Tropical Montane Cloud Forests Science for Conservation ...assets.cambridge.org/97805217/60355/frontmatter/9780521760355_front... · Tropical Montane Cloud Forests Science for Conservation

Tropical Montane Cloud Forests

Science for Conservation and Management

This volume represents a uniquely comprehensive overview of our current knowledge on

tropical montane cloud forests. It comprises 72 chapters divided into seven sections covering a

wide spectrum of topics including cloud forest distribution, climate, soils, biodiversity,

hydrological processes, hydrochemistry and water quality, climate change impacts, and cloud

forest conservation, management, and restoration. The final chapter presents a major synthesis

by some of the world’s leading cloud forest researchers, which summarizes our current

knowledge and considers the sustainability of these forests in an ever-changing world.

This book is a must-have for anyone interested in the study, conservation, management, or

restoration of tropical montane cloud forests. It represents the state of the art with respect to

our knowledge of cloud forest occurrence and status, as well as the biological and hydrological

value of these unique forests. The presentation is academic but with a firm practical emphasis.

It will serve as a core reference for academic researchers and students of environmental

science and ecology, as well as practitioners (natural resources management, forest conser-

vation) and decision makers at local, national, and international levels.

Leendert Adriaan (Sampurno) Bruijnzeel is a Professor of Land Use and Hydrology

based at VU University, Amsterdam. He has 35 years of experience with forest hydrological

research in the humid tropics, mostly in South-East Asia, the Caribbean, and Latin America.

His main research interests include the water and nutrient dynamics of tropical forests, above

all montane cloud forests; his other main research topics include the hydrological impacts of

land-cover change (deforestation/reforestation) and erosion and sediment transport processes.

Professor Bruijnzeel is the author of two other books and the co-editor of Forests, Water and

People in the Humid Tropics (2005) also published by Cambridge University Press and

UNESCO as part of the International Hydrology Series. In 2005 he received the prestigious

Busk Medal from the Royal Geographical Society.

Frederick N. Scatena is Professor and Chair of the Department of Earth and Environ-

mental Science at the University of Pennsylvania. Since 1988 he has served as the Principal

Co-PI of the National Science Foundation’s Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Project

and since 2009 as the Lead PI of the NSF Luquillo Critical Zone Observatory, both in Puerto

Rico. Professor Scatena has worked in tropical forest hydrology for the past 32 years, on topics

ranging from water supply to the influence of hurricanes on the biogeochemistry and water

quality of Caribbean streams. He has been awarded the International Institute of Tropical

Forestry Puerto Rican Ecology Award (2008), and various USDA Research Scientist Awards.

Lawrence S. Hamilton is a Professor Emeritus (Cornell University) and former Senior

Fellow at the East–West Center in Hawai’i. He has authored over 300 publications throughout

his career and is known popularly as the “father of cloud forests” due to his successful

campaign over many years to get these unique forests on the international conservation agenda.

His awards include Forest Conservationist of the Year from the New York State Conservation

Council (1969); the Environmental Achiever Award from Friends of UNEP (1987); the

Packard International Parks Merit Award from the International Union for Conservation

of Nature (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas (2003); and the prestigious King

Albert Gold Medal for Mountain Conservation Leadership (2004). In 2008 he was named an

Honorary Member of IUCN, and in the same year was profiled as one of the 20 global “Earth

Movers” by IUCN.

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-76035-5 - Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and ManagementL. A. Bruijnzeel, F. N. Scatena and L. S. HamiltonFrontmatterMore information

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international hydrology series

The International Hydrological Programme (IHP) was established by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) in 1975 as the successor to the International Hydrological Decade. The long-term goal of the IHP is to

advance our understanding of processes occurring in the water cycle and to integrate this knowledge into water resources management.

The IHP is the only UN science and educational programme in the field of water resources, and one of its outputs has been a steady

stream of technical and information documents aimed at water specialists and decision-makers.

The International Hydrology Series has been developed by the IHP in collaboration with Cambridge University Press as a major

collection of research monographs, synthesis volumes, and graduate texts on the subject of water. Authoritative and international in

scope, the various books within the series all contribute to the aims of the IHP in improving scientific and technical knowledge of

freshwater processes, in providing research know-how and in stimulating the responsible management of water resources.

editorial advisory board

Secretary to the Advisory Board

Dr Michael Bonell Division of Water Science, UNESCO, I rue Miollis, Paris 75732, France

Members of the Advisory Board

Professor B. P. F. Braga Jr Centro Technologica de Hidraulica, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Professor G. Dagan Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Israel

Dr J. Khouri Water Resources Division, Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands, Damascus, Syria

Dr G. Leavesley US Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, Denver Federal Center, Colorado, USA

Dr E. Morris Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, UK

Professor L. Oyebande Department of Geography and Planning, University of Lagos, Nigeria

Professor S. Sorooshian Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, California, USA

Professor K. Takeuchi Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yamanashi University, Japan

Professor D. E. Walling Department of Geography, University of Exeter, UK

Professor I. White Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

titles in print in this series

M. Bonell, M. M. Hufschmidt and J. S. Gladwell Hydrology and Water Management in the Humid Tropics: Hydrological Research

Issues and Strategies for Water Management

Z. W. Kundzewicz New Uncertainty Concepts in Hydrology and Water Resources

R. A. Feddes Space and Time Scale Variability and Interdependencies in Hydrological Processes

J. Gibert, J. Mathieu, and F. Fournier Groundwater/Surface Water Ecotones: Biological and Hydrological Interactions and

Management Options

G. Dagan, and S. Neuman Subsurface Flow and Transport: A Stochastic Approach

J. C. van Dam Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Hydrological Regimes

D. P. Loucks, and J. S. Gladwell Sustainability Criteria for Water Resource Systems

J. J. Bogardi, and Z. W. Kundzewicz Risk, Reliability, Uncertainty and Robustness of Water Resource Systems

G. Kaser, and H. Osmaston Tropical Glaciers

I. A. Shiklomanov, and J. C. Rodda World Water Resources at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century

A. S. Issar Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems

M. Bonell, and L. A. Bruijnzeel Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics: Past, Present and Future Hydrological Research for

Integrated Land and Water Management

F. Ghassemi, and I. White Inter-Basin Water Transfer: Case Studies from Australia, United States, Canada, China and India

K. D. W. Nandalal, and J. J. Bogardi Dynamic Programming Based Operation of Reservoirs: Applicability and Limits

H. S. Wheater, S. Sorooshian, and K. D. Sharma Hydrological Modelling in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

J. Delli Priscoli, and A. T. Wolf Managing and Transforming Water Conflicts

L. A. Bruijnzeel, F. N. Scatena, and L. S. Hamilton Tropical Montane Cloud Forests






Tropical Montane Cloud Forests

Science for Conservation and Management

L.A. BruijnzeelVU University, Amsterdam

F.N. ScatenaUniversity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia

L. S. HamiltonCharlotte, Vermont






cambridge university press

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# Cambridge University Press 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without

the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2010

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tropical montane cloud forests : science for conservation and management / edited by

L.A. Bruijnzeel, F. N. Scatena, L. S. Hamilton.

p. cm. – (International hydrology series)

ISBN 978-0-521-76035-5 (Hardback)

