of TV broadcast stations3

mix of state-run and private broadcast media; state-run TV operates 2 national and 6 regional terrestrial networks as well as a few satellite

channels; about 20 private satellite channels

and a large number of Arabic satellite channels

are available via subscription (2008)

state-run Radiodiffusion

Television Senegalaise (RTS) operates 2 TV

stations; several private channels available (BBC Monitoring,

2010)

about a half-dozen privately owned TV stations and a

state-owned television broadcaster that operates 2

channels; satellite and cable TV subscription services are

available

Doordarshan, India's public TV network,

operates about 20 services; large number of

privately owned TV stations

1 dominant state-owned TV broadcaster, Pakistan

Television Corporation (PTV), operates a

network consisting of 6 channels; private TV

broadcasters are permitted and some foreign satellite

channels are carried by cable TV operators

Number of radio broadcast stations3

state-run radio operates about 70 stations

belonging to 8 networks; 2 privately owned radio

stations operational (2008)

RTS operates a national radio network and a

number of regional FM stations; large number

of community and private-broadcast radio

stations

state-owned radio broadcaster operates 2

national radio channels and provides regional and local

radio services in multiple languages; a large number of

private radio broadcasters, including provincial stations

broadcasting in local languages; transmissions of

several international broadcasters are available

government controls AM radio with All India Radio

operating domestic and external networks; news broadcasts via radio are limited to the All India Radio Network; since

2000, privately owned FM stations are permitted

but limited to broadcasting

entertainment and educational content

the state-owned radio network operates more

than 40 stations; privately owned radio stations

mostly limit programming to music and talk shows

Mobile phone usage (minutes/user /month) 144 x 52 440

164

Internet users (per 100 people)2 20.0 7.3 10 5.1

11.2

% of pop. covered by

mobile-net 95 85 83 61

90

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international broadcasters of the previous research phase of this projectsuggested,which looked at eightdifferentmarkets acrossAfrica and SouthAsia(Algeria,Egypt,Cameron,Senegal,Kenya,Nigeria,IndiaandPakistan),these developments have led to changes in the consumer behaviour,whicharealsoreflectedinthefivemarketsinvestigatedinthisstudy.Thefindingsof research phase two (Geniets, 2010) suggested that local provision isincreasinginpartbecauseoftheriseofcommerciallocalchannels,whichareoftenseenasmorereliable thanstatecontrollednationalchannels.Researchphase two also found that regional broadcasters are becoming increasinglyimportant. In Egypt for example, panArab satellite channels are veryimportant players drawing large audiences. But there are also signs of thepopularityofnonnationalregionalbroadcastersinothercountrieselsewherein Africa. News from traditional international TV broadcasters generally ismore consumed by educated elites, who can afford to pay the often costlyaccess fees, than by thegeneral population.The study further identified anincreasingshiftintheconsumptionofnewsfromofficiallanguagessuchasStandard Arabic (Egypt), Swahili (Kenya) or English (India), to vernacularlanguagesanddialects.Thefindingsofresearchphasetwoalsopointedtothefactthatmobilephonesareusedwidelytolistentotheradioatrendthatissettoincreasefurtherwiththeimprovedcoverageofmobilephonenetworks.Finally, itwassuggested inresearchphase twothat internetcapablemobiledevicesaretransformingnewsconsumption,leadingtoconsumersaccessingbitsofinformationacrossdifferentplatformsoutsidenewshoursandonthego,aswellasconsumingnewsfromnontraditionalproviderssuchasYahoo!,Google, YouTube or Facebook. New generations of media consumersgrowing up with internet and mobile phone technology readily availablehave different information needs and media behaviors from older mediaconsumers.Thishas led to agenerational shift in the consumptionofnewsfromdifferentmediaplatforms(Geniets,2010).

1.4Methodology

The studywasdesignedas a comparative,mixedmethods study.Thirtysixfocusgroupswitha total of 184participantswere conductedacrossKenya,Egypt,Senegal,IndiaandPakistan,togetherwith11immersioninterviews.Ineachcountry,sixtoeightfocusgroupsconsistingofsixtoeightparticipantswereconducted,togetherwithtwotofourimmersioninterviewspercountry(with the exception of Pakistan, where no immersion interviews wereconducted). The immersion interviews were primarily intended to addadditional insight to the data collected during the focus groups and toprovide anecdotalmaterial. In order to be able to draw parallels, the samediscussion guide, consisting of roughly 25 semistructured questions, wasused across the five countries, although some of the questions had to be

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slightly adapted to fit the cultural andmediaenvironmental specificities ofeachmarket,aswellastoaccountforrecenteventsinthecaseofthefloodsinPakistan.2 Ineachcountry,a researchagencywas identifiedwhichrecruitedparticipants for the immersion interviews and the focus groups. The focusgroups and indepth immersions were conducted between July andSeptember2010inNairobi(Kenya),Cairo(Egypt),Dakar(Senegal),Mumbai(India) andLahore (Pakistan) (seeAppendixA fordetailed schedule).Onlybigcitieswereselectedforthefieldwork,togetavarietyofparticipantsfromdifferent social backgrounds, and to get a sufficient number of peoplewhohad been exposed to international providers of news. Since all of the fivecountries are developing countries and TV reception is higher and morecommoninurbanareasthaninruralareas,bigcitieswerechosen.

Thefocusgroupsconsistedofaninitialscreeningofallparticipantsbymeansof a short screeningquestionnaire (seeAppendixB).Thepurposeofthisscreeningquestionnairewastoallowrecruiterstogaugethesuitabilityofparticipantsforthepurposeofthisstudy.3Thescreeningwasfollowedbythefocusgroupdiscussion,which lastedaroundtwohoursandwasmoderatedin all countries by an experienced local moderator who worked for thesubcontractedresearchagency.Themoderatorwas thoroughlybriefedpriortothefirstdiscussionandwasinstructedtoaskthequestionsdetailedintheprovided discussion guide (Appendix C). At the end of each focus groupdiscussion, participants were asked to fill in a short questionnaire withstandardsociodemographicquestionsandafewopenendedquestionsabouttheir favouritemedia channels (see AppendixD) (see Table 1.3). For thoseparticipantswhowereilliterate,additionalassistancewasprovidedfortheircompletionofthescreeningquestionnaireatthebeginningofthefocusgroupdiscussionand the sociodemographicquestionnaire at the endof the focusgroupdiscussion.2 In July 2010, shortly before the scheduled fieldwork in Lahore, heavy monsoon caused devastating flooding in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan regions of Pakistan and affected the Indus River basin. An estimated 20 million Pakistanis were affected by the floods, and the international community pledged aid to help the victims. However, by mid-Nov. 2010 and with winter closing in, many of these funds have dried up, food rations had to be halved and an estimated 7 million flood victims are still even without a tent. Many areas are still under water (BBC, 28 Oct. 2010, Pakistan Floods, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special_reports/pakistan_floods/, accessed Nov. 2010). Because of the heightened security risk during the floods, it was impossible for me to travel to Lahore to observe the fieldwork. Instead, I listened in to the focus group discussions by phone. Questions were adapted to reduce potential bias against Western media (caused by the slow disaster relief response of the international community).

3 As findings from our previous reports (Rotheray, 2010; Geniets, 2010) suggested that in certain countries international broadcasters are accessed and used across the whole population, not just by opinion formers, the project included consumers across all socio-demographic spheres, gender and age. The criterion for the participation in focus groups was that participants be aware of international broadcasters, even if they did not necessarily watch or listen to them daily.

