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BIOMINERALIZATION OF GIANT CLAM SHELLS
(TRIDACNA GIGAS): IMPLICATIONS FOR
PALEOCLIMATE APPLICATIONS
by
MICHELLE ELIZABETH GANNON
ALBERTO PÉREZ-HUERTA, COMMITTEE CO-CHAIR
PAUL AHARON, COMMITTEE CO-CHAIR
C. FRED ANDRUS
NATASHA T. DIMOVA
JULIE OLSON
A THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Science
in the Department of Geological Sciences
in the Graduate School of
The University of Alabama
TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA
2016
Copyright Michelle Elizabeth Gannon 2016
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
ABSTRACT
The giant clam, Tridacna gigas, is an important faunal component of Indo-Pacific reef
ecosystems, for which its shell is often used as an environmental archive for modern and past
climates. This thesis is a study of the shell microstructure of modern specimens from Palm
Island, Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia and Huon Peninsula, Papua-New Guinea (PNG),
using a combination of petrography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter
diffraction (EBSD) and Raman spectroscopy, as well as a microstructural comparison of fossil T.
gigas through 200 ka from PNG.
Daily growth increments are recognizable in all specimens through ontogeny within the
internal layer. For modern T. gigas from PNG, increments are composed of pairs of organized
aragonitic needles and compact, oblong crystals, whereas modern specimens from GBR are
composed of shield-like crystals. The combination of nutrient availability and rainfall are likely
the most significant factors controlling shell growth and it may explain the observed differences
in microstructure. The external layers are composed of a dendritic microfabric, significantly
enriched in 13
C compared to the internal layer, suggesting a different metabolic control on layer
secretion. The internal and external layers are likely mineralized independent from each other,
associated with the activity of a specific mantle organ.
Furthermore, needles similar to those of modern T. gigas from PNG, are observed and the
widths are measured in the set of fossil T. gigas. An exception includes two mid-Holocene-aged
individuals, composed of elongated crystals, oblique to the outside of the shell. The results show
that widths follows a cyclic pattern, similar to those of solar radiation variability, suggesting
iii
there is a relationship between solar activity and the width of aragonitic needles. Differences
between modern and mid-Holocene T. gigas, are likely associated with fundamental
environmental differences.
The results of this study, pointing to locality and environmental dependence, layer
specific mantle biomineralization, and co-variation between needle width and solar modulation,
advance the potential of giant clam shells to assist in the reconstruction of many climate
parameters that were previously limited to chemical analyses. Microstructural results are
additionally applicable in engineering and medical research fields.
iv
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to everyone who has supported me through the process of
pursuing the work required to complete my master’s research, especially my family and friends.
This could not have been done without the help of my understanding parents, Roses and Jerry.
v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ANW Aragonitic Needle Width
ASIL Alabama Stable Isotope Laboratory
Ba Barium
10
Be Beryllium-10
C Celsius
13
C Carbon-13
Ca Calcium
CAF Central Analytical Facility
cm Centimeter
cm-1
Per Centimeter
D/L D-alloisoleucine/L-isoleucine
E East
EBSD Electron Backscatter Diffraction
e.g. Example
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation
FE-SEM Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope
Fig. Figure
GBR Great Barrier Reef
gcm-1
Grams per Centimeter
HCl Hydrochloric Acid
vi
IRMS Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer
K Kanzarua
ka Thousands of Years
km Kilometer
kV Kilovolts
m Meter
Mg Magnesium
µm Micrometer
µM Micromole
mm Millimeter
n Population size
nA NanoAmpere
NBS-19 National Bureau of Standards-19
nm Nanometer
18
O Oxygen-18
231
Pa Protactiunium-231
PT Palm Tridacna
PNG Papua-New Guinea
S South
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
se Standard Error
Sr Strontium
SST Sea Surface Temperature
vii
230Th Thorium-230
T. gigas Tridacna gigas
238
U Uranium-238
235
U Uranium-235
U Uranium
UV Ultraviolet
V-PBD Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite
° Degree
δ Delta
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
% Percent
‰ Permil
± Plus or Minus
σ Standard Deviation
viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The graduate study of the senior author was supported by a W. Gary Hooks Endowed Geology
Fund and a University of Alabama Research Graduate Council (RGC) Award. Thanks are
extended to Johnny Goodwin and the Central Analytical Facility (CAF) for assistance and
training on the SEM, Dr. Joe Lambert and the Alabama Stable Isotope Laboratory (ASIL) for
facilitating isotope analyses, and Patrick Sipe and Gregory Dye for assistance in obtaining
Raman spectra. Finally, thanks to Sara Kozmor for collaborative ideas.