1. Cloud forest conservation. 2. Cloud forest ecology. 3. Cloud forests. 4. Mountain ecology–Tropics.

I. Bruijnzeel, Leendert Adriaan. II. Scatena, F. N. III. Hamilton, Lawrence S.

QH541.5.C63T765 2010

577.34–dc22

2010036467

ISBN 978-0-521-76035-5 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred

to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






Contents

List of contributors page ix

Foreword xxii

M. Kappelle

Preface xxv

Acknowledgements xxvii

Part I General perspectives 1

Section editors: L. A. Bruijnzeel, F. N. Scatena,

and L. S. Hamilton

1 Setting the stage 3

F. N. Scatena, L. A. Bruijnzeel, P. Bubb, and S. Das

2 Modeling the tropics-wide extent and distribution

of cloud forest and cloud forest loss, with implications

for conservation priority 14

M. Mulligan

3 The climate of cloud forests 39

A. Jarvis and M. Mulligan

4 Changes in mist immersion 57

P. Foster

5 Ecology and ecophysiology of epiphytes in tropical

montane cloud forests 67

P. Hietz

6 Global and local variations in tropical montane

cloud forest soils 77

L. Roman, F. N. Scatena, and L. A. Bruijnzeel

7 Nutrient cycling and nutrient limitation in tropical

montane cloud forests 90

J. Benner, P.M. Vitousek, and R. Ostertag

8 What is the state of tropical montane cloud forest

restoration? 101

T.M. Aide, M. C. Ruiz-Jaen, and H. R. Grau

Part II Regional floristic and animal diversity 111

Section editors: L. A. Bruijnzeel and L. S. Hamilton

9 Tropical montane cloud forests in Malaysia: current

state of knowledge 113

S. Kumaran, B. Perumal, G. Davison, A. N. Ainuddin,

M. S. Lee, and L. A. Bruijnzeel

10 Montane cloud forests on remote islands

of Oceania: the example of French Polynesia

(South Pacific Ocean) 121

J.-Y. Meyer

11 Tropical lowland cloud forest: a neglected forest type 130

S. R. Gradstein, A. Obregon, C. Gehrig, and J. Bendix

12 Altitudinal zonation and diversity patterns in the

forests of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 134

A. Hemp

13 The outstandingly speciose epiphytic flora of a single

strangler fig (Ficus crassiuscula) in a Peruvian

montane cloud forest 142

D. J. Catchpole and J. B. Kirkpatrick

14 Comparative structure, pattern, and tree traits

of laurel cloud forests in Anaga, northern Tenerife

(Canary Islands) and in lauro-fagaceous forests

of Central Japan 147

M. Ohsawa, T. Shumiya, I. Nitta, W. Wildpret,

and M. del Arco

15 Temperature and humidity as determinants of the

transition from dry pine forest to humid cloud forests

in the Bhutan Himalaya 156

P. Wangda and M. Ohsawa

16 The importance of cloud forest sites in the conservation

of endemic and threatened species of the Albertine Rift 164

I. Owiunji and A.J. Plumptre

17 The mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) and Andean

bear (Tremarctos ornatus): two charismatic, large

mammals in South American tropical montane

cloud forests 172

J. Cavelier, D. Lizcano, E. Yerena, and C. Downer

v






18 Cloud forests in East Africa as evolutionary motors for

speciation processes of flightless Saltatoria species 182

C. Hemp

19 Diversity of geometrid moths in two Neotropical rain

forests 192

G. Brehm

Part III Hydrometeorology of tropical montane

cloud forest 197

Section editor: L. A. Bruijnzeel

20 Hydrometeorological patterns in relation to montane

forest types along an elevational gradient in the

Yungas of Bolivia 199

M. Schawe, G. Gerold, K. Bach, and S. R. Gradstein

21 Structure and dynamics of tropical montane cloud

forests under contrasting biophysical conditions

in north-western Costa Rica 208

A. Hager and A. Dohrenbusch

22 Quantitative measures of immersion in cloud and the

biogeography of cloud forests 217

R.O. Lawton, U. S. Nair, D. Ray, A. Regmi,

J. A. Pounds, and R.M. Welch

23 Understanding the role of fog in forest hydrology:

stable isotopes as tools for determining input and

partitioning of cloud water in montane forests 228

M. Scholl, W. Eugster, and R. Burkard

24 Using stable isotopes to identify orographic

precipitation events at Monteverde, Costa Rica 242

A. L. Rhodes, A. J. Guswa, and S. E. Newell

25 Using “biosensors” to elucidate rates and mechanisms

of cloud water interception by epiphytes, leaves, and

branches in a sheltered Colombian cloud forest 249

M.Mulligan, A. Jarvis, J. Gonzalez, and L. A. Bruijnzeel

26 Water dynamics of epiphytic vegetation in a lower

montane cloud forest: fog interception, storage,

and evaporation 261

C. Tobon, L. Kohler, K. F. A. Frumau, L. A. Bruijnzeel,

R. Burkard, and S. Schmid

27 Epiphyte biomass in Costa Rican old-growth and

secondary montane rain forests and its hydrological

significance 268

L. Kohler, D. Holscher, L. A. Bruijnzeel,

and C. Leuschner

28 Comparison of passive fog gages for determining fog

duration and fog interception by a Puerto Rican elfin

cloud forest 275

F. Holwerda, L. A. Bruijnzeel, and F. N. Scatena

29 Fog interception in a Puerto Rican elfin cloud

forest: a wet-canopy water budget approach 282

F. Holwerda, L. A. Bruijnzeel, A. L. Oord,

and F. N. Scatena

30 Fog gage performance under conditions of fog

and wind-driven rain 293

K. F. A. Frumau, R. Burkard, S. Schmid,

L. A. Bruijnzeel, C. Tobon, and J. C. Calvo-Alvarado

31 The wet-canopy water balance of a Costa Rican

cloud forest during the dry season 302

S. Schmid, R. Burkard, K. F. A. Frumau, C. Tobon,

L. A. Bruijnzeel, R. Siegwolf, and W. Eugster

32 Measured and modeled rainfall interception in a lower

montane forest, Ecuador 309

K. Fleischbein, W. Wilcke, R. Goller, C. Valarezo,

W. Zech, and K. Knoblich

33 Measuring cloud water interception in the Tambito

forests of southern Colombia 317

J. Gonzalez

34 Relationships between rainfall, fog, and throughfall

at a hill evergreen forest site in northern Thailand 324

N. Tanaka, K. Kuraji, C. Tantasirin, H. Takizawa,

N. Tangtham, and M. Suzuki

35 History of fog and cloud water interception research

in Hawai’i 332

J. K. DeLay and T.W. Giambelluca

36 Interpreting canopy water balance and fog screen

observations: separating cloud water from wind-blown

rainfall at two contrasting forest sites in Hawai’i 342

T.W. Giambelluca, J. K. DeLay, M. A. Nullet,

M. Scholl, and S. B. Gingerich

37 Historical background of fog water collection

studies in the Canary Islands 352

M.V. Marzol-Jaen

38 Effects of fog on climatic conditions at a sub-tropical

montane cloud forest site in northern Tenerife (Canary

Islands, Spain) 359

M.V. Marzol-Jaen, J. Sa ´nchez-Megıa,

and G. Garcıa-Santos

Part IV Nutrient dynamics in tropical montane

cloud forests 365

Section editors: L. A. Bruijnzeel and F. N. Scatena

39 Spatial and temporal dynamics of atmospheric water

and nutrient inputs in tropical mountain forests of

southern Ecuador 367

R. Rollenbeck, J. Bendix, and P. Fabian