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Before the focus group discussion Screening questionnaire duration: approx. 5 mins

Focus group discussion duration: approx. 2 hrs

After the focus group discussion Socio-demographic questionnaire duration: approx. 5 mins

Table 1.3 Structure of the focus group discussions

In each country, focus groupswere structured by socioeconomic class, ageand gender, in order to allow for as broad a representation of viewers aspossible(Table1.4).Inthefocusgroupsconsistingofparticipantsfromlowersocioeconomic classes, it was not always possible to find people whoregularly watched news from international broadcasters. This in itself is afinding and confirmed findings from research phase two,which suggestedthat international broadcasters are regularly watchedmainly by elites. Thenumber of focus groups varied between either six groups (in Senegal andKenya)oreightgroups,dependingontheculturalandreligiousfeasibilitytohavegendermixedfocusgroups.Inthosecountries,wherereligiouscustomsor cultural tradition did not allow men and women to be interviewedtogether, eight groupswere conducted instead of six.Thiswas the case forEgypt,IndiaandPakistan.

Focus group Socio-economic status Age Gender

1 ABC1 1834 Women

2 ABC1 1834 Men

3 ABC1 34+ Women

4 ABC1 34+ Men

5 C2DE 1834 Women

6 C2DE 1834 Men

7 C2DE 34+ Women

8 C2DE 34+ Men

Table 1.4 Composition of focus groups

Note: The social classes A, B, C1, C2, D and E were for the focus group participant recruitment collapsed into ABC1 (middle class) and C2DE (working class), along the Index of Multiple Deprivation for England 2004, http://www.swo.org.uk/imd2004/index.asp.

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Basedon theworkingdefinitionof trust adoptedat theoutset of the study(see section 1.1), which was based on the perceptions and expectations ofdifferentbroadcastersbyconsumers,ratherthanonlyaskingthefocusgroupparticipantswhether theywould trustdifferentbroadcasters, thediscussionstarted with questions about news consumption, provider awareness andusage, and then slowly moved towards trust. To elicit the participantsperceptionsofdifferentnewsprovidersandinorder todetectpotentialbiastowardscertainproviders,projectivetechniqueswereused.Oneofthemostcommonprojectivetechniquesusedinmarketresearchtoelicitinformationisthe personification of a brand, as it is often easier to describe somethingthrough imagesandactionwords (IfbroadcasterXYZwereaperson,whattype of person would it be ...?). In order to gauge potential culturaldifferencesincirclesoftrustineverydaylife,participantswereaskedtowardsthe end of the focus group discussions to sort cards with pictures of 13differentsourcesof information4 ineverydaylifeaccording to theirlevelsoftrust.

All focusgroupswerevideoand taperecordedand transcribed.Theimmersioninterviewsweretaperecordedandsummarised.Oncetranscribed,thefocusgroupdiscussionswereanalysedandinterpretedthroughmeaningcondensation (Rubin and Rubin, 2005) and multilevel coding (Miles andHuberman,1994).

Ideally,more immersion interviews and focus groupswould have beenconducted.However, basedon the limited resources available for the studyanditsambitioustimeframe,wehadtoacceptthelimitedscope.Thedecisiontoconductfieldworkinonlyfiveoftheeightcountrieswasalsodictatedbyresources and we chose to do fieldwork in one of each of the threeFrancophone,ArabspeakingandAnglophonecountriesinAfrica,aswellasIndiaandPakistan.Giventhevolumeofthedataandthenumberofcountriesinvestigated, the findings presented in this report therefore ought to beunderstood as a contribution to the ongoing investigation into trust inbroadcastersofnewsinternationally.

1.5 Structureofthereport

Thereportisdividedintofivechapters.Followingthisintroduction,chapter2elaborates on the interest in news in the five markets and the usage ofdifferent media to access the news. Chapter 3 continues by outlining thedifferences in the awareness and usage of national and international4 These depicted sources were: family, friends, work colleagues, neighbourhood, religious leaders, local political leaders, national political leaders, international organisations, mobile phone, internet, newspapers, TV and radio.

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providers in the five countries. Chapter 4 presents the differentconceptualisationsoftrustandlinkstheconcepttoconsumptionofnewsandtrust in specific providers. Finally, chapter 5 synthesises the findings andconcludes by mapping out challenges and opportunities for internationalprovidersofnewsandtheirconsumers.

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2Theculturallifeof news

GenerallywhenIcomehomefromofficeImovetosomemasalanews,some lighthearted things that I want to watch (India, male, SECB2C,1834yrs)

2.1Introduction

Thischapterexaminesnewsandthenewsmediathataudiencesconsumeinthe five differentmarkets. The core questions asked are, first,what type ofnews isof interest in the fivemarketsexamined?Andsecond,whichmediado people consume to fulfil their needs for information and news in thesedifferentcountries?

2.2Newsstoriesandinterestinnewsacrossthefivemarkets

A decade ago Tomlinson observed that as the technological capacity andsophisticationoftheglobalmediaexpand,newscoverageofforeigneventsontelevisionseems tobeshrinking (1999:71). In thecountrieswestudied, thegrowthininternationalnewschannelsmeantthatcoveragehasincreased,butaudienceinteresthasnotkeptpacewiththatexpansion.

InKenya, themajorityofpeopledidoccasionallywatch internationalnews,but indicated that theyweremainly interested in sports andnationalnews. Salient examples that are reflective of the kind of news stories therespondents followed included sports news about theWorld Cup, politicalnews about the Kenyan Prime Ministers health, crime news, particularlyabout a national serial killer, and international news about the BP oil spill.Similarly, in the focus groups in Egypt, recent local news was consideredmore relevant than regional and international issues. Respondents reportedfeeling more closely involved in local and national news as these wouldimpact their everyday lives directly. News stories recalled among theparticipantsvariedfromstoriesabouttheIsraelPalestineconflict(mentionedacrossallthegroups),totheEgyptwatercrisis(discussedamongmenofallsocioeconomic groups), to news stories on the increase of prices of dailycommodities(discussedamongmenofallsocioeconomicgroups,aswellasolderwomenfromthelowersocioeconomicgroup),tonewsstoriesaboutthedesperatestateoftheEgyptianeducationsystem(discussedamongwomenofall socioeconomicgroups) and crime stories (discussedamong respondentsof all socioeconomic groups). Most of the news stories recalled somehowtouched the respondents in their everyday lives, and therefore evoked theiremotionalinvolvement.Asoneparticipantnoted:

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And the price increase everything is now increased in price andpeople cannot afford it any longer. I am a driver andmy income islimited.Tellme,howcanIaffordtopayforeverythingwiththislowincomeandhighprices?(Egypt,male,SECC2D,35+yrs)

The more local the news, the more involved and engaged the participantswere,asFigure2.1illustrates.

Figure 2.1 News stories consumed in Egypt on local, national and international levels (AMRB research

report commissioned for this project)

From a theoretical point of view, these findings are not that surprising.Silverstone(2006:11)hasarguedthat

there isasimplepoint tobemade,and that is that themedia,as indeedothertechnologies,enablethestretchingofactionbeyondthefacetoface,and consequently undermine the expectation of responsibility andreciprocity that action and communication in facetoface settingsconventionally require. Technologies disconnect as well as connect. Thedistancetheycreatebetweeninterlocutor,betweensubjectandsubject,isaprecondition, as many have argued, for the erosion of any sense ofresponsibility that individualswould be expected to have for the other.The media function as technologies in this respect, but they do soparadoxically. For in establishing and maintaining a materialdisconnectiontheysimultaneouslycreateasymbolicconnection.Distanceandpresencecoincideinwaysthatfundamentallychallengethenecessaryproximalrelationsthatareassumedtobeapreconditionforanethicallife.How the media choose to represent, or conventionally find themselvesrepresenting,theother,theotherwhoisotherwiseoutofreach,becomesafundamental issue foranykindofprojectseekingamorevirtuous,moreethicalpublicsphere.