ix
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ............................................................................v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ xi
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xii
1.INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................1
2. A BIOMINERALIZATION STUDY OF GIANT CLAM (TRIDACNA GIGAS) SHELLS ......3
3. MICROSTRUCTURE VARIABILITY IN FOSSIL GIANT CLAMS TRIDACNA GIGAS)
FROM THE HUON PENINSULA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA: AN ARCHIVE OF SOLAR
MODULATION? .......................................................................................................................32
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................53
APPENDIX I: BIOLOGY ............................................................................................................61
APPENDIX II: SEASONAL GROWTH.......................................................................................64
APPENDIX III: NEEDLE MEASUREMENTS ...........................................................................67
APPENDIX IV: DAILY GROWTH .............................................................................................77
APPENDIX V: DAYTIME AND NIGHTTIME GROWTH ........................................................78
APPENDIX VI: DAILY HIGH TIDES .........................................................................................79
APPENDIX VII: SOLAR IRRADIANCE CALCULATIONS .....................................................86
APPENDIX VIII: PRECIPITATION AND GROWTH ................................................................90
x
APPENDIX VII: RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY .............................................................................93
APPENDIX VIII: STABLE ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS ................................................................119
APPENDIX IX: TERRACE CORRELATIONS .........................................................................123
APPENDIX X: TERRACE AGES ..............................................................................................125
xi
LIST OF TABLES
1.1. Solar irradiance calculations ..................................................................................................26
2.1. Geologic ages of coral reef terraces .......................................................................................37
2.2. Fossil specimens ....................................................................................................................38
2.3. Microstructure of fossil specimens ........................................................................................47
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1. Schematic representation of a shell section ..............................................................................5
1.2. Shell sections of T. gigas specimens and collection sites .........................................................7
1.3. Shell sections at the umbo region .............................................................................................8
1.4. Petrographic and SEM observations of daily growth lines .....................................................13
1.5. Microstructure of the internal layer of Palm Island ................................................................14
1.6. Schematic representation of microstructure measurements (modern) ....................................15
1.7 Microstructure of the internal layer of Huon Peninsula ...........................................................16
1.8. Raman spectroscopy ...............................................................................................................19
1.9. Seasonal shell growth ............................................................................................................21
1.10. Shell growth and tidal influences ..........................................................................................22
1.11. Shell growth, precipitation and insolation ............................................................................24
1.12. External microstructure and stable carbon isotopes .............................................................28
1.13. Schematic representation of internal organs ........................................................................29
1.14. Schematic representation of mantles and shell layers ..........................................................30
2.1. Fossil sample collection locations (Huon Peninsula ) ............................................................36
2.2. Shell sections of fossil specimens ...........................................................................................40
2.3. Schematic representation of microstructure measurements (fossil) .......................................41
2.4. Shell section, petrographic and SEM representation of modern T. gigas ...............................42
2.5. Petrographic images of fossil specimens ................................................................................43
2.6. High resolution SEM images of fossil specimens .................................................................44
xiii
2.7. T. gigas microstructure types ..................................................................................................45
2.8. EBSD comparison of Holocene and modern T. gigas ...........................................................46
2.9. Aragonitic needle measurements and correlations .................................................................49
A.1. Seasonal growth increments: modern GBR ..........................................................................65
A.2 Seasonal growth increments: modern PNG ............................................................................66
A.3 Stable isotope sampling ........................................................................................................119
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Giant clam (Tridacna gigas) shells are considered excellent bioarchives of their
surrounding environment and have been used in paleoclimate studies (Aharon, 1983; Aharon and
Chappell, 1986; Watanabe et al., 2004; Yan et al., 2014; Ayling et al., 2015; Warter and Müller,
2016). Their restricted range in Indo-Pacific coral reefs allows for their shell chemistry and
morphology to represent the environments that drive many global climate factors such as El
Niño-Southern Oscillation, monsoons, and oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(Chiang, 2009), making them ideal specimens. However, studies of these shells often contain
many common assumptions: i.) presence of regular growth increments at daily, monthly and
seasonal scales using imaging techniques with varying resolutions; ii.) shells grow continuously;
and iii.) diagenetic alteration is present in fossil specimens. The objectives of this master’s thesis
research are to characterize the microstructure of T. gigas through time, ontogeny and locality,
simultaneously addressing the common assumptions. In order to thoroughly explore each
objective, several methodologies were employed: petrographic analysis, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), stable isotope mass spectrometry
and Raman spectroscopy.
This thesis is composed of two manuscripts. The first, “A Biomineralization Study of the
Giant Clam (Tridacna gigas) Shells,” addresses modern T. gigas from Palm Island, Great Barrier
Reef, Australia and Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. This manuscript describes the shells’
2
microstructural differences between these localities and discusses several environmental
parameters that might affect shell growth. Additionally suggested is a mechanism through which
the internal and external layers of T. gigas might be secreted, with respect to the lateral and
siphonal mantles, likely responsible for their complexities.
The second paper entitled: “Microstructure Variability in Fossil Giant Clams (Tridacna
gigas) from the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea: An archive of solar modulation?” addresses
T. gigas microstructure through time (~134.1 ka), utilizing specimens from the raised coral reef
terraces of the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. Presented is a co-variance between the
oscillation of the widths of aragonitic needles, the major component of T. gigas microstructure,
and solar modulation.
Finally, several appendices are included that provide additional insights that have not
been incorporated into the manuscript chapters for publication. These include data tables as well
as a description of seasonal growth increments, noted in modern specimens.