vi CONTENTS






40 Fog deposition and chemistry in a sub-tropical montane

cloud forest in Taiwan 378

S. C. Chang, C. F. Yeh, M. J. Wu, Y. T. Chen,

Y. J. Hsia, C. P. Wang, and J. T. Wu

41 Fog and rain water chemistry in the seasonal tropical

rain forest of Xishuangbanna, south-west China 387

W. J. Liu, H.M. Li, Y. P. Zhang, C.M. Wang,

and F. R. Meng

42 Spatial heterogeneity of throughfall quantity and

quality in tropical montane forests in southern Ecuador 393

M. Oesker, J. Homeier, H. Dalitz, and L. A. Bruijnzeel

43 Effect of topography on soil fertility and water

flow in an Ecuadorian lower montane forest 402

W. Wilcke, J. Boy, R. Goller, K. Fleischbein,

C. Valarezo, and W. Zech

44 Human impacts on stream-water chemistry in

a tropical montane cloud forest watershed, Monteverde,

Costa Rica 410

A. L. Rhodes, A. J. Guswa, S. Dallas, E.M. Kim,

S. Katchpole, and A. Pufall

45 Is there evidence for limitations to nitrogen

mineralization in upper montane tropical forests? 418

W.L. Silver, A.W. Thompson, D. J. Herman,

and M. K. Firestone

46 Fine root mass and fine root production in tropical moist

forests as dependent on soil, climate, and elevation 428

D. Hertel and Ch. Leuschner

Part V Cloud forest water use, photosynthesis,

and effects of forest conversion 445

Section editors: L. A. Bruijnzeel and F. N. Scatena

47 Transpiration and microclimate of a tropical

montane rain forest, southern Ecuador 447

T. Motzer, N. Munz, D. Anhuf, and M. Kuppers

48 Physiological variation in Hawaiian Metrosideros

polymorpha across a range of habitats: from dry

forests to cloud forests 456

L. S. Santiago, T. J. Jones, and G. Goldstein

49 Environmental controls on photosynthetic rates of

lower montane cloud forest vegetation in south-western

Colombia 465

M.G. Letts, M. Mulligan, M. E. Rincon-Romero,

and L. A. Bruijnzeel

50 Comparative water budgets of a lower and an

upper montane cloud forest in the Wet Tropics

of northern Australia 479

D. L. McJannet, J. S. Wallace, and P. Reddell

51 Effects of forest disturbance and regeneration

on net precipitation and soil water dynamics in

tropical montane rain forest on Mount Kilimanjaro,

Tanzania 491

M. Schrumpf, H. V.M. Lyaruu, J. C. Axmacher,

W. Zech, and L. A. Bruijnzeel

52 Changes in soil physical properties after conversion

of tropical montane cloud forest to pasture in

northern Costa Rica 502

C. Tobon, L. A. Bruijnzeel, K. F. A. Frumau,

and J. C. Calvo-Alvarado

53 Hydrology and land-cover change in tropical montane

environments: the impact of pattern on process 516

M. Mulligan, J. Rubiano, and M. Rincon-Romero

Part VI Effects of climate variability and climate

change 525

Section editors: L. A. Bruijnzeel and L. S. Hamilton

54 Meso-scale climate change due to lowland deforestation

in the maritime tropics 527

M.K. van der Molen, H. F. Vugts, L. A. Bruijnzeel,

F. N. Scatena, R. A. Pielke Sr., and L. J.M. Kroon

55 The impact of deforestation on orographic cloud

formation in a complex tropical environment 538

U. S. Nair, D. K. Ray, R. O. Lawton, R.M. Welch,

R. A. Pielke Sr., and J. Calvo-Alvarado

56 Meso-scale climate change in the central mountain

region of Veracruz State, Mexico 549

V. L. Barradas, J. Cervantes-Perez, R. Ramos-Palacios,

C. Puchet-Anyul, P. Vazquez-Rodrıguez, and

R. Granados-Ramirez

57 Potential effects of global climate change on

epiphytes in a tropical montane cloud forest:

an experimental study from Monteverde, Costa Rica 557

N.M. Nadkarni

58 Climatic change impacts on tropical montane cloud

forests: fire as a major determinant in the upper zones

of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 566

A. Hemp

59 Historical 14C evidence of fire in tropical montane

cloud forests in the Chimalapas region of Oaxaca,

southern Mexico 575

Y. Ward, A. Malmer, and H. Asbjornsen

60 Biennial variation in tree diameter growth during

eight years in tropical montane cloud forests on

Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia 579

S. Aiba, M. Takyu, and K. Kitayama

CONTENTS vii






61 Modeling the dynamics of tropical montane cloud

forest in central Veracruz, Mexico 584

N. Ruger, G. Williams-Linera, and A. Huth

Part VII Cloud forest conservation, restoration,

and management issues 595

Section editors: L. S. Hamilton, L. A. Bruijnzeel,

and F. N. Scatena

62 Environmental history and forest regeneration

dynamics in a degraded valley north-west

Argentina’s cloud Forests 597

H.R. Grau, J. Carilla, R. Gil-Montero, R. Villalba,

E. Araoz, G. Masse, and M. de Membiela

63 Impact of deforestation and forest regrowth on

vascular epiphyte diversity in the Andes of Bolivia 605

T. Kromer and S. R. Gradstein

64 Ecology and use of old-growth and recovering

montane oak forests in the Cordillera de Talamanca,

Costa Rica 610

D. Holscher, L. Kohler, M. Kappelle, and Ch. Leuschner

65 Forest restoration in the tropical montane cloud forest

belt of central Veracruz, Mexico 618

G. Williams-Linera, C. Alvarez-Aquino,

and R. A. Pedraza

66 Ecological and social bases for the restoration of a High

Andean cloud forest: preliminary results and lessons

from a case study in northern Ecuador 628

S. Baez, K. Ambrose, and R. Hofstede

67 Biodiversity-based livelihoods in the ceja andina forest

zone of northern Ecuador: multi-stakeholder

learning processes for the sustainable use of

cloud forest areas 644

R. Hofstede, K. Ambrose, S. Baez, and K. Cueva

68 Embracing epiphytes in sustainable forest

management: a pilot study from the Highlands

of Chiapas, Mexico 652

J. H.D. Wolf

69 Fire dynamics and community management of fire

in montane cloud forests in south-eastern Mexico 659

H. Asbjornsen and Z. Garnica-Sanchez

70 Assessment needs to support the development of

arrangements for Payments for Ecosystem Services

from tropical montane cloud forests 671

S. S. Tognetti, B. Aylward, and L. A. Bruijnzeel

71 Conservation strategies for montane cloud forests in

Costa Rica: the case of protected areas, payments for

environmental services, and ecotourism 686

J. C. Calvo-Alvarado, G. A. Sanchez-Azofeifa,

and A. Mendez

72 Tropical montane cloud forests: state of knowledge

and sustainability perspectives in a changing world 691

L. A. Bruijnzeel, M. Kappelle, M. Mulligan,

and F. N. Scatena

The color plates will be found between pages 100 and 101.

viii CONTENTS






Contributors

Aiba S.

Faculty of Science,

Kagoshima University,

Kagoshima 890-0065,

Japan

Aide T. M.

Department of Biology,

P.O. Box 23360,

University of Puerto Rico,

San Juan,

Puerto Rico 00931,

USA

Ainuddin A. N.

Faculty of Forestry,

Universiti Putra Malaysia,

43400 UPM Serdang,

Malaysia

Alvarez-Aquino C.

Instituto de Genetica Forestal,

Universidad Veracruzana,

Apartado Postal 51,

Xalapa,

Veracruz 91000,

Mexico

Ambrose K.