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As the examples of recalled news stories in our focus groups across allcountriessuggest,peopleconsumeandgetinvolvedwithnewsabouteventsthat touch their everyday lives. Successful broadcasting in that sense is notjust about transmitting information and about closing the geographicaldistance between people, but, as Tomlinson (1999) has argued, about theclosingofamoraldistance,too.It isaboutconnectingemotionally.Thewayeventsarerepresented isthereforecrucialtomakethisemotional,aswellasan intellectual connection to the audience. The findings of our fieldworksuggestthatatleastfour(connected)factorsinnewsstoriesareofparticularimportanceinestablishingthisemotionalconnection:locality,tone,languageandformat.

Locality is invoked by the representation of everyday life: in thestreet,inpubs,atworkplaces,athome,asthefollowingexamplefromafocusgroupparticipantinIndiaillustrates:

Ononechanneltheyshowedacatthatwasstuckinatree.Torescueit,the fire brigade was called. There were so many photos of it Ithought thishappensnearmyhousesooftenwhydidntIevercallthe photographer? Imean this is not news! And you are giving itcoveragefortwohours!TheyshowallthisforTRPsandtofill inthetime.(India,female,SECAB1,35+yrs)

In Dakar, where we conducted our fieldwork for Senegal, people recallednews stories linked to the power cuts in the city that had troubled citizenssince late spring.These news stories covered plannedprotests, reported oncommunities across the countries affected by the power cuts, as well asgovernment reactions linked to the civil unrest caused by the power cuts.Whiletherespondentsreportedthattheywereusedtopowercutseveryyearduring the rainy season from July till October, they emphasized that thisyears power cuts were particularly bad compared to previous years, andweremakinglifeverydifficult.SimilarlyinIndia,peopleprefertowatchlocalandnationalnews.Asoneparticipantexplained:

Yesweareinterested[ininternationalnews]butnottothelevelthatweareinterestedinIndiannews.NowtherewasafloodinPakistanok,ithappenedweseeabitandmoveon.Ifthereissomethinginour country there is a feelingof apnapan (connectedness). (India,female,SECAB1,1834yrs)

Differentnews storieswere recalledacross genders in India.On thewhole,themendisplayedgreater interestinand involvementwithnews,while thewomenbytheirownadmission(particularlytheolderagesegment)wereless

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interested in news than their husbands were. While participants acrossgender, age and socioeconomic groups were interested in crime, celebritynews, the floods in Pakistan and news on cricket, more men than womenwere interested in technology news and political news, including the newscoverageofacorruptionaffair.

ThelevelofthefocusgrouprespondentsinterestininternationalnewsturnedouttobemuchlowerthantheinterestinwhatwashappeningwithinIndia.Respondentsdidnotseemtoactivelyseekinternationalnewsunlessitinvolvedsomemajoreventorcalamity.

I want news aboutmy country its not that I am not interested ininternational news it is just that I ammore interested in knowingwhat is happening in my own country as compared to what ishappeninginothercountries.(India,male,SECAB1,1834yrs)One should be interested in international news because whathappens in other countries can impact our country too. (India,male,SECAB1,1834yrs)

Whilethereisamuchgreaterlevelofconnectednessandinterestinlocalandnationalnewsevents,keepingactivelyandregularlyabreastofinternationalevents was viewed as an indicative attribute of an opinion leader and amemberoftheeliteinIndia.

When it comes to news coverage what constitutes news and hownews should be reported respondents differed in what they desire andprefer. Amajority enjoyed the coverage of celebrity lives and other lightheartednewsitemsandalsoaslightlydramaticmodeofreporting,atypeofnewsthatwassummarisedasmasalanews(masalabeingtheIndiantermforspicy,shockingordramatic).

AajTak isa littledramatic,whereasStarNewsandNDTVare to thepoint, but I personally like the drama. (India,male, SECAB1, 1834yrs)InachannellikeHeadlinesTodaythereisalittlebitofmasalaandalittlebitofseriousnewstooitsamixtureofeverything.masalauptoacertainlevelisokay.(India,female,SECAB1,1834yrs)

Allthis,theyfelt,wouldmakeforamoreentertainingnewsexperience.Otherparticipantshoweverfoundtheexcessivecoverageofcelebritylivesandthepresentationofnonnewsasnewsannoying.

IlikeStarNewstheydonttalknonsenseandsticktothenewsitem.Theyshowonlynewsthatpeoplewanttoknow.Itisveryprofessional.But IwaswatchingAajTakyesterday itwassodramaticabout thefloods in Delhi; whereas StarNews said it professionally and to thepoint. I feelAajTakandIndiaTVareover the top. (India,male,SECAB1,1834yrs)

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Anotherveryfrustratingthingisthepresenceofentertainmentrelatedprogrammes on news channels programmes on movies andcelebrities. We really dont need to knowwhat celebrities eat, whattheywearandwheretheygo.(India,male,SECB2C,35+yrs)

However, the popularity and spread ofmasala news seems to be mainlyconfined to the Indian market. In Pakistan, the examples of news storiesrecalledbytheparticipantsinourfocusgroupsmainlyfellintothecategoriesofsportsandlocalnews,andcoveredissuessuchasthematchfixingscandalin cricket, inwhich the Pakistani cricket teamwas involved, aswell as themurderofarenownedPakistanipoliticalfigureinLondon.However,andnotsurprisingly,thefloodsandissuesconnectedtoitfeaturedmostprominentlyinthefocusgroupdiscussions.

2.3TypesofmediausedtoaccessthenewsMediaconnecteventswithaudiences.Theymediateeverydaylife.Tomlinsonhasargued thatmediation isabout overcomingdistance incommunication(1999:154),geographically,intellectuallyandemotionally,whileChouliarakihas suggested that mediation is the concept that connects the media asdiscourseandtextwiththemediaasinstitutionandtechnology(2006:3).Inthat sense, media play a crucial role not only in how we perceive andunderstand the news, but how we perceive and interact with the worldaroundus.

InthefocusgroupsconductedinKenya,TVturnedouttobethemostimportant medium in everyday life, while radio was the second mostimportant.Thefindingspointedtocertainfactors,especiallylocation(whichaffectedprogrammereception),literacylevelsandagecategories,thatseemtodetermine which media are used to access news. TV was used across thewhole population andwasmostlywatched at home, although other placessuch as pubs and workplaces were also mentioned, particularly by peoplefrom lower socioeconomicbackgrounds.The responseswere similar acrossall the groups. Generally, themedia throughwhich the respondents accessnewsareTV,radio,newspapers,mobilephones,internetandwordofmouth(friends,relativesorevenstrangers).

Maybeyouaresittingnexttopeoplein thematatuand then theyaretalkingaboutsomething.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)Ifsomeoneelsedoesthetalkingandyoujustputyoureyes(watch)eventhenewspapers,thedailypapersareequallygoodbutitrequiresalotofenergy.Youmightnothavethetimetobuythenewspapersinthemorningandenduparrivinghomewithouthavinglookedatit.SoitseasieronTVandradio.(Kenya,participantSECAB,35+yrs)

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Meanwhile, although radio emerged as the second most important mediasource,fewrespondentsinourfieldworkstatedthattheywouldlistentotheradio in order to access news. It was also observed that most of therespondents rarely listened to it athome.Radio listenershipoccurredwhentherespondentsweremovingfromoneplacetoanothereitherinthematatus,through their mobile phones or played in thematatus. Interestingly somerespondents thought that international news is broadcast less through theradioplatform.