3
2. A BIOMINERALIZATION STUDY OF THE GIANT CLAM (TRIDACNA GIGAS) SHELLS
Gannon, M. E.1, A. Pérez-Huerta
1, P. Aharon
1, and S. C. Street
2
1Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
2Department of Chemistry, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
4
Abstract
The giant clam, Tridacna gigas, is an important faunal component of reef ecosystems within the
Indo-Pacific region. In addition to its ecological role, shells of this bivalve species are useful
bioarchives for past climate and environmental reconstructions. However, the biomineralization
processes involved in the shell aragonite deposition are insufficiently understood in order to
confidently make chemical and other analytical measurements. Here, we present a study of the
shell microstructure of modern specimens from Palm Island, Great Barrier Reef (GBR) of
Australia and Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea (PNG), using a combination of petrography,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and Raman
spectroscopy. Daily growth increments are recognizable in all specimens through ontogeny, and
counting these growth lines provides a robust specimen age estimate. For the internal layers,
paired increments of organized aragonitic needles and compact, oblong crystals are recognized
for a specimen from PNG, whereas specimens from GBR are composed of shield-like crystals.
The combination of nutrient availability, rainfall and solar irradiance are likely to be the most
significant factors controlling shell growth and it may explain the observed differences in
microstructure. The external layer, identical in all specimens, is composed of a dendritic
microfabric and it is significantly enriched in 13
C compared to the internal layer suggesting a
different metabolic control on layer secretion. This study proposes that the mineralization of the
internal and external layers is independent from each other and associated with the activity of a
specific mantle. Future studies using T. gigas shells as bioarchives need to consider the
microstructure as it reflects the environment in which the individual lived as well as the
differences in mineralization pathways of internal and external layers.
5
Figure 1.1, Schematic representation of a shell
section, from the umbo to the posterior region,
indicating the location of the external and
internal layers, and the separation of the first
(FG) and last (LG) growth stages through
ontogeny as recorded within the internal layer.
Introduction
The giant clam, Tridacna gigas, is the largest known bivalve and one of the largest members of
the Phylum Mollusca (Rosewater, 1965). T. gigas is a characteristic invertebrate in coral reef
environments throughout the Indo-Pacific ocean region, mainly between 100° to 180° of
longitude in the Southern Hemisphere (Rosewater, 1965), with a limited distribution due to
complicated reproduction (Braley, 1984). This species is found in shallow waters of fringing,
barrier, and lagoonal reefs typically no deeper than 10 m (Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Besides
its ecological importance in coral reefs, shells of T. gigas have been used to extract paleoclimate
information (e.g., Aharon et al., 1980; Aharon, 1983; Aharon, 1985; Aharon and Chappell, 1986;
Watanabe et al., 2004; Elliot et al., 2009; Welsh et al., 2011; Batenburg et al., 2011; Sano et al.,
2012; Yan et al., 2013), especially for the low latitude tropics in which well documented records
are rare (Sano et al., 2012). These clams are considered valuable bioarchives because their shells
are very dense with a high growth rate,
resistant to extreme diagenesis in fossil
specimens relative to coral skeletons (Veeh
and Chappell, 1970), and may have long life
spans (Watanabe et al., 2004). Internal and
external shell morphologies have previously
been analyzed to distinguish Tridacna
species (Rosewater, 1965) and provide a
temporal context for geochemical analyses
(Fig. 1.1). However, shell biomineralization
and growth of these clams are insufficiently
6
understood in order to constructively plan chemical analyses, besides some basic descriptions of
shell microstructures (e.g., Taylor, 1973; Watanabe et al., 2004) and histology of mantle tissues
(Norton and Jones, 1992).
The aim of this study is to provide a detailed description of the shell microstructure and
growth features, focusing primarily on the internal layers, of T. gigas shells collected from two
different geographical regions and reef settings. An additional objective is to evaluate common
assumptions about shell biomineralization involving continuous deposition of aragonite
throughout the ontogeny (Watanabe et al., 2004) and the interpretation of daily growth
increments in reference to shell microstructures (Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Watanabe et al.,
2004; Sano et al., 2012). Finally, a model of shell biomineralization, based on the activity of
siphonal and lateral mantles, is proposed.
Materials and Methods
Samples
Two live specimens (PT-1 and PT-3) were collected from Palm Island, the Great Barrier Reef
(GBR) of Australia, on May 27, 1980 (Fig. 1.2). From the umbo to the posterior region, PT-1
and PT-3 are 31 cm long and 6.5 cm thick and 55 cm long and 16 cm thick at the umbo,
respectively. At this site, coral reefs reside in the GBR lagoon where sea surface temperatures
(SST) vary between 23°C and 28°C, with a mean seasonal temperature amplitude of about 3°C
(Aharon, 1991). These reefs receive a daily influx of fresh water from river channel inputs
(Crossland and Barnes, 1983) and therefore, the nutrient supply to the lagoonal reef is mostly
terrestrial based, composed of phosphate, ammonium and nitrate (Furnas and Mitchell, 1983).
7
Rainfall also controls the large inputs of freshwater as storm events causing flash floods in this
region are common during the Austral summer (King et al., 2001).
For an inter-specimen comparison, an additional T. gigas sample (K-133) was added to
the study. It was collected alive on September 15, 1977 from an active fringing reef on the Huon
Peninsula, Papua New Guinea (PNG; Fig. 1.2). From the umbo to posterior region, K-133 is 28.6
cm tall and 7.3 cm thick at the umbo. The average SST at this location is 27.9 ± 0.9°C with a
seasonal amplitude of about 2.5°C (Aharon and Chappell, 1986). This specimen is a modern
representative of T. gigas fossils from uplifted coral reef terraces at the same location that were
Figure 1.2, Shell sections of
T. gigas specimens and
collec-tion sites. Longitudinal
shell sections, from umbo to
post-erior regions, of the
specimens (K-133 (a) and PT-
1 (b)) collected in Papua-New
Guinea and Australia. (c-e),
Details of collection sites at
the Huon Peninsula, Papua-
New Guinea (c) and Palm
Island, Great Barrier Reef,
Australia (d), with white
circles showing the location
of specimen collection and
white triangles showing the
location of rainfall stations
whose data are used in this
study.