Formerly with Ecopar, Quito,

Ecuador; presently at CARE Canada,

9 Gurdwara Road,

Ottawa,

Ontario K2E 7X6,

Canada

Anhuf D.

Department of Physical Geography,

University of Passau,

Innstrasse 40,

94032 Passau,

Germany

Araoz E.

CONICET-Laboratorio de Investigaciones Ecologicas

de las Yungas,

Universidad Nacional de Tucuman,

Casilla de Correo 34 (4107),

Yerba Buena,

Tucuman,

Argentina

Arco M. del

Universidad de La Laguna,

La Laguna,

Tenerife,

Canary Islands,

Spain

Asbjornsen H.

Formerly with Iowa State University, Ames, USA;

presently at the Department of Natural Resourcer and the

Environment University of New Hampshire,

Rudmah Hall,

46 College Road,

Durham, NH 03824,

USA

Axmacher J. C.

Terrestrial Ecology Research Unit,

Department of Geography,

University College London,

Pearson Building,

Gower Street,

London WC1E 6BT,

UK

ix






Aylward B.

Ecosystem Economics LLC,

P.O. Box 2062, Bend,

OR 97709,

USA

Bach K.

Faculty of Geography,

University of Marburg,

Deutschhausstrasse 10,

35032 Marburg,

Germany

Baez S.

Formerly with Ecopar, Quito,

Ecuador; presently at CONDESAN,

Digo de Brieda Clemonte Celi,

Quito,

Ecuador

Barradas V. L.

Instituto de Ecologıa,

Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico,

Apartado Postal 70-275,

Circuito Exterior,

Ciudad Universitaria,

04510 Mexico, D. F.,

Mexico

Bendix J.


Laboratory for Climatology and Remote Sensing,



35032 Marburg,

Germany

Benner J.

Department of Biological Sciences,

Stanford University,

371 Serra Mall,

Stanford, CA 94305,

USA

Boy J.

Geographical Institute,

Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz,

Johann-Joachim-Becherweg 21,

55099 Mainz,

Germany

Brehm G.

Formerly with the University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,

Germany; presently at the Institute for Special Zoology

and Evolutionary Biology of the Phyletic Museum,

Erbertstrasse 1, 07743 Jena,

Germany

Bruijnzeel L. A.

Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences,

VU University,

De Boelelaan 1085,

1081 HV Amsterdam,

the Netherlands

Bubb P.

United Nations Environmental Programme – World

Conservation Monitoring Centre,

219 Huntingdon Road,

Cambridge CB3 0DL,

UK

Burkard R.

Formerly with the Institute of Geography,

University of Bern,

Hallerstrasse 12,

CH-3012 Bern,

Switzerland

Calvo-Alvarado J. C.

Escuela de Ingeniera Forestal,

Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica,

Apartado 159-7950,

Cartago,

Costa Rica

Carilla J.

CONICET-Laboratorio de Investigaciones Ecologicas de las

Yungas,



Yerba Buena,

Tucuman,

Argentina

Catchpole D. J.

School of Geography and Environmental Studies,

University of Tasmania,

Private Bag 78, Hobart,

Tasmania 7001,

Australia

x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS






Cavelier J.

Formerly with the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation,

Washington DC, USA; presently at The Global

Environmental Facility,

1818 H Street NW,

Washington, DC 20433,

USA

Cervantes-Perez J.

Centro de Ciencias de la Tierra,


Francisco J. Moreno 207, Colonia Emiliano Zapata,

91090 Xalapa,

Veracruz,

Mexico

Chang S. C.

Institute of Natural Resources,

National Dong Hwa University,

974 Hualien,

Taiwan

Chen Y. T.



974 Hualien,

Taiwan

Cueva K.

Ecopar,

Casilla 17-11-6706,

Quito,

Ecuador

Dalitz H.

Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden,

University of Hohenheim,

Garbenstrasse 30,

70599 Stuttgart,

Germany

Dallas S.

Monteverde Institute,

Monteverde,

Puntarenas,

Costa Rica

Das S.

Formerly with UNEP-WCRC,

Cambridge, UK; presently at Climate Change Division,

The Energy and Resources Institute,

Darbari Seth Block,

IHC Complex,

Lodhi Road,

New Delhi 110 003,

India

Davison G.

Formerly with WWF-Malaysia,

Petaling Jaya,

Malaysia; presently at National Parks Board Singapore,

1 Cluny Road,

Singapore 259569,

Singapore

DeLay J. K.


University of Hawai’i at Manoa,

2424 Maile Way,

Honolulu,

HI 96822,

USA

Dohrenbusch A.

Silviculture and Forest Ecology of the Temperate Zones,

Burckardt Institute,

University of Gottingen,

Busgenweg 1,

37077 Gottingen,

Germany

Downer C.

Andean Tapir Fund,

P.O. Box 456,

Minden, NV 89423,

USA

Eugster W.

ETH Zurich, Animal and Agroecosystem,

Institute of Plant Sciences,

Universitatsstrasse 2,

CH-8092 Zurich,

Switzerland

Fabian P.

Institute for Bioclimatology and Immission Research,

Technical University of Munich,

Am Hochanger 13,

85354 Freising,

Germany

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi






Firestone M. K.

Ecosystem Science Division,

Department of Environmental Science,

Policy, and Management,

151 Hilgard Hall,

University of California,

Berkeley,

CA 94720,

USA

Fleischbein K.

Formerly with the Justus Liebig University of Giessen,

Giessen, Germany; presently at the Leibniz Institute for

Agricultural Engineering, Department 2,

Technology Assessment and Substance Cycles,

Max Eyth Allee 100,

14469 Potsdam,

Germany

Foster P.

Department of Earth Sciences,

University of Bristol,

Wills Memorial Building,

Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK

Frumau K. F. A.

Formerly with the VU University Amsterdam,

the Netherlands; presently with the Air Quality and Climate

Change Group,

Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands,

P.O. Box 1, 1755 ZG Petten,

the Netherlands

Garcıa-Santos G.

Formerly with the VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands;

presently at the Department of Geography,

University of Zurich,

Winterthurerstrasse 190,

CH-8057 Zurich,

Switzerland

Garnica-Sanchez Z.

Rainforest Alliance,

Smartwood Programme,

Oaxaca,

Mexico

Gehrig C.

Department of Systematic Botany,

Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences,

Untere Karspule 2,


37073 Gottingen,

Germany

Gerold G.

Department of Landscape Ecology,

Institute of Geography,


Goldschmidtstrasse 5,

37077 Gottingen,

Germany

Giambelluca T. W.



2424 Maile Way,

Honolulu,

HI 96822,

USA

Gil-Montero R.

CONICET,

Instituto de Estudios Geograficos,


Tucuman,

Argentina

Gingerich S. B.

Water Resources Division,

United States Geological Survey,

677 Ala Moana Boulevard,

Suite 415, Honolulu,

HI 96813,

USA

Goldstein G.


University of Miami,

1301 Memorial Drive,

Coral Gables,

FL 33124,

USA

Goller R.

Formerly with the University of Bayreuth, Germany; presently

at Bayerisches Landesamt fur Umwelt (Referat 104),

Hans Hogn Strasse 12,

95030 Hof/Saale,

Germany

xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS






Gonzalez J.

c/o Environmental Monitoring and Modelling Research Group,

King’s College London, Strand,

London WC2R 2LS,

UK

Gradstein S. R.

Department of Systematic Botany,


Untere Karspule 2,


37073 Gottingen,

Germany

Granados-Ramirez R.