AsformeI listentoBBConradiobutIdoagreemostof thenewsislocal.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)Imostly listen to the radio onmyway to work. (Kenya, participantSECAB,35+yrs)

Many of the respondents confirmed that theywatched or listened tomorethanonechannelorstationinatypicalevening,afindingthatemergedacrossthefivemarketsinvestigated.Respondentssaidthattheywatchedanaverageof 410 channels per evening. This is probably because most lower andmiddleclasshouseholdshaveoneTVsetwhich issharedbymemberswhohavedifferentinterests.

Asmanytimesaspossible.Like Icomehome in theevening Iwatchnews in NTV then Iwant towatch amovie or a programme that Iwant towatch on FamilyTV and if amnot asleep atmidnight I canwatchBBC.5(Kenya,participantSECC2D,1834yrs)

Reasons thatprompted thebehaviourofswitching fromonechannel/stationto anotherweremainly curiosity, the perceiveddifference in the quality ofnewsondifferentchannels/stationsaswellasathirsttogetsatisfyingnews.

Ithinkitisthecuriositytoknowifthestationyouarewatchinghasleftout some news so you switch to the others to see if they haveadditionalnewsitcouldbeforyourcountryorinternationally.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)Anotherthingthatwillmakemeswitchfromonestationtoanotherisif Ihaveseen that thatparticularpieceofnews isnot indepth.Somestationshavemoreindepthnewsthanothers,ifyoulistentothisandyou are not satisfied youmove to the next for information and thenyoucanbeabletocomparenotesandcatchupwithwhatyoumissed.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)

5 In Kenya, international TV channels are relayed terrestrially via local partner stations, often during the night.

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Thereisthisthingaboutspecificchannelswhobringtoomuchoflocaland less of internationalwhile others bring tomuch of internationaland less of local so I would switch through them to capture both.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)

Presenters of the news also seemed to affect consumption of news fromdifferent channels, with certain outspoken presenters being perceived asparticularlypopular.

SimilarlyinEgypt,whiletraditionalmedialikeradiosandnewspapersarestillaccessed,mostrespondentsprefertotuneintotheirtelevisionsetsfornewsbroadcasts. Internet andmobilephonesprovide easyaccess to instantnewsupdates.However,outof64participants,only39statedthattheywoulduse the internet on a regular basis, and 20 participants had never used theinternet.Thirtysevenrespondentsstatedthattheywouldaccessnewsabouttheircountryonline,while22followdevelopmentsinothercountriesonline.Youngrespondentsfrommiddleandupperclassbackgrounds,representinga techsavvy Egyptian youth, seem to be particularly frequent users of theinternet,accessingiteitherincybercafsorathome.Respondentswereaskedaboutthevariousmediathroughwhichtheyaccessthenews.Mostpreferredtelevision, newspapers, mobile phones, radio or the internet. But word ofmouth from friends, relatives or even strangers is still relied on forinformationonlocalissues,domesticconcernsandpublicopinion.

Rumorsareveryeffectiveanditgetspassedonfrompersontoperson.Forexample,peoplesaysugarwillbemoreexpensivesothemajorityofpeoplewillbuytoomuchsugarbeforeitbecomesmoreexpensive.(Egypt,male,SECABC1,35+yrs)

Television enjoys the highest usage across all participants, marking it as aclearfavouriteamongtherespondents.

WegetthenewsinthenewspapersbutTVisthemediathatismostlyusedbyeveryone.(Egypt,male,SECC2D,35+yrs)Television inotherwords is awayof life. In the evening, sometimesyouwatch a programme ormovie and then the news comes after it.(Egypt,male,SECABC1,35+yrs)Becausethatmeansthatwehadlunchandfinishedallourchoresandarefreetositdownandwatcheverythingwewantto.(Egypt,female,SECC2D,1834yrs)

Whilenewspapers are a traditional and trustedmedium, theyhavea loweraccess rate than television. Internet is the growing favourite, particularlyamong young people, together with mobile phones. News updates are

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available through mobile phone subscriptions, providing news headlines,sportsorweatherupdates.Thisserviceishighlypopular,particularlyamongmenofallages.

Isubscribedtothisservicefornewsandtheydeductfivepounds6frommybalanceforthewholemonth.(Egypt,male,SECC2D35+yrs)Thereisthisinstantmessagingservicewithasubscriptionthatgivesusthe latestsportsnews. Iamamemberand theysendmesportsnewsandalsoweatherupdates.(Egypt,male,SECABC11834yrs)Youpayforaspecificcompanyanditsendsyounewsfromaroundtheworld...itsverycheap,threepoundspermonthforallkindofnews.Its news of two lines if youwant to knowmore you can searchonlineorinthenewspaper.(Egypt,female,SECABC1,1834yrs)

While television and newspaper consumption are confined to a particulartime of day, radio and internet usage is distributed throughout the day.However,radioisprimarilyanambientmediumwithverylowinvolvement,unlikeothers.

InSenegal,due to thepower cuts at the timeof the fieldwork,manyparticipantscouldnotwatchTVorlistentotheirradios,themostpopularandmostfrequentlyusedmediainSenegalbesidesnewspapers.Butrespondentsreported that they had started using other platforms instead in order tocontinue their news consumption. Mobile phones and the internet inparticulargavepeoplethechancenotbeingrestrictedtoascheduledbulletintocatchupwiththelatestnews.

Iusemymobilephonewhenthereisapowercut.(Senegal,participantSECC2D,1834yrs)

However,accessingtheinternetviamobilephoneswasconsideredtoocostlyby nearly all of the participants, and not as many participants as in othercountries, likeinKenya forexample, indicated that theywould listen to theradioontheirmobilephones.

Someoftherespondentsnotedthatwordofmouthwasstilloneofthemost common means of getting information. Family members, friends orneighbourswere themost likely sources to give further news. In our focusgroups, the internetwasmostly used by the age group of 1834 years andgenerally young people from higher socioeconomic backgrounds (SECABC1). The respondents declared that they used the internet to read newsarticles, listen to radio stations or evenwatch a few TV stationswhich areonline(France24forexample).6Equivalent to approximately 0.55GBP.

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Before,therewasaproblemofaccessibility.IwasinKoldabeforeandthereyouhavetowaittillthefollowingdaytohaveanewspaper.Butnowthereisinternetsowecanaccessnewsmore.AndalsothentherewasonlyonecommunityradiobutnowmoreradiosandpossibilitytopickupmoreTVchannels.(Senegal,male,SECABC1,1834yrs)

Due to the various platforms available and an increasing number of newsproviders operating in the Senegalese media environment, people have amuchwiderchoicethesedaysthanafewyearsago.Mostoftherespondents,even though they claim some loyalty to a particular news provider, alsoacknowledgedthefactthatinaday,theyusuallywatchedorlistenedtomorethanoneTVchannelorradiostation.

InIndia,acrossallthefocusgroups,TVemergedastheprimemediumusedtoaccessnews,followedbynewspapersandthenradioasdistantthird.

TheadvantageofTVisthatyoucanlistentoallthedetailsandwatchthepicturesaswellwhereasinthenewspaperyouactuallyhavetomakeanefforttoread.(India,SECB2C,35+yrs)

Forwomen,TVisoftentheonlymediasourceusedfornews.