8
previously used in paleoclimate research (Aharon et al., 1980; Aharon, 1983; Aharon, 1985;
Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Elongated coral reefs of PNG occur along the steep Vitiaz Strait
shorelines, and form either narrow fringing reefs that follow the coastal contours or barrier reefs
enclosing shallow, narrow and elongated lagoons (Chappell, 1974b). Fringing, open ocean reefs
Figure 1.3, Shell sections of T. gigas at
the umbo region used for analyses
during the first and last seasons of
growth (a: K-133; b: PT-1; c: PT-3).
Boxes on each individual represent the
locations of cuts made to produce shell
block samples for SEM, EBSD and
Raman spectroscopy analyses, and
circles designate the first or last season
of growth. The pallial line on each
individual, separating external (EL) and
internal (IL) layers is represented by a
dashed line. First season of growth is
closest to the pallial line while the last
growth is farthest from the pallial line.
9
have water flowing through them constantly (Aharon and Chappell, 1986), bringing offshore
nutrients into the reef environment (Belda et al., 1993). The coral reef setting along the coast of
PNG differs from that of the GBR where water enters the system nearly exclusively through
surface water channel inputs. Thus, the flux of nutrient supply to the fringing reefs of PNG is
likely higher than that of the GBR lagoon reefs (Belda et al., 1993) and therefore PNG is less
dependent on local rainfall. La Niña events associated with El Niño-Southern Oscillation affect
PNG, bringing periods of increased rainfall to the region every 2.5 to 7 years (Tudhope et al.,
2001).
Specimens from GBR and PNG were selected for this study as they were generously
made available from Dr. Paul Aharon’s personal collection. Tridacna from these locations have
been used in several other studies including: Chappell and Polach, 1972; Aharon, 1980; Aharon
and Chappell, 1986; Aharon, 1991; Hearty and Aharon, 1993; Elliot et al., 2009; Welsh et al.,
2011; Ayling et al., 2015; among others. Due to the popularity of Tridacna studies from these
locations and the availability of these specimens, it seemed wise to incorporate all modern
specimens available for this work.
Methods
A comparison of the first season of growth, internal from the pallial line, and the last season of
growth before capture, was made among analyzed specimens using SEM and EBSD techniques
(Fig. 1.3). However, petrographic analyses were made on the entire inner layer of K-133 (PNG)
and PT-1 (GBR) to estimate the total growth per lunar month.
10
Petrography
Thin sections of the entire internal layers for K-133 and PT-1 were analyzed using a Nikon
stereoscopic microscope and SPOT Advanced imaging software at the Alabama Stable Isotope
Laboratory (ASIL) in the Department of Geological Sciences of The University of Alabama. Due
to the size of PT-3, a thin section representing the entire shell was not available.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Shell sections of T. gigas from the first and last stages of ontogenetic growth (Fig. 1.1) within the
internal layer were cut, first using a Hillquist Trim Saw and subsequently a Buehler Isomet 1000
for high precision, embedded in Buehler EpoxiCure 2 resin and hardener, and ground using sand
paper from coarse to fine grit size. Subsequently, each sample was polished using alumina oxide
of 1.0 µm and 0.3 µm and etched for 30 seconds using 2% HCl. Samples were coated with
approximately 20 nm of gold. SEM analyses were performed using a field emission scanning
electron microscope (FE-SEM) JEOL 7000 located in the Central Analytical Facility (CAF) of
The University of Alabama. Imaging was obtained at high vacuum, using a medium probe
current of 8 nA, and an accelerating voltage of 8 kV.
Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD)
Samples used for SEM were re-polished and coated with 2.5 nm of carbon for EBSD analysis
(Pérez-Huerta and Cusack, 2009). The EBSD study was carried out with an Oxford Nordlys
camera mounted on a field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) JEOL 7000
located in the CAF of The University of Alabama. EBSD data were collected with Oxford Aztec
2.0 software at high vacuum, 20 kV, a large probe current of 15 nA, working distance of 10 mm
11
and a resolution of 1.15 μm step size for crystallographic maps. Finally, data were analyzed
using OIM 5.3 from EDAX-TSL. In this study, EBSD data are represented by crystallographic
maps and pole figures in reference to the {001} plane of aragonite (see further details in Pérez-
Huerta et al., 2011).
Raman Spectroscopy
Ultrapolished samples were analyzed with a Jobin-Yvon HR800 UV Raman Spectrometer using
a wavelength of 100 nm and spot size of 5 µm in the Department of Chemistry at the University
of Alabama.