Instituto de Geografıa,


Circuito de la Investigacion Cientıfica,


04510 Mexico, D. F.,

Mexico

Grau H. R.

Laboratorio de Investigaciones Ecologicas de las Yungas,



Yerba Buena,

Tucuman,

Argentina

Guswa A. J.

Picker Engineering Program,

Smith College,

Northampton,

MA 01063,

USA

Hager A.

Formerly with the University of Gottingen, Germany;

presently at the School for Field Studies,

Centro de Estudios sobre Desarrollo Sostenible,

P.O. Box 150 4013,

Atenas,

Costa Rica

Hamilton L. S.

342 Bittersweet Lane,

Charlotte,

VT 05445,

USA

Hemp A.

Ecological Botanical Garden,

University of Bayreuth,

95440 Bayreuth,

Germany

Hemp C.

Department of Animal Ecology II,


95440 Bayreuth,

Germany

Herman D. J.


Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management,

151 Hilgard Hall,


Berkeley,

CA 94720,

USA

Hertel D.

Plant Ecology,



Untere Karspule 2,

37073 Gottingen,

Germany

Hietz P.

Institute of Botany,

University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences

(BOKU),

Gregor Mendel Strasse 33,

1180 Vienna,

Austria

Hofstede R.

Ecopar,

Casilla 17-11-6706,

Quito,

Ecuador

Holscher D.

Tropical Silviculture and Forest Ecology,

Burckhardt Institute,


Busgenweg 1,

37077 Gottingen,

Germany

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xiii






Holwerda F.

Formerly with the VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands;

presently at Department of Natural Resource Ecology and

Management,

Iowa State University,

234 Science II, Ames,

IA 50010,

USA

Homeier J.

Plant Ecology,



Untere Karspule 2,

37073 Gottingen,

Germany

Hsia Y. J.



974 Hualien,

Taiwan

Huth A.

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, UFZ,

Department of Ecological Modelling,

Permoserstrasse 15,

04318 Leipzig,

Germany

Jarvis A.

International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)

and Biodiversity International,

AA 6713, Cali,

Colombia

Jones T. J.


University of Miami,

1301 Memorial Drive,

Coral Gables,

FL 33124,

USA

Kappelle M.

Formerly with The Nature Conservancy,

San Jose, Costa Rica;

presently with WWF-NL,

P.O.Box 7, 3700 AA Zeist,

the Netherlands

Katchpole S.

Department of Geology,

Smith College,

Northampton,

MA 01063,

USA

Kim E. M.


Smith College,

Northampton,

MA 01063,

USA

Kirkpatrick J. B.

School of Geography and Environmental Studies,

University of Tasmania,

Private Bag 78, Hobart,

Tasmania 7001,

Australia

Kitayama K.

Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University,

509-3 Hirano 2-chome, Ohtsu,

Shiga 520-2113,

Japan

Knoblich K.

Institute of Applied Geosciences,

Justus Liebig University of Giessen,

Diezstrasse 15,

35390 Giessen,

Germany

Kohler L.

Plant Ecology,



Untere Karspule 2,

37073 Gottingen,

Germany

Kromer T.

Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales, Universidad Veracruzana,

Interior de la Exhacienda Lucas Martın,

Privada de Araucarias s/n,

Colonia 21 de Marzo, Xalapa,

C.P. 91019,

Veracruz,

Mexico

xiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS






Kroon L. J. M.

Meteorology and Air Quality Group,

Wageningen University and Research Centre,

P.O. Box 47,

6700 AA Wageningen,

the Netherlands

Kumaran S.

Formerly with WWF-Malaysia, Petaling Jaya,

Malaysia; presently at EnviroLogic Consulting,

18 Jalan 20/2,

Paramount Garden,

46300 Petaling Jaya,

Selangor,

Malaysia

Kuppers M.



Garbenstrasse 30,

70599 Stuttgart,

Germany

Kuraji K.

University Forest in Aichi,

University Forests,

Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences,

The University of Tokyo,

Seto, Aichi,

Japan

Lawton R. O.

Department of Biological Sciences,

National Space Science Technology Center,

University of Alabama in Huntsville,

Huntsville,

AL 35899,

USA

Lee M. S.

WWF-Malaysia,

49 Jalan SS23/15,

47300 Petaling Jaya,

Selangor,

Malaysia

Letts M. G.


Water and Environmental Science Program,

University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge,

Alberta T1K 3M4,

Canada

Leuschner Ch.

Plant Ecology,



Untere Karspule 2,

37073 Gottingen,

Germany

Li H. M.

Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden,

Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla,

Yunnan Province 666303,

P. R. China

Liu W. J.


Chinese Academy of Sciences,

88 Xuefu Road,

Kunming 650223,

P. R. China

Lizcano D.

Formerly with the University of Kent, Canterbury, UK; presently

at Facultad de Ciencias Basicas,

Universidad de Pamplona,

Pamplona,

Norte de Santander,

Colombia

Lyaruu H. V. M.

Department of Botany,

University of Dar es Salaam,

Dar es Salaam,

Tanzania

Malmer A.

Department of Forest Ecology and Management,

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,

Umea SE 90183,

Sweden

Marzol-Jaen M. V.



La Laguna, Tenerife,

Canary Islands,

Spain

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xv






Masse G.

Instituto Nacional de Estadısticas y Censos,

Buenos Aires,

Argentina

McJannet D. L.

CSIRO Land and Water,

120 Meiers Road,

Indooroopilly,

Queensland,

Australia

Membiela M. de

Departamento de Dendrocronologıa e Historia

Ambiental,

Instituto Argentino de Nivologıa,

Glaciologıa y Ciencias Ambientales,

Mendoza,

Argentina

Mendez A. R.

Fondo de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO),

Apartado 594-2120 San Jose,

Costa Rica

Meng F. R.

Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management,

University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,

New Brunswick E3B 6C2,

Canada

Meyer J.-Y.

Delegation a la Recherche,

Gouvernement de la Polynesie Francaise,

B.P. 20981,

Papeete, Tahiti,

French Polynesia

Molen M. K. van der


Amsterdam, the Netherlands; presently at the Meteorology

and Air Quality group, Wageningen University and

Research Centre,

P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen

the Netherlands

Motzer T.

Formerly with the University of Mannheim,

Mannheim, Germany; presently at PE International,

Bebelstrasse 68, 70193 Stuttgart,

Germany

Mulligan M.

Environmental Monitoring and Modelling Research Group,


King’s College London, Strand,

London WC2R 2LS, UK

Munz N.

Department of Physical Geography,

University of Mannheim, L 9, 1-2,

68131 Mannheim,

Germany

Nadkarni N. M.

The Evergreen State College, Olympia,

WA 98505, USA

Nair U. S.

Earth Science System Center,


University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville,

AL 35806,

USA

Newell S. E.


Smith College,

Northampton,

MA 01063,

USA

Nitta I.

Institute of Environmental Studies,

Graduate School of Frontier Sciences,


7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033,

Japan

Nullet M. A.



2424 Maile Way,

Honolulu, HI 96822,

USA

Obregon A.





35032 Marburg,

Germany

xvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS






Oesker M.



Garbenstrasse 30,

70599 Stuttgart,

Germany

Ohsawa M.

Institute of Environmental Studies,

Graduate School of Frontier Sciences,


7-3-1 Hongo,

Tokyo 113-0033,

Japan

Oord A. L.

c/o Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences,

VU University Amsterdam,

De Boelelaan 1085,

1081 HV Amsterdam,

the Netherlands

Ostertag R.