On the radio, news doesnt seem very interesting. When we arewatching it on TV we can see what is happening. The reality isshownonTVcanactuallysee it. (India, female,SECB2C,1834yrs)

The internet and news updates on mobile phones emerged in the focusgroups as the new and growing platforms for accessing news. Like in theothercountries, respondentsreported that theywouldswitchbetween threeto fournewschannels,abehaviour that theIndianparticipantsdescribedasChannel surfing. Participants reported that they would commonly switchchannelswhentherewasacommercialbreakbetweenthenews,ifachannelisspendinganinordinateamountoftimeon(orrepeating)aparticularnewsstory,or toverify that thenews isbroadcastonotherchannels too (inotherwords,thatitisindeednews,andnotjustaanoverlydramatisedstory).

We keep changing channels because the repetitions get boring.(India,female,SECAB1,35+yrs)Wewanttocheckonotherchannelstoseewhetherheissayingrightor wrong; whether the news flash is there too do they have thebreakingnewstheretoo.(India,male,SECAB1,35+yrs)

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Finally,inPakistan,too,TVwasthemostfrequentedmediumfornewsacrossall focus groups, followed by the internet, the radio, and news updates onmobilephones.Newspaperswerealsoread,but toa lesserdegree,whichisprobably linked to the low literacy rate in Pakistan (49.9% of the wholepopulation7).Wordofmouthwasstillconsideredoneofthemostimportantsourcesfornews.

2.4 Connecting the dots: media, everyday life and the closing ofmoraldistance

Sowhattypeofnewsarepeopleinterestedinanddotheyconsumeacrossthefivemarkets,andacrossgender,ageandsocioeconomicclasses?Andwhichmediadotheyusetoaccessthesenews,toconnectthedotsandmakesenseofevents affecting their everyday lives? Our findings suggest that news to acertain degree is culturally influenced, determined by the political andhistoric background of each market. This became particularly evident withtheexampleofmasalanewsinIndia,butwasalsoillustratedattheexampleofthehighlypopularpoliticalsatireshowHasbeHaal inPakistan.Inallofthe fivemarkets, amajorityof thepeople acrossgender andageand socioeconomicgroupsismainlyinterestedinlocalandnationalnews.Whiletheydo seem to consume news from international providers, too, this mainlyseems to happen during times of national or international crises. Theexceptionwasinallcountriesfocusgroupparticipantsandintervieweesfromhighersocioeconomicclasses,whoreportedthat theyconsumednews frominternational providers more regularly, and who consumed news oninternational affairs on a regular basis, too.Most people in the urban areaswhere we carried out our fieldwork consume news through TV. Thesefindings may vary in all of the five markets for rural areas. An increasingnumber of participants in all countries said they would use their mobilephonestoaccessnews,beittolistentotheradioonthemobilephoneonthematatuinKenya,ortoreceivenewsupdatesonmobilephonesinEgypt.Butitwasmainlythemoreaffluentandtheyoungerparticipantswhostatedthattheywouldaccess the internet (incybercafs,atworkorathome) fornews.The facts thatmostpeople aremainly interested innationalnews, and thatlocality,aswellaslanguage,toneandformat,seemedtobedecisivefactorsinhow authentic, trustworthy and favourably respondents across the fivecountries perceived different news stories, suggest that at least a part ofresponsibilityofhowpeopleconnectthedotsbetweentheirownlivesandthewiderworldlieswiththebroadcasters.AsSilverstone(2006:28)hasargued:

7 CIA World Factbook, Pakistan, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html, accessed Dec. 2010.

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we live in aworldwith otherswho are not like us, but also in aworld inwhich, precisely, it is the commonality of difference that isshared.Thisiswhatconstitutestheworldasplural.Oureverydayliveswerenotnecessarily lived inways that forced the issue,at leastonascale beyond the facetoface of village or community. But now theyare.Themediatedglobeinvolvesliftingtheveilondifference.Theproblem is that while global media have lifted the veil, they haveprovided few or no resources to understand and respond to thatdifference,nordotheynecessarilyrepresentitadequately.

Trust therefore, it seems, is not only evoked by a message, but by themessenger, too. The following chapter investigates the perceptions ofdifferentmediaprovidersbyconsumers,andexamineshoweditorialvaluesreflectedinnewscoverageshapeconsumersattitudestoandperceptionsofthedifferentprovidersinthefivemarkets.

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3Awareness,usageandperceptionsofdifferentlocal, nationalandinternationalnewsmedia

This chapter investigates the question of how consumers perceive differentinternationalproviders in thedifferent countries, andwhichproviders theytrust.

3.1Kenya

The findings from our fieldwork in Kenya suggest that different attributesdeterminechoiceandtrustindifferentlocalandinternationalproviders.Thefollowing reasons seemed to be paramount to the success of a provider intermsofhighviewershiporlistenership:

WhethertheprogrammeswererepeatedornotSomeotherstationsbringnewsthathasalreadybeenairedbyanotherstation,soyouwouldgofortheonethatbringsthefastestnews.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)Aninterestingchannelisonethatdoesntrepeatprogrammes.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs) PresentersSome(presenters)areboring. [But]e.g.SwalehMdoealways talksaboutthe stories that his grandfather told him. I like his way of presenting.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)I like thenewspresenterVincentMakoriI like thewayhe talks, it isveryeasytounderstandeverything,it isnotlikeCNNsZain,sheisfinebutIlikeVOAbecauseofMakori.(Kenya,participantSECAB,35+yrs) LanguageusedApart from BBC you find that AlJazeera at times broadcast in Arab,France24inFrenchandsomeprovidersinGerman.Forpeoplewhodontunderstandthislanguageitishardforthem.(Kenya,participantSECBC1,1834yrs)

Togetafeelingoftherespondentsappreciationofthechannelsandstations,the participants were asked to make a comparison between local andinternationalproviderstheyhadbeenexposedto.Table3.1showstheaspectsthatemerged.

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Local International

Positive aspects

Live coverage Live coverage

Where information is lacking, they collaborate with international partners Have presenters in many countries

Language: News can be consumed by the majority of the population because they use local understandable language

News had accurate/in-depth information

Cover local news, as illustrated in this comment made by a participant Expose hidden information

Use advanced technology

The news is presented in unpredictable format (spontaneous)

Negative aspects

Do not expose all information- sometimes reporters are denied access to certain information Poor values/morals e.g. dress codes

What they report is borrowed from international channels thus not updated, delayed Eroding local language

Poor technology frequencies do not reach some rural areas Information is not accurate (sometimes) & negative

Reporters or station centers not present everywhere

Competition against local stations/ channels

The flow of the news is predictable

Language: Alienates a segment of the population particularly illiterate people (who do not understand the English language)

Perceived to be pre-occupied with terrorism news or war stories

Local news shown in international channels was often perceived as patronising

Table 3.1 Differences between local and international providers in Kenya

Thelevelofawarenessofnewsproviderswashighamongsttherespondentsacross all of the focus groups. The preferred TV providers that emergedacross the focus groups were Citizen and KTN (local) and AlJazeera andCNN (international).Although all the participantswere aware of the state

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broadcaster KBC, most participants perceived it as a mouthpiece of thegovernment.

Participants in the focus groups reported a great appreciation forinternationalproviderswithregardtotheirindepthinformationandmoralsregardingtheprotectionofunderageviewersfromcertaincontent.However,someoftherespondentssuggestedthatinternationalprovidersliketheBBCandCNNwouldportrayanegativeimageofAfrica.

AlJazeera emerged as the most positively perceived and trustedinternationalprovider,followedbyCNNandBBC.OneofthemainreasonswhyAlJazeerawas preferable compared to other international channels isbecause it has its own terrestrial channel and is aired 24/7,while the otherinternationalchannelshavespecificslots(althoughtheBBCwasatthetimeofour fieldwork not available on any TV partner station). Another importantreasonwhyAlJazeerawasapreferrednewsproviderwasbecausesomeofthepresenterswereKenyan.AlJazeerawasdescribedasunbiased, focused,uptodate,entertaining,independentandreliable.