Carbon Stable Isotopes
Powder samples of T. gigas shells K-133 and PT-1 were acquired using a computer-assisted,
New Wave Research Leica GZ6 micromill and analyzed for δ13
C across the pallial line, sampling
both the external and internal layers of the shells, thought to be contemporaneous based on the
predicted direction of growth. The internal layer was sampled parallel to the pallial line at a high
resolution interval of 50 µm for approximately the first season of life [K-133 = 3 mm, and PT-1
= 1.6 mm]. In the external layer, parallel, non-continuous trenches were drilled every 120 µm at
approximately 45° from the pallial line. δ13
C is reported relative to the conventional Vienna Pee
Dee Belemnite standard (VPDB) calibrated against the NBS-19 standard. Analyses were
conducted in the ASIL using a ThermoFinnigan Delta Plus Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer
(IRMS) modified with a Gasbench for orthophosphoric acid digestion and online gas extraction.
The overall precision and reproducibility of the isotope measurements during the study was
0.06‰ on the basis of NBS-19 standard repeats (n = 27).
12
Results
Shell Growth Features
Giant clams from both GBR and PNG exhibit regular growth lines that have been previously
interpreted as daily growth increments (Fig. 1.4; see also Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Watanabe
et al., 2004). A comparison of petrographic and SEM observations was conducted for samples K-
133 and PT-1 (Fig. 1.4) in order to correlate the daily growth lines with the microstructure.
Under SEM, the presence of these growth lines is more marked in the specimen from PNG (Fig.
1.4c), having an average thickness of 32.7 ± 2.5 µm (1σ, n = 10) during the first stage of growth
(Fig. 1.3a). Throughout the individual’s ontogeny, these growth increments become thinner, with
an average thickness of 21.2 ±5.8 µm (1σ, n = 10) at the last stage of growth (Fig. 1.3a).
Microscopically visible growth increments of specimens from the first stage of growth for the
GBR specimen (PT-1; Fig. 1.3b) have an average thickness of 26.1 ± 3.3 µm (1σ, n = 10) (Fig.
1.4d). At the last stage of growth (Fig. 1.3b), SEM reveals smaller increment thickness with an
average of 20.6 ± 3.2 µm (1σ, n = 10). These observations show a trend in the vertical reduction
of the daily growth line thickness with increasing age between first and last growth (Fig. 1.3)
specimens from both localities. The reduction in vertical daily growth thickness is likely caused
by shell extension with age that could be governed by mass conservation.
Shell Microstructure and Microtexture
The microstructure of the internal layers of giant clams collected from Palm Island, GBR, is
consistent between specimens and composed of shield-like aragonite crystals that do not vary in
morphology along a growth line (Fig. 1.5). These crystals tend to widen through the ontogeny at
13
an independent rate for each one of the two specimens (Fig. 1.6 for measuring methodology).
The average crystal width in the first season for PT-3 is 2.7 ± 0.6 µm, (1σ, n = 20) (Figs. 1.3c
and 1.5a) and PT-1 is 0.9 ± 0.2 µm (1σ, n = 20) (Figs. 1.3b and 1.5b). The last season of growth
has average crystal thicknesses for PT-3 of 2.9 ± 1.2 µm (1σ, n = 20) (Figs. 1.3c and 1.5c) and
for PT-1 of 3.6 ± 1.5 µm (1σ, n = 20) (Figs. 1.3b and 1.5d). The microtextural characterization of
these aragonite crystals by EBSD was unsuccessful because diffraction was not recorded in
either specimen and no crystallographic information was obtained.
Unlike the GBR samples, the specimen from PNG exhibits couplets of two layers for
each daily growth increment (Fig.1.7): (i) a layer with a mean thickness of 33.5 ± 6.2 µm (1σ, n
= 12), consisting of well-organized, complex prismatic, orthogonal, aragonitic needles, and a
Figure 1.4, Petrographic and SEM observations of daily growth increments. Petrographic
analysis allows for the visual observation of wide-view daily growth increments: (a) K-133
and (b) PT-1; SEM images show distinct increments and suggest microstructural changes at a
low resolution: (c) K-133 and (d) PT-1.
14
thinner increment with a mean thickness of 9.7 ± 3.3 µm (1σ, n = 12) composed of small,
clinogonal, oblique crystals propagating at an angle from the needles. The occurrence of these
couplets can be traced throughout the ontogenetic growth recorded within the internal layers, but
the aragonitic needles within the thicker bands tend to widen through ontogeny (Figs. 1.3a and
1.7; Fig. 1.6 for needle measuring methodology). Needles present in the first season of growth
average 3.0 ± 0.7 µm in width (1σ, n = 20) (Fig. 1.7a) and retain their morphology during later
growth, averaging 4.6 ± 1.3 µm in width (1σ, n= 20) (Fig. 1.7b). Unlike the specimens from
Palm Island, EBSD for the first and last seasons of growth successfully diffracted, producing in
situ crystallographic data to understand the mineralization of these crystal structure (Fig. 1.7).
The crystallographic map and pole figure indicate that there is microtextural continuity between
Figure 1.5, Microstructure of the internal layer of T. gigas specimens from Palm Island
showing wide, shield-like aragonite crystals for the first stages of growth in PT-3 (a) and PT-
1 (b) and those regions of the shell deposited at the end of the individual’s life [PT-3 (c) and
PT-1 (d)]. Arrow denotes the direction of growth.
15
Figure 1.6, Width measurements were acquired during SEM imaging of the internal
layers (IL) overlaying the first season of growth (circle). Black box: section of shell
prepared for analysis; EL: External Layer. This example is K-133 (PNG), last
season of life.
the orthogonal needles and small, clinogonal, oblique crystals, representing single crystals with
the c-axis parallel to needle elongation and perpendicular to the visible growth lines.