University of Hawai’i–Hilo,

200 W. Kawili Street, Hilo,

HI 96720,

USA

Owiunji I.

Formerly with the Wildlife Conservation Society,

Kampala, Uganda;

presently at the School of Environment,

University of Manchester,

Oxford Road, Manchester M13, PL, UK

Pedraza R.A.

Instituto de Genetica Forestal,


Apartado Postal 551,

Xalapa, Veracruz 91000,

Mexico

Perumal B.

Formerly with Wetlands International,

Petaling Jaya, Malaysia; presently at the Global

Environment Centre,

78 Jalan SS2/72, 47300 Petaling Jaya,

Selangor,

Malaysia

Pielke Sr. R. A.

CIRES, University of Colorado,

Stadium 255-10, Boulder,

CO 80309,

USA

Plumptre A.

Albertine Rift Programme,

Wildlife Conservation Society,

P.O. Box 7487,

Kampala,

Uganda

Pounds J. A.

Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve,

Monteverde,

Puntarenas,

Costa Rica

Puchet-Anyul C.




Circuito Exterior,


04510 Mexico, D.F.,

Mexico

Pufall A.


Smith College,

Northampton,

MA 01063,

USA

Ramos-Palacios R.




Circuito Exterior,


04510 Mexico, D.F.,

Mexico

Ray D. K.

Formerly with the University of Alabama in Huntsville, USA;

presently at the Department of Forestry and Natural Resources,

Purdue University,

West Lafayette, IN 47907,

USA

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii






Reddell P.

Formerly with CSIRO Land and Water,

Tropical Forest Research Centre, Atherton,

Queensland,

Australia

Regmi A.

Formerly with the University of Alabama, Huntsville, USA;

presently at the Department of Forestry and Natural Resources,

Purdue University,

West Lafayette,

IN 47907,

USA

Rhodes A. L.


Smith College,

Northampton,

MA 01063,

USA

Rincon-Romero M. E.

Universidad del Valle,

Facultad de Ingenierias,

Escuela de Ingenierıa Civil y Geomatica,

Grupo de Investigacion en Geomatica Aplicada,

Calle 13 – Carrera 100,

Valle de Lili, Cali,

Colombia

Rollenbeck R.





35032 Marburg,

Germany

Roman L.

Formerly with the University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia, USA;

presently at ESPM,

University of California Berkeley,

McBride Laboratory,

140 Mulford Hall,

Berkeley,

CA 94720,

USA

Rubiano J.

Formerly with King’s College London,

United Kingdom; presently at the Universidad Nacional de

Colombia,

Carrera 32 Chapinero,

Vıa Candelaria Palmira,

Valle del Cauca,

Colombia

Ruger N.

Formerly with UFZ Centre for Environmental Research,

Leipzig, Germany; presently at the Department of Forest

Biometry and Systems Analysis,

Institute of Forest Growth and Computer Sciences,

Dresden University of Technology,

P.O. Box 117,

01735 Tharandt,

Germany

Ruiz-Jaen M. C.


University of Puerto Rico,

San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931 3360,

USA

Sanchez-Azofeifa A.

Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department,

University of Alberta,

Edmonton,

Alberta T6G 2E3,

Canada

Sanchez Megıa J.

National Meteorological Institute,

San Sebastian 77,

Santa Cruz de Tenerife,

Tenerife, Canary Islands,

Spain

Santiago L. S.

Department of Botany and Plant Sciences,


2150 Batchelor Hall, Riverside,

CA 92521,

USA

Scatena F. N.

Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Hayden Hall,

University of Pennsylvania,

240 South 33rd Street,

Philadelphia,

PA 19104,

USA

xviii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS






Schawe M.

c/o Department of Landscape Ecology,

Institute of Geography,


Goldschmidtstrasse 5,

37077 Gottingen,

Germany

Schmid S.

Formerly with the Institute of Geography,

University of Bern,

Hallerstrasse 12,

CH-3012 Bern,

Switzerland

Scholl M.

Water Resources Discipline,

United States Geological Survey,

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston,

VA 20192,

USA

Schrumpf M.

Formerly with the University of Bayreuth,

Germany; presently at the Max Planck Institute for

Biogeochemistry,

07745 Jena,

Germany

Shumiya T.

The Nature Conservation Society of Japan,

5-24 Sanbancho,

Tokyo 102-0075,

Japan

Siegwolf R.

Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry,

Stable Isotopes and Ecosystem Fluxes,

Paul Scherrer Institute,

CH-5232 Villigen,

Switzerland

Silver W. L.


Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management,

151 Hilgard Hall,


Berkeley,

CA 94720,

USA

Suzuki M.

Department of Forest Sciences,


The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku,

Tokyo,

Japan

Takizawa H.

College of Bioresource Sciences,

Nihon University, Fujisawa,

Kanagawa,

Japan

Takyu M.

Faculty of Regional Environmental Science,

Tokyo University of Agriculture,

Sakuragaoka 1-1-1, Setagaya-ku,

Tokyo 156-8502,

Japan

Tanaka N.

University Forest in Aichi,



11-44 Goizuka, Seto City,

Aichi 489-0031,

Japan

Tangtham N.

Department of Conservation,


Kasetsart University,

Bangkok,

Thailand

Tantasirin C.

Department of Conservation,


Kasetsart University,

Bangkok,

Thailand

Thompson A. W.


Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and

Management,

151 Hilgard Hall,

University of California, Berkeley,

CA 94707,

USA

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xix






Tobon C.


the Netherlands; presently at the Departamento de Ciencias

Forestales,

Universidad Nacional de Colombia,

Calle 59a, no. 63-20,

Medellın,

Colombia

Tognetti S.

Environmental Science and Policy Consultant,

10211 Menlo Avenue,

Silver Spring,

MD 20912,

USA

Valarezo C.

Universidad Nacional de Loja,

Centro de Estudios de Postgrado,

Area de Desarrollo Rural,

Unidad Operativa de la Facultad de Ciencias Agricolas,

Loja,

Ecuador

Vazquez-Rodrıguez P.




Circuito Exterior,


04510 Mexico, D.F.,

Mexico

Villalba R.

Departamento de Dendrocronologıa e Historia Ambiental,

Instituto Argentino de Nivologıa,

Glaciologıa y Ciencias Ambientales,

Mendoza,

Argentina

Vitousek P.

Biogeochemistry Laboratory, Stanford University,

Stanford, CA 94305,

USA

Vugts H. F.

Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences,

VU University Amsterdam,

De Boelelaan 1085,

1081 HV Amsterdam,

the Netherlands

Wallace J. S.

CSIRO Land and Water,

Davies Laboratory,

Townsville, QLD 4811,

Australia

Wang C. M.

Southwest Forestry College,

Kunming 650224,

P.R. China

Wang C. P.

Taiwan Forestry Research Institute,

100 Taipei,

Taiwan

Wangda P.

Formerly with The University of Tokyo, Chiba,

Japan; presently at the Renewable Natural Resources Research

Centre – Yusipang, Council for RNR Research of Bhutan,

Ministry of Agriculture,

P.O. Box 212,

Thimpu,

Bhutan

Ward Y.

Formerly with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,

Umea, Sweden; presently at Boliden Mineral AB,

Boliden Omradet, Kontorsvagen 1,

SE 993681 Boliden,

Sweden

Welch R. M.

Department of Atmospheric Science,


University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville,

AL 35806,

USA

Wilcke W.