In AlJazeera I heard someone like Kamau reporting and I feltappreciatedasaKenyan.(Kenya,participantSECC2D,35+yrs)IlikeAlJazeerabecauseitis24hours,youdonthavetowaitforitlikeCNN. And the best thing with AlJazeera is that they repeat theirstories so you can catch it any time. It is very common nowadays.(Kenya,participantSECC2D,35+yrs)

CNNemergedasthesecondmosttrustedinternationalproviderofnews.AlltherespondentswereawareofCNN.Itwasgenerallyperceivedpositivelyevident in the words the participants used to describe it: informative,established, clear, entertaining, independent, trustworthy and reliable.However, anumberofparticipantsperceived it as too proAmerican, thusshowing more stories from the USA than African countries, and at timesbeingnegativewhenbroadcastingnewsonAfrica.

Meanwhile, the BBC was more identified with radio, but wasperceived as a trusted and established broadcaster. BBC radio has widenational coverage inKenya that reaches people even in the remotest areas.Therefore,tomanyKenyanslivinginruralareas,itisstillthemainsourceforinternational news. BBC radio listenershipwas particularly highduring thepreliberalisationerawhenfreedomofthepresswaslimited.ThisseemstobewhythelevelofawarenessoftheBBCwashighamongthemiddleagedandolderrespondents,but loweramongst theyoungparticipants.TheBBCwasperceived as one of the oldest providers in the market. Although its longexistence made respondents perceive the BBC was established andtrustworthy,somerespondentsfeltthattheBBChadneverchanged.TheBBC

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was described as informative, educative and fair. Interestingly, in thepersonificationexercise,inwhichpeoplehadtodescribeprovidersasiftheywere human beings, the perception of the BBCwas very similar across thegroups. In theeyesof therespondents theBBCwasanolder,wealthyman,over50yearsofage.

BBCisonradiobutwedont listen to it.BBCtheydonotchange.TheyarethewaytheywerewhenIwasstillyoung.(Kenya,participantSECC2D,35+yrs)

Local news providers have gained popularity in recent years, sinceliberalisation. It was therefore not surprising that most respondentsmentionedlocalnewsprovidersastheirmainandfirstchoicefornews.Freetoair terrestrial stations which dominate the TV landscape in Kenya weremostfrequentlymentioned.TheseincludeKTN,NTVandCitizen.VernacularradiostationssuchasRamogiFM, Inooro,KamemeFM,werementionedaslocalsourcesofnews.

I listen to news from Ramogi FM because that is the language Iunderstand most. I also listen to Citizen because I understandKiswahilitoo.(Kenya,participantSECC2D,35+yrs)

CitizenTVemergedasthemostpopularandmosttrustedlocalTVprovideracross the focus groups, closely followed byKTN.Citizen TV is owned byRoyalMedia,amultimediahousewhichalsoownseightradiostations,mostofthemlocal(relayedinvernacularlanguages)buttogethercoveringthebulkofKenya.CitizenTVbeganbroadcasting in1998. Itbroadcastsbothcurrentaffairsprogrammesandentertainment.RespondentsfeltthatCitizenTVwasthemostuptodateandinvestigativechannel.

TheKenyaTelevisionNetwork (KTN) run by the StandardGroup isone of Kenyas eight privately owned broadcasting stations. When it wasfounded in 1990, it became the firstnonpayprivatelyownedTV station inAfricaandthefirsttobreakKBCsmonopolyinKenya.KTNbecamefamousforactivismjournalisminthe1990s,brandingitselfastheauthoritativeandindependentnews channel.8Thequalitative results from the study supportthis background information. KTN emerged as one of the preferred localnewsproviders. Itwasdescribedas clear,havingauthority, andbeingveryinformativeduetoitsinvestigativestyle.

8 http://www.ktnkenya.tv/, accessed Dec. 2010.

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On TV I have towatch the 7 oclock news in the evening especiallyKTNbecause theyareverygood in their coverageandgive indepthstories.(Kenya,participantSECC2D,35+yrs)In KTN there is a feature that they bring Jicho Pevu I havent seenother TV stations with such investigative news. (Kenya, participantSECBC1,1834yrs)Theyare always strategic in theirplanning so for anybreakingnewstheywouldbe the fastest to bring it to you. (Kenya, participant SECAB,35+yrs)

However, basedon its investigative style, some respondentsperceived it astoobiased.

KTN isbiasedagainst thegovernment. (Kenya,participant SECBC1,1834yrs)

KTNs partnership with CNN seems to be beneficial because manyrespondentssaidthattheywatchCNNthroughit.

Other channels, such asNation TV,werementioned by participants,too. However, Citizen and KTN were generally the most mentioned andtrustedTVproviders.

3.2Egypt

In Egypt, one of the most competitive markets examined, people are mostawareoflocalandpanArabproviders.Localprovidersseemtoofferrelevantlocal content on locally salient issues. They touch peoples everyday life.However, due to a restricted and controlled domestic media environment,credibility emerged for all of these providers as an issue across the focusgroups.

All the respondents were aware of panArab channels, such as AlJazeera and AlArabiya. They were perceived as providing goodquality,unbiased content and as understanding the cultural aspects of Egyptiansociety. However, respondents felt they do not always understand localsentiments.

Meanwhile, international media such as CNN or BBC World wereperceived as providing an unbiased perspective with depth and quality ofnews,butwerewatchedorlistenedtoonaregularbasisonlybytheelite.Ingeneral,internationalmediawereperceivedassometimesnotunderstandingthe context and constraints of local Egyptian society. Interestingly for theBBC, hardly any of the focus group participants of the younger generationseemed to be aware of the provider, nor could they say, when they wereprompted,whichcountrytheBBCwasfrom.

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Overall, AlJazeera, together with AlArabiya, emerged as the mostwatchedand,forsome,asthemosttrustedofthechannels,togetherwiththelocalchannelsElMehwar,DreamandthegovernmentownedChannel2.

AlJazeera was the first international Arabic news channel in Egyptand therefore has a special place in themarket and in peoples awareness.Among the participants, it was praised for its extensive network and thespeedy coverage of news, as well as quality programming, featuring animpressivepanelofexperts.

AlJazeera is fast and shows us the event before any other channel.And it isnearalleventsso itairs thenewsevenbeforeanyEgyptianchannel.(Egypt,female,SECC2D,35+yrs)

Most importantly, in contrast with other international news channels,participantsrepeatedlystressedthattheyfeeltheycanrelatetothecontent.

ItisanArabchannelandsoitsconcernisthesameasours,besideswecan understand everything they say not like with the CNN. (Egypt,male,SECABC1,1834yrs)

However, recent developments seem to have split opinion amongEgyptianaudiences.Intheirview,overrecentyearstoomanyunflatteringstoriesaboutEgypthavebeencoveredonAlJazeera,promptingabelief that thechannelwishestoaffecttheimageofthecountry.Inmostofthefocusgroups,arecenttussle between the Egyptian government and AlJazeera, which heldexclusive broadcasting rights for the FIFAWorldCup, cameup.AlJazeeraseems to have lost some of its popularity in recent months, following adisputebetweenEgyptandAlgeriaafteraWorldCupfootballqualificationmatchinSudanon18November2009,afterwhichAlJazeerawasaccusedbymanyEgyptiansofbiasedreporting.Judgingbycommentsmadebysomeofthe participants, many Egyptian consumers resented AlJazeeras coverageand said that they no longer felt that they could fully trustAlJazeera as anewssource,particularlywhenitcomestonewsaboutEgypt.