EBSD of modern T. gigas allows for the in situ characterization of the microtexture of the
shell in original form. This will provide an understanding of the consistency regarding the
expected crystallographic context for future studies. T. gigas specimens of unknown age may
have been subjected to diagenetic processes which will likely show disorganization in which
case the shell might not be best fit for further analyses (Chappell and Polach, 1972).
Discussion
Shell Growth Features
Internal layers in hand-held, sectioned samples are characterized by macroscopically visible
alternation of light and darks bands, with each pair likely representing about one year of growth
(Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Counting these bands is the primary tool to obtain ages for modern
and fossil T. gigas shells (e.g., Aharon, 1991; Patzold et al., 1991; Watanabe et al., 2004; Elliot
et al., 2009; Welsh et al., 2011; Batenburg et al., 2011; Yan et al., 2013). Using this
methodology, for example, the age of the PT-3 specimen used in this study was estimated to be
16
16 years (Aharon, 1991). Another approach for specimen-age determination is to use the
thickness of each individual, which is estimated to be 2 cm per year (Aharon and Chappell,
1986). Watanabe et al. (2004) reported the finding of a 60 year old T. gigas specimen that is 36
cm thick at its maximum growth (umbo regions). The specimen PT-3 is 16 cm thick at the umbo,
but only 16 years old based on band counting creating a large discrepancy between utilizing the
thickness of the shell versus the counting of annual bands. Besides morphological features,
chemical information is also used to determine the age of an individual. Oxygen isotopes
oscillate seasonally (Aharon and Chappell, 1986), being more enriched in 18
O during Austral
Figure 1.7, Elongated aragonite needle and small crystal packages compose the
microstructure of K-133 from PNG likely representing day time (DT) and night time (NT)
growth. The microstructure is consistent through the first stage of growth (a) and the last
season of the individual’s life (b). EBSD maps show the microtexture of this individual in
relation to the microstructure; the crystallographic orientation map (c) and pole figure (d)
show that the c-axis of aragonite is parallel to the elongation of needles and small crystals and
perpendicular to the daily growth increments (dashed lines), further displayed by the pole
figure (d). Arrow denotes the direction of growth.
17
winter months and depleted in 18
O during the Austral summer months (Watanabe et al., 2004;
Elliot et al., 2009; Welsh et al., 2011; Batenburg et al., 2011; Yan et al., 2013). Utilizing δ18
O is
effective, although it requires accounting for vital effects and climate anomalies, which is hard to
do for fossil specimens.
An additional method of shell dating is proposed by counting the thinnest growth lines,
observed in all specimens under a petrographic microscope and SEM observations (Fig. 1.4).
These growth lines are accepted to be daily growth increments (Aharon and Chappell, 1986;
Sano et al., 2012) and can be counted in order to determine ontogenic age, which has also been
used in Tridacna maxima (Duprey et al., 2015). Using petrographic and SEM analysis, PT-1 age
before capture is approximately 46 months old and K-133 is approximately 44 months old at the
time of capture, and both have similar thicknesses of 6.5 cm and 7.3 cm, respectively. The large
age discrepancy between both GBR specimens (PT-3: 16 years and PT-1: 46 months) is likely
caused by the confusion of macroscopically visible light and dark banding, because there are
often subsets of smaller light and dark bands within the annual band that do not seem to correlate
to regular growth increments, allowing for erroneous age dating.
Daily band counting is thought to be the best possible method to estimate ontogenic ages
because there is less uncertainty, unless there is a significant break in growth (e.g., anomalous
seasonal growth interruption). However, the method is time-consuming and relies on good
sample preservation and thus, it could be a useful complement with annual band counting and
chemical data for fossils.
18
Differences in Shell Microstructure and Microtexture
Although all studied specimens are assigned to the species Tridacna gigas and have an identical
external morphology, there are substantial differences in the microstructure and microtexture of
their internal shell layers. Specimens from GBR have an identical microstructure, composed of
shield-like aragonite crystals, while the specimen from PNG is composed of paired growth
increments of wide bands of orthogonal needles and narrow bands of small, clinogonal, aragonite
crystals that propagate at an angle from the needles (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6). These paired increments
are likely to represent daytime and nighttime deposition as suggested by Sano et al. (2012) on the
basis of solar insolation and measured Sr/Ca variability through the daily cycle. The
microstructural changes documented here for the PNG specimen support the Sano et al., (2012)
contention and are likely driven by the dissimilar calcification rates controlled by the
photosynthetic activity of zooxanthellae that are active during daytime and shut-off at night.
Although daily growth lines are recognizable at low resolution in the two GBR specimens the
paired day/night increments are apparently absent. Also, the more irregular morphology of
aragonite crystals and less defined crystal boundaries may suggest faster secretion of
microstructural components.
Besides a dissimilar microstructure, microtextural differences are also present between
specimens from the two locations. EBSD analysis of the specimen K-133 (PNG) produced
consistent aragonite diffraction patterns, allowing the comparison of microstructure to preferred
crystallographic orientations (Fig. 1.6), but there was no diffraction for the specimens from GBR
(PT-1 and PT-3). The absence of EBSD diffraction in biominerals has been attributed to the (i)
the presence of amorphous mineral phases; (ii) organics (e.g., Dalbeck et al., 2006); (iii) size of
crystals (Humphreys, 2004); and (iv) weak crystallization (Carlson, 1980; Kats et al., 1993).