Formerly at University of Mainz,

Germany; presently at Institute of Geography,

University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12,

CH-3012 Bern,

Switzerland

Wildpret W.


La Laguna, Tenerife,

Canary Islands,

Spain

xx LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS






Williams-Linera G.

Instituto de Ecologıa, A.C.,

Apartado Postal 63, Xalapa,

Veracruz 91000,

Mexico

Wolf J. H. D.

Faculty of Science,

Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED),

Universiteit of Amsterdam, Kruislaan 318,

1098 SM Amsterdam,

the Netherlands

Wu J. T.

Research Center for Biodiversity,

Academia Sinica,

115 Taipei,

Taiwan

Wu M. J.



974 Hualien,

Taiwan

Yeh C. F.



974 Hualien,

Taiwan

Yerena E.

Departamento de Estudios Ambientales,

Universidad Simon Bolıvar,

Caracas,

Venezuela

Zech W.

Institute of Soil Science and Soil Geography,


95440 Bayreuth,

Germany

Zhang Y. P.


Chinese Academy of Sciences,

Mengla,

Yunnan Province 666303,

P. R. China

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxi






Foreword

While studying tropical ecology in the early 1980s I became

fascinated by the intriguing lectures Tom van der Hammen and

Antoine Cleef gave on the exuberance of cloud forests in the

Tropics – it all sounded so magical, mythical, Shakespearean

even; it seemed like one was part of the story of Macbeth,

observing the three witches disappearing in the mist! I felt priv-

ileged when my teachers in Amsterdam subsequently sent me out

to Colombia and Costa Rica to study the structure and compos-

ition of a special kind of tropical montane forests, the highland

oak forests of the American Tropics.

I felt even more fortunate when colleagues at Costa Rica’s

Universidad Nacional took me out to get to know the cloud forest

paradise of Monteverde. Just like Nalini Nadkarni and Nathaniel

Wheelwright, who, back in the year 2000, edited their amazing

book on the ecology and conservation of this lush cloud forest

preserve, I was amazed by the extraordinary richness and com-

plexity of the gnarled elfin woodlands at Monteverde. Only then

did I begin to grasp the tremendous diversity of the different

kinds of tropical mountain forests; whilst the Monteverde cloud

forest has a relatively low stature, the Talamancan oak forests

harbor trees reaching over 50 m tall. This sense of diversity and

complexity became even stronger after visiting montane cloud

forests in Puerto Rico, southern Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua,

Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, northern Argentina, and

Cuba – all these places belonging to only one continent. Now, try

to imagine the added diversity and differences found among the

cloud forests of Africa, South East Asia and Oceania! During my

visit to Cuba it was a great honor for me to accompany the late

Alwyn Gentry, one of the world’s most knowledgeable botanists

of tropical floras of all times. Alwyn died tragically in 1993

during an airplane crash, ironically when flying over montane

cloud forest in Ecuador doing an assessment for conservation

purposes.

In May of that same year, 1993, dozens of scientists from

around the globe gathered in Puerto Rico to participate in the

first-ever worldwide symposium on tropical montane cloud

forests. Experts shared their research experiences and results

which were published in 1995 as a 400þ page volume edited

by Larry Hamilton, Jim Juvik, and Fred Scatena – two of whom

are co-editors of the present volume as well. Just a few weeks

later, in June 1993, over 50 scientists met at the New York

Botanical Garden to attend the first Neotropical Montane Forest

Biodiversity and Conservation Symposium. The proceedings of

this meeting were also published in 1995 as a 700þ page book

edited by Steve Churchill, Henrik Balslev, Enrique Forero, and

Jim Luteyn and include much material on cloud forests. Only six

years later I was happy to publish a 700-page volume in Spanish

together with Alejandro Brown as part of the global International

Mountain Year (2001), bringing together chapters on tropical

cloud forests from all Spanish-speaking Latin American coun-

tries and the Caribbean.

In the new millennium, the time had come to present an

updated state-of-knowledge review of tropical mountain cloud

forests worldwide, meant to inform future research, biodiversity

conservation, and sustainable development for nature’s and

humans’ well-being. To make that happen, Jim Juvik, Sampurno

Bruijnzeel, Fred Scatena, Larry Hamilton, and Philip Bubb teamed

up to organize the Second International Symposium on Tropical

Montane Cloud Forests, building on the 1993 Puerto Rico experi-

ence and taking into account the many subsequent scientific publi-

cations, regional meetings, and global policy efforts. This second

worldwide symposium took place in Waimea, Hawai’i, July 27 –

August 1 2004, and was attended by some hundred participants

from 25 countries around the globe. The symposium’s title was

Mountains in the Mist: Science for Conserving and Managing

Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. The present book is the prime

concrete product stemming from this important gathering. It brings

together a total of 72 chapters authored by over 170 scientists and

reviewed by some 60 colleagues. The book includes chapters on

such diverse topics as floristic and animal diversity, altitudinal

zonation, hydrometeorology, nutrient cycling, ecophysiology and

photosynthesis, climate change – exemplified by changes in cloud

cover – conservation of endemic and threatened species, and

restoration and management of cloud forest fragments.

As a scientist and conservationist, I am particularly happy to

see that this new book not only summarizes current knowledge

but also combines science and conservation practice in a single

volume. The editors have done a wonderful job in providing

xxii






a comprehensive and up-to-date look at tropical cloud forests by

integrating purely biological/ecological case studies with

research on the role of humans in these fragile ecosystems. Too

often, scientific and conservation issues are published in separate

volumes, illustrating the divergence between those who study

cloud forest evolution and ecology, and those who try to con-

serve them. Clearly, however, we can only succeed in conserving

these diverse and fragile ecosystems if we understand the under-

lying patterns and processes governing their structure and func-

tioning, as well as cloud forest response to such global threats

like forest conversion, climate change, fire, and invasive species.

Now, thanks to the conviction and commitment of the editors,

with the current volume in hand we can start to make a difference

and develop science-based conservation strategies that take into

account the ecological specifics of different kinds of cloud

forests. The creation and consolidation of protected areas, the

controlled development of ecotourism, as well as arrangements

to ensure payment for environmental services from tropical

montane cloud forests are just three promising strategies that

should be implemented to help conserve cloud forests in the long

run. These three conservation strategies, and several others, are

discussed in this volume and should help set the stage for a

global movement to protect, use, and even restore the world’s

remaining cloud forests. This will benefit both nature and

humankind as people depend more and more on biodiversity

and water resources for their continued survival.

I am convinced that the holistic approach of this book will

stimulate greater worldwide awareness of all aspects of tropical

cloud forests. For that reason, I would like to invite researchers,

teachers, managers, practitioners, and students across the

globe to carefully read this book and the messages it contains,

and learn about the beauty, the complexity, the diversity, and

the uniqueness of these forests; and learn about the extent to

which we depend on tropical montane cloud forests for their

water, plants, and animals, and the various regulatory eco-

system services they provide, such as erosion control, flood

reduction, and pollination services. Hopefully, the book will be

translated into the languages of the countries where most of the

remaining tropical cloud forests are found: in Latin America,

the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, and Oceania, thereby enabling

wider access to this opus magnum for interested scientists,

educators, extension workers, NGO personnel as well as forest

and land managers.