IwatchAlJazeeraallthetimeandanynewsIneedtolearnaboutIjustswitchonAlJazeeraunlessithastodowithEgyptbecauseitiswellknown that AlJazeera is against Egypt. But if it has to dowith anyotherArabcountryIwatchAlJazeeraatonce.(Egypt,male,SECC2D,1834yrs)

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In June 2010, AlJazeera Sports World Cup broadcasts carried by EgyptsNilesatoperatorandArabsatofSaudiArabia(WallStreetJournal,June20109)were disrupted, and some sources suggested that AlJazeera Sportstransmissionshadbeendeliberately jammed.WhetherandhowthisdisputehasaffectedviewershipandtrustbyEgyptianconsumersofAlJazeerainthelongrunremainstobeseen.

Other participants disagreed with this stand, and expressed that intheir opinion the channel is brave enough to air stories that are unpopularandthatotherchannelsdonotair.

Itdoesnthideandisnotafraidtosayanything.InEgyptifanyonewillsayanythingwhichisnotsafetheywilleditit.ButinAlJazeeratheysayeverythingintheprogrammeanyonecancallandsaywhateverhewants.(Egypt,female,SECABC1,1834yrs)

AlArabiyawas the secondmostmentioned panArab channel, particularlyamongmenfromlowersocioeconomicstatus.Theseparticipantsfeltthatthenews was trustworthy and particularly appreciated the channels newspresenter,EssamAlShawaani.

TheyshowallthenewsthathastodowithArabsorEuropeandtheydonttakeasideagainstEgypt.(Male,SECC2D,1834yrs)

OtherpanArabandinternationalchannelsdidnotwarrantmuchdiscussionamong respondents. Not many participants were spontaneously aware ofBBCArabic,althoughsomeofthemrecognisedtheproviderwhenprompted.EspeciallymanyoftheyoungerpeoplehadnotheardoftheBBCbefore.Theparticipantswhohadwatched thechannel foundthenews trustworthyandappreciatedtheglobalcoverageandreach.

They broadcast clear and honest opinions. We have always beenattracted by its credibility and good reputation and they have beenhereforsomanyyears.(Egypt,male,SECABC1,35+yrs)

However,someparticipantsmentioned that theyfeltBBCArabicwouldnotconnect with Egyptian audiences, and that the Arabic was hard tounderstand.

TheymostlyspeakaboutEurope,FranceandGermanyandtheydonttalkabouttheMiddleEastenoughorEgyptwhichinterestsusmainlyThe

9 The Wall Street Journal Online, Al-Jazeera Criticized for Flawed Cup Broadcasts http://online.wsj.com/article/NA_WSJ_PUB:SB10001424052748703650604575312410215672840.html, 18 June 2010, accessed Aug. 2010.

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BBCcanpassawholedaywithoutmentioningEgyptevenonce. (Egypt,female,SECC2D,1834yrs)

BBCArabicsstyleissocalm,butonAlJazeeraitismoreenthusiasticandwe feelmore thanwe hear, so they shouldputmore life into the news.(Egypt,female,SECABC1,35+yrs)

ItlackstheEasternspiritandenthusiasm.(Egypt,female,SECABC1,35+yrs)

Meanwhile, France 24wasnotwell knownamongst theparticipants.ThosewhoknewthechannelwereawarethatitisprimarilyaFrenchchannelwithsomededicatedhoursofArabicprogramming.10

SometimeswewatchthetwohoursofArabicbroadcastfrom12amto2ambutmostlytheyspeakFrench.(Egypt,male,SECABC1,35+yrs)

Localchannelselicitedpositiveresponsesacrossall focusgroups.However,most of these positive responses were associated with specific presenterpersonalities or popular content aired on those channels, rather than thechannel brands. For example the news talk show Al Ashira Masaan (10oclock)onDream2channel,inwhichthehighlypopularpresenterMonaElShazly interviews Egyptian and foreign politicians, was spontaneouslymentioned inmostof the focusgroupdiscussionsduring fieldwork, aswasthe current affairs showof the outspoken presenterMoatazAlDemerdash,Teseen Dakeeka (90 minutes) on the El Mehwar satellite TV channel, orindeed thehighlypopularElBeitBeitak (Feelathome),whichwasrecentlyrenamedtoMasrInaharda(Egypttoday),presentedbyMahmoudSaadandcolleaguesonEgyptsChannel2(previouslyonChannel1).

The most watched show is on Al Mehwar if I want to know aboutsomethingormakesureofitIjustwatch90minuteswithMoataz.(Egypt,female,SECC2D,1834yrs)

Moataz is very popular. We feel very close to him. (Egypt, male, SECABC1,35+yrs)

About local shows,we have El Beit BeitakMahmoud Saaddiscussestopics from different angles and he hosts famous names from the highsociety. He also discusses artistic and sports topics. (Egypt, male, SECABC1,35+yrs)

10 The Arabic service of France 24 began in Apr. 2007, broadcasting for 4 hours a day, which was increased to 10 hours a day in Apr. 2009 (i.e. also during our fieldwork in Egypt). In Oct. 2010, the channel began broadcasting 24 hours a day. France 24 is the first French TV network to provide a 24/7 news service entirely in Arabic (France 24, http://www.france24.com/en/20101012-france-24-arabic-channel-goes-24-hours-north-africa-middle-east-news-television, accessed Dec. 2010).

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[AlAshiraMasaan]discussesallthenewsthathappensdailylocalandinternational. Mona, the hostess, interviewed the American president.(Egypt,male,SECC2D,1834yrs)

3.3Senegal

In our focus groups in Senegal, we asked our participants to make acomparison between local and international providers they have beenexposed to. Many differences emerged between local and internationalproviders of news. The first andmost obvious differencewas accessibility.Localprovidersaremoreaccessiblethaninternationalmedia.Theformerarepicked up free of charge and even without a satellite dish or a specialantenna.Forinternationalnewsproviders,dependingonthemediacompany,aspecificantennacoupledwithadecoderisneededtogainaccess.TheotherdifferencesthatwerementionedarelistedinTable3.2.

Local International

Positive aspects

Interactivity:Viewersorlistenerscancallintoparticipateinaprogramme

Givepeoplethepossibilityofbeinginformedaboutwhatishappeningaroundtheworld

Proximity:theycaneasilybecontactedtoreportonalocaleventandcreateawarenesslocally

Capacitytoinforminrealtimeonanevent;

TheyreportonotherpartsofthecountryandareinterestedininformativenewsforSenegalesewhichinternationalprovidersmightnotfindinterestingtoairforaglobalaudience

Completeintheirnewspresentation;detailedandindepthanalysesofissues

Theybroadcastinthelocallanguages(Wolof,Alpulaar,etc.)