19
Figure 1.8, Raman spectra show the aragonite defining peaks at
wavelengths of 706 and 1085, and the absence of peaks associated with
organic components. Each spectrum is the average of four data points: (1)
PT-1 internal layer early ontogeny, (2) PT-1 internal layer late ontogeny,
(3) K-133 external, (4) PT-3 external, (5) K-133 internal layer late
ontogeny, (6) K-133 internal layer early ontogeny.
Raman spectroscopy was performed in order to resolve the absence of diffraction in specimens
from GBR and to determine any possible differences in the mineralization of internal and
external layers in the studied specimens. Data were collected for PT-1 and K-133 at four points
within the internal layer in both the first and last growth (Fig. 1.1). Results show the presence of
identical aragonite defining peaks at 706 and 1085 cm-1
(Fig. 1.7; Urmos et al., 1991) and the
absence of peaks attributed to organic components. These findings rule out the presence of
amorphous and organic phases in GBR specimens and favor the weak crystallization hypothesis
for the absence of EBSD diffraction at the activation volume (< 50 nm).
The discrepancies in microstructure and microtexture observed between specimens from
GBR and PNG could be attributed to either speciation or environmental factors. External
20
morphologies of different giant clam species have been well assessed (Rosewater, 1965) and the
individuals in this study were confidently assigned to the species T. gigas. Analysis of genetic
differentiation of T. gigas in the Great Barrier Reef spanning over 1000 km showed that there
was genetic variability, although no significant differences were reported (Benzie and Williams,
1992). Due to the combination of the lack of speciation in distal reefs, as well as panmictic
reproduction, any genetic disturbance could be devastating for the species because the genes
would spread through the population rapidly (Benzie and Williams, 1992). In the current study,
the distance between specimen collection locations is approximately 900 km, which is shorter
than the variation between the farthest sampling sites utilized by Benzie and Williams (1992),
reporting no significant genetic deviations. Thus, it is assumed that the GBR and PNG localities
are sufficiently proximal to be considered members of the same reproductive population,
containing similar genetic components. Therefore, environmental differences between locations
are the likely explanation for observed differences in the internal layers of studied T. gigas
shells.
Environmental Factors Influencing Shell Growth
Biomineralization of the T. gigas shell is tightly controlled biologically, but also highly
influenced by site-specific environmental parameters (Sano et al., 2012). The influence of
external factors on shell growth is dependent on the scale of observation, with the smallest being
diurnal, while other factors are recognizable at the seasonal level.
On the diurnal scale, a symbiotic relationship maintained with photosynthetic
zooxanthellae, which live within the tissues of the siphonal mantle (Norton and James, 1992),
cause T. gigas to display brilliant blue and green colors when their valves are opened
21
Figure 1.9, Growth tends to increase during the Austral summer and decrease in the Austral
winter for both PT-1 (GBR) and K-133 (PNG). A selection of seasonal data is shown.
22
(Rosewater, 1965). Zooxanthellae depend on sunlight for their production of glucose, which is
essential in giant clam nutrition (Rees et al., 1993). According to Sano et al. (2012), giant clams
are supplied with nutrients at a higher rate during the daytime and thus calcify a thicker daytime
growth increment during sunlight hours.
Careful petrographic daily band counting yields total growth per month based on sets of
29 days (typical lunar month is 29.53 days). Therefore, growth along the same transect within the
shell can be assumed to represent the overall activity of the individual. Growth seems to be
partially influenced by general seasonality (Fig. 1.9). The rainy season, Austral summer in the
GBR and PNG, tends to be positively correlated with growth, while the dry season, Austral
winter, tends to have a negative correlation with growth. This effectively means that as the
season progresses, the amount of growth per lunar month is increasing. The association is more
pronounced in PT-1, (GBR) and subtle in K-133, (PNG); this might be due to anomalous
weather patterns, such as El Niño Southern Oscillation or influenced by differing environmental
fluctuations seen between the two locations, discussed below.
Figure 1.10, The quantified growth of approximately 29 day intervals for (a) K-133 (PNG) and
(b) PT-1 (GBR) are plotted in a grey and white dashed line and the time of day of the highest
tide, every seven days for (a) Dreger Harbour, PNG and (b) Lucinda, Australia, is represented
by the black line. Every seventh day was plotted for a clearer visibility and is thought to be
representative of the days surrounding. There is no apparent correlation between total growth
and the time of day of the highest tide. Tidal data from http://tides.mobilegeographics.com.
23
At the seasonal level, there are several factors that may influence shell growth dynamics:
seawater temperature, tides, rainfall, solar irradiance and nutrient availability. Seawater
temperature variability is not considered to be important in the growth of these specimens
because seasonal differences in temperature are minimal at collection sites (Aharon, 1991). Tidal
cycles have been shown to correspond to growth at a 14-day periodicity, represented by the
ability to determine the breaks between or general width of daily growth increments (Pannella
and MacClintock, 1986). This noted periodicity is likely due to the prominence of either daytime
or nighttime increments, limited by the time of day of the highest tide. For instance, if the highest
tide occurs during the daytime, when zooxanthellae are active, it is thought that this would
disrupt maximum potential growth. If the highest tide is during the nighttime, the growth would
likely not be affected. To investigate this hypothesis, tidal records for Dreger Harbour, Papua
New Guinea (6.6500° S, 147.8667° E) and Lucinda, Australia (18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
obtained from http://tides.mobilegeographics.com) and times of highest tide and total growth
were plotted (Fig. 1.10). The times of highest tides tend to oscillate, although maintain a seasonal
high or low, and although the total growth is only measured in terms of lunar months, plotting
these on a time series should show a correlation, where present. The growth of both specimens,
K-133 (PNG) and PT-1 (GBR), show no correspondence with daily tidal cycles as are observed
in other bivalve species (e.g., Pannella and MacClintock, 1968; Tran et al., 2011; Schöne and
Surge, 2012).