Maarten Kappelle

(Lead Scientist for Latin America, The Nature Conservancy)

FOREWORD xxiii






Preface

Just below an area of cloud forest on the Island of Hawai’i, an

outstanding cadre of the principal cloud forest researchers and

managers from around the world gathered from July 27 to

August 1, 2004. Their purpose was to bring forward before peers

the latest information on the occurrence, site conditions, eco-

logical functioning (especially in terms of water, nutrient, and

carbon dynamics), as well as threats to and management of these

special ecosystems. As well as providing valuable interchange

among cloud forest colleagues, and providing new partnerships

in research, this event has subsequently resulted in this book.

It presents much of the current state-of-the-art knowledge about

cloud forests.

Only once previously had such an international convocation

been effected. This was organized by the East–West Center and

the International Institute of Tropical Forestry of the United

States Forest Service, with support from the UNESCO Inter-

national Hydrological Programme in 1993. It was held in

San Juan, Puerto Rico and brought together some 44 scientists

who were working in cloud forests on every continent, in

20 countries. The collected papers and a synthesis chapter were

published in Tropical Montane Cloud Forests in 1995 by

Springer-Verlag, edited by Lawrence Hamilton, James Juvik,

and Fred Scatena. This event and this book stimulated several

new university, governmental, and intergovernmental programs

of research and education.

Some ten years later, the three conveners and editors, aug-

mented by the energy of Sampurno Bruijnzeel, were moved into

action at the insistence of Jim Juvik, to attempt the convening of

another symposium, a “Puerto Rico Plus 10” event. Its purpose

would be to capture previously omitted research and manage-

ment, and to provide a vehicle for presentation of new work

since 1993. This would also serve as a checkpoint to assess the

progress that was called for in the 1995 IUCN publication,

A Campaign for Cloud Forests: Unique and Valuable Ecosys-

tems at Risk. This campaign called for the following actions:

(i) worldwide inventory and mapping; (ii) raising awareness as to

values, based on science; (iii) increased monitoring and bench-

mark establishment, especially in the face of global climate

change; (iv) integrated and long-term research on ecosystem

processes and elements; (v) applied research to answer manage-

ment needs, plus management plans and sustainable land use

practices; and (vi) more protection through their designation as

formal Protected Areas. A significant milestone along the way to

the Hawai’i Symposium was the publication for international

awareness-raising of Decision Time for Cloud Forests in the

IHP Humid Tropics Programme Series (no. 13). Moreover, the

World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) in Cambridge,

UK began the compilation of a directory of major cloud

forest sites.

The four Symposium planners, augmented by Philip Bubb

from WCMC, met in Vermont in October 2002 to lay the foun-

dation for this event. They were not able to implement a summit

gathering of cloud forests aficionados in 2003, but the following

year the Second International Symposium became a reality on

the island of Hawai’i, at the base of cloud forests. It bore the title:

Mountains in the Mist: Science for Conserving and Managing

Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. While three of the Symposium

planners concentrated on program contents and participants, to

Jim Juvik of the University of Hawai’i at Hilo must go the kudos

for a superb job of all aspects of local organization, from field

trips to Hawaiian luaus. One hundred and two participants bene-

fited from the organizational skills of Jim and his support team as

we met at an excellent venue, the Hawaiian Preparatory Acad-

emy at Waimea. It was a superb site for the exchange of infor-

mation and ideas. The (mostly invited) participants came from

25 countries, but reported on work in many more. As well as four

full days of formal papers being presented, two effective poster

sessions brought in additional project participation. These con-

tributions, supplemented by a few solicited additional chapters

and minus ten chapters that did not pass muster upon peer

review, made this book a reality. Acknowledgment of the fine

work of the more than 60 peer reviewers – some of whom

assessed and commented upon as many as five manuscripts – is

given at the end of this Preface. The editors wish to thank

Maarten Kappelle in particular for his substantial input to the

Synthesis chapter in the arena of cloud forest management and

conservation, and Mark Mulligan for adding his modeling skills

to the chapter.

xxv






During the meeting two individuals were recognized for lead-

ership by being presented with Distinguished Scientist Awards

by the University of Hawai’i, Hilo: Robert Schemenauer and

Lawrence Hamilton. Furthermore, a new DVD documentary

calledMountains in the Mist: Discovering Cloud Forest, directed

by Sampurno Bruijnzeel and produced by Halsundbeinbruch

Film from Switzerland, and featuring cloud forest research at

Monteverde, Costa Rica, was screened for the first time. Since

then it has been viewed by around one million people all over

the world while part of the proceeds go to the upkeep of the

Monteverde Preserve. An all-day field excursion around the

island of Hawai’i (led by Jim Juvik with the help of Tom

Giambelluca), and early morning or late afternoon trips to a

nearby cloud forest research site under the enthusiastic guidance

of John DeLay kept participants linked to the ground.

The Symposium was sponsored by the UNESCO International

Hydrology Programme, by IUCN’s World Commission on

Protected Areas (Mountain Biome) and by the Gordon and Betty

Moore Foundation. Additional support enabling people from

various parts of the world to participate in the Symposium was

provided by the Department for International Development of the

United Kingdom. (Forest Research Project R 7991), the United

States National Science Foundation (project EAR-0309731), the

Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (project FOR 402), and the

International Institute of Tropical Forestry of the United States

Forest Service. Funding from the Gordon and Betty Moore

Foundation and VU University Amsterdam has made financially

possible the publication of the results of the Symposium by

Cambridge University Press. To all of these, the editors express

their deep gratitude. The junior editors also thank on behalf of

all the authors, the massive effort of Sampurno Bruijnzeel, who,

as lead editor, deserves the lion’s share of the credit.

It is clearly displayed in the various chapters and syntheses in

this book, that a great deal has been accomplished over the past

decade, in implementing the six actions called for in the 1995

Campaign for Cloud Forests. The quality of the research and

number of projects has increased greatly, and this volume repre-

sents an attempt to capture most of the relevant new material. It is

pertinent to state that, prior to submission of the final book manu-

script to the publishers, Sampurno has (single-handedly) updated

all of the chapters to Spring 2010 with new relevant published

research. Thus, although the meeting was held more than five

years ago, this volume is truly up to date. More, however, remains

to be done. It is hoped that this bookwill stimulate greater attention

to, and more action for the amazing cloud forests of the world.

Lawrence S. Hamilton

Charlotte, Vermont, USA

xxvi PREFACE






Acknowledgements

List of chapter reviewers

S. Aiba M.K. van der Molena

T.M. Aidea T. Motzer

R. Bain D. Mueller-Dombois

J. Bendixa M. Mulliganb

H. J. Boehmer N.M. Nadkarnia

J. Boy U. S. Naira

G. Brehm M. Oesker

P. Bubb B. Ostertag

J. C. Calvo-Alvarado I. Porras

A. Cleefa R. Rollenbeck

J. K. DeLay N. Rueger

C. Downer L. Santiagoa

W. Eugstera F. Sarmientoa

P. Fabian J. Schellekens

J. Fallas R. S. Schemenauerb

K. Fleischbein M.A. Scholl

G. Garcıa-Santos W. L. Silvera

J. H. C. Gash C. J. Still

T.W. Giambellucaa A. Taber

A. Hemp E.V. J. Tanner

D. Hertela C. Tobona

P. Hietza S. Tognetti

D. Hoelschera P.M. Vitousek

R. Hofstede M. J. A. Werger

F. Holwerdaa B. Wickel

J. O. Juvik W. Wilckea

R.O. Lawtona J. H.D. Wolfb

Ch. Leuschner K. Zaal

M. Lubczynski G. Zotz

M. Kappelle

a Two or more reviews.b Five or more reviews.

xxvii






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