Informationclear,objectiveandtrustworthy

Walfadjiriwhichmanyrespondentsseemtolikeisdeemedfearlessandreadytoreportonhotandhardissues;organisepoliticaldebatesandinvitethevariousprotagonists;alsohaveinterestingsocialandculturalprogrammesIndependent,freeandnonepartisan

Theyplayademocraticroleinthecountry,analysecriticallythewords,actionsandactivitiesofthegovernmentandplayacounterbalancingrole

Punctuality,seriousnessandprofessionalism(newsarebroadcastontimeandtherearepracticallynoerrorsfromthebroadcastersandinthesequencingoftheimages)

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Betterequipped

Thenewssetisgoodlookingandappealingwithpresentablejournalists

Fordebatesoncurrentissuesexpertsarecalled

upon

Theyhavecorrespondentsinmanypartsoftheworld

Negativeaspects

Theyarecloselymonitoredbythegovernment,hencealotofautocensoringintheirnewspresentation

NeedasubscriptiontoviewthemLackofindependence,especiallyforthepublicmedia

OftenreportonAfricaortheMiddleEastwhenthereissomethinggraveordisastroushappeningNewssometimesdonotstartontime TheydonotportrayAfricainapositivelight

Underequipped

Islamislinkedtoterrorismandportrayedunfairly

Lackofprofessionalismsometimes Newsisrepetitiveandsometimesboringforsomebodywhowouldliketowatchachannelforalongerperiodoftime

ShowingsoapoperaswhicharenotcompatiblewithAfricanvaluesandtraditiontherebycorruptingtheyounggeneration

TheyeasilyinfluencethepoliticalsituationinanAfricancountry(RFIwithGuineaandCtedIvoire)

Someinformationnotwellverifiedbeforebeingairedthusmisinformingtheviewers

Donotairinlocallanguagesforthelesseducated

Interestedmostlyinpoliticalissues

Thepublicmediareportingmoreonthegovernmentandtheiractivitiesandnotmuchontheoppositionpartiesoreventsnotfavourablefortherulingparty

Table 3.2 Differences between local and international providers in Senegal

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Themajorityof the respondents reported that theywould read, listen toorwatch the local media more frequently than they consumed internationalmedia.Theonly focusgroupthatstoodout in this regardandfavoured theinternationalproviderscomparedtothenationalmediawasthefocusgroupcomposed of men aged 1834 years, of a middle and upperclass socioeconomic background, in other words, opinion leaders. However, mostrespondentspreferredprivatelocalmedia.

I prefer the media in Senegal. First you need to keep abreast withwhats happening locally. Moreover, our media also give usinternationalnewsclosetotheendofthenews.(Senegal,female,SECABC1,35+yrs)

Participants seemed to distrust the public media provider, RTS (RadioTelevision Senegalaise), which operates two radio stations and one TVchannel.Alloftheseradiostationsandchannelsaregovernmentownedandcontrolled.TherespondentsrejectedRTSbecauseofitslackofindependenceand objectivity, especially with regard to politics. They viewed it as themouthpieceofthegovernmentandnotaproviderrespondingtotheirneedsandinterests.

Especiallyinpolitics,whenthereisanelection,itsthePresidentwhoisgivenmoreairtime than theothercandidates ... People tend to saythatRTSbelongstoAbdoulayeWade.(Senegal,female,SECABC1,35+yrs)

IfwetaketheexampleofCasamance,thoughIdontusuallylistentothe national public radio, but I have never heardRTS talk about theproblemofCasamance11andsaywhatishappeningthere,contrarytoother local private media. They always have something to hide.(Senegal,participant,SECC2D,35+yrs)

Among the local media that were spontaneously mentioned during thediscussions, Walfadjiri, which operates a TV and a radio station, took aprominentpositionwhenitcomestonews.ThencomesRFM(aradiostation)and 2STV (a TV station). However, canal info, a local medium solelydedicatedtonewswasnotmentionedasoftenastheotherthreeproviders.

Walfisunliketheotherlocalmedia.Theyareboldenoughtoshowuseverythingwhentheyaregiventheauthorisationtogoontheground.

11 Casamance is a region in the south of Senegal which has been fighting for independence since 1982. There have been sporadic exchanges of gunfire between the government forces and the rebels and no peace initiatives so far have been able to settle the conflict.

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Forexample,itisonlyRTSthatsgiventheauthorisationtofollowthegovernmenttosomeplaces.Soinsuchplacesforexample,othermediadonthave the information.Moreover,RTSdoesnt showus all, theyhide some parts. Walf shows the living conditions of Senegalesepeople, theyarecourageousenoughtoshowwhatotherscant show.(Senegal,male,SECABC1,1834yrs)

AfewinternationalnewsprovidersarepopularinDakar.RFI(radiostation)andTV5(TVchannel)havebeenpresentinSenegalformanyyearsandaccessto them is free.Though theBBCcanbepickedup locallyvia theFMband,fewofthoseinterviewedreallylistenedtoit.Thosewhodid,seeintheBBCanopportunitytolearnorimprovetheirEnglish.Themajorityofthepeoplehowever,duetothelanguagebarrier,hardlylistentotheBBC.Manydonotknow that the station has a French service section. A couple of theparticipants who had heard about the provider assumed it was a musicstation.

ThemajorityofTVnewsprovidersareaccessiblethroughsubscription.InSenegal,mainlythreemediacompaniesarecompetinginthissector:Canal+ Horizons, Excaf Telecom, Delta Net TV. The average Senegalese cannotafford themonthly cost of these.Therefore,asparticipants reported,peoplehavedevisedillegalmeanstocircumventthesubscriptionfeesandtoaccesstheseforeignproviders.Infactithasbecomeabusinessforsometechnicians.Withonesubscription,atechnicianconnectsasmanyhousesaspossibleonastreet. The connected individuals or households pay a modest sum. Thetechnicianreceivesall themoneyandonlypays theregularamount foronesubscription to themedia company.Whenasked if they felt that themediacompanieswere awareof these illegal connections, aheateddebate ensued.Some thought that these technicians collaborated with employees in themedia companies and gave them hush money. Others, to exoneratethemselves,declaredtheydidnotknowandthatitmatteredlittletothemastheycannowwatchtheforeignchannelspreviouslybeyondtheirreach.Thissituation seems to have created greater awareness of international newsprovidersingeneral.

Besidesthesesubscriptions,audienceshavetheopportunitytotuneintointernationalchannelsvialocalpartnerstationsatcertaintimesofthedayandduringthenight.RDV,alocalTVchannel,forexampleairsFrance24atcertainhoursoftheday,and2STV,anotherlocalTVchannel,whichisquitepopular, gives viewers the opportunity to watch Euronews. Radio DunyacarriestheBBC,whileTopFMisthepartnerstationofVOAintheevenings.

Onlinenewsproviderswhichwerereportedacrossthegroupsbythoseparticipantswhowere using the internet included aminat.com; bouba.com,

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xibaar.net, feerlo.com, rewmi.com, facebook.com, yahoo.com andhotmail.com.

In terms of awareness, when it comes to radio stations, RFIwas themostfrequentlymentionedinternationalprovider.

3.4India

Theawarenessofthedifferentnewschannels,bothnationalandinternational,was high in our focus groups in Mumbai, although there were some thatpeoplehadheardthenamesofbutaboutwhichtheyknewverylittle.

Local International

Positiveaspects

Morelocalnews

Broadcastworld/internationalnews

Morelivenews

Quickerforworldnews

InHindi

Dontdramatiseorexaggerate

Greaterconnectedness ProfessionalReceptionisgood

Moreinformative

GiveallkindsofnewsrelatedtoIndia Crisp,tothepointreportingVibrant,lively&young

Negativeaspects

Toomanyads NotenoughnewscoverageonIndia

Repeatsamenewsover&overagain

Dulltowatch

Madeup/makenewsoutofnonnews

MoreseriousIndianchannelshaveayoungerfeelExaggeratenews BBCandCNNareoftendisconnectedbycableoperators(becauseofpricing)Irrelevantnewsoncelebrities Presenterslackexpressiontheyhavemeasurablesmiles,theydontmovetheirfacesmuch.PresentersonIndianchannelsaremoreexpressive.

Overlydramaticpresentationmakesthemamusingandlesscredibleyoufeelconfusedwhethertheyaretellingthetruthornot

Table 3.3 Differences between loc