On the other hand, seasonal rainfall variability is greatly enhanced during the monsoons
that move through the region during the Austral summer (November through April) and the
relative drought during the Austral winter (May through October; Williamson and Hancock,
2005). Growth is plotted against rainfall records in Figure 1.11 from nearby stations used as a
24
proxy for collection sites (Madang, Papua New Guinea, IAEA/WMO, 2014; Orpheus Island,
Great Barrier Reef, Australia, Bureau of Meteorology, Government of Australia, 2014). In
general, rainfall amount and total growth in both K-133 and PT-1 exhibit an inverse relationship
suggesting the existence of a linkage between the two parameters (Fig. 1.11), although the use of
data from proxy locations might introduce some error resulting less significant correspondence.
Solar irradiance has previously been correlated with enhanced daily shell growth, through
the analysis of Sr/Ca (Sano et al., 2012; Hori et al., 2015). This is thought to be due to the
influence from photosymbiosis. Therefore, in times that there are fewer cloudy days, there
should be more input from zooxanthellae, allowing the shell to have enhanced growth. Because
Figure 1.11, Growth lines of approximately 29 daily increments are marked on the whole
shell petrographic images with blue lines and shown plotted in red (K-133: a and c; PT-1 b
and d). Rainfall data, plotted in blue, is from Madang, Papua New Guinea (IAEA/WMO
(2014) and Orpheus Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Bureau of Meteorology,
Government of Australia (2014). Calculated solar irradiance is in yellow (Nix and Kalma,
1972; Aharon (unpublished dissertation); NASA Langley Research Center, Atmospheric
Science Data Center).
25
this data was not directly collected for regions of interest during the lifespan of the T. gigas, an
estimate of solar irradiance is required. An equation approximating the relationship of rainfall
and level of cloudiness was developed by Nix and Kalma (1972) specifically for the latitude of
6˚S, where the Huon Peninsula is located and further employed by Aharon (unpublished doctoral
dissertation):
Q = QA [(-0.5 • (p/Σp)) + (ΣQ/ΣQA) + 0.054]
Data for each variable from both locations were obtained from the NASA Langley Research
Center, Atmospheric Science Data Center for PNG (6˚S, 147.5˚E) and GBR (18.517˚S, 146.3˚E),
including insolation at the top of the atmosphere at the monthly (QA) and annual (ΣQA) scales
and annual effective solar radiation (ΣQ; Table 1.1). The independent variable influencing
changes in solar irradiance is monthly rainfall precipitation (p). Annual precipitation (Σp) is a
based on the sum of the average monthly precipitation (Table 1.1).
When plotted with growth, no direct relationship can be derived (Fig. 1.11). Rainfall data
for both sites during the lifespan of each T. gigas is a proxy because it was not collected prior to
the field work for initial studies (Madang, PNG and Orpheus Island, GBR, Australia) and
therefore is an approximation, likely adding error to the calculations for solar irradiance.
Additionally, because the equation was developed specifically for use in the Huon Peninsula, the
application to the GBR is an over-simplification of a more complicated system, which requires
further empirical testing to prove usefulness. With more representative rainfall and solar
irradiance data, a better correlation between these parameters and growth is predicted.
Nutrient availability in the environment in which T. gigas specimens live may impact
their ability to mineralize their shell. Major nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorus, tend to
differ depending on the coral reef type. Typically, coral reefs are nutrient depleted and thought to
26
be sinks of phosphorus and producers of carbon and nitrogen (Crossland and Barnes, 1983).
Open ocean environments, such as the fringing coral reef along the Huon Peninsula (PNG), have
between 0 and 4 µM of nitrogen and between 0 and 0.6 µM of phosphorous (Belda and
Yellowlees, 1993) and are relatively nutrient depleted. In contrast, the inshore reefs along the
GBR contain >1 µM of nitrogen and >2 µM of phosphorus derived through overland channel
inputs that introduce nitrogen and phosphorus to the system (Crossland and Barnes, 1983; Belda
and Yellowlees, 1993). A study from the Palm Passage, GBR, in 1983, only three years after the
collection of the GBR T. gigas, shows that nearby water quality samples contained between 0 –
0.045 µM nitrogen of predominately ammonium but also included nitrate and nitrite; ammonium
peaks between December and February while nitrate peaks between March and June.
Table 1.1, Values of data used in solar irradiance calculations for the purpose of estimating
monthly cloudiness. Data were obtained from the NASA Langley Research Center
Atmospheric Science Data Center.
Huon Peninsula Great Barrier Reef
(6˚S, 147.5˚E) (18.517˚S, 146.3˚E)
Month
1 912.0 989.5
2 920.7 946.5
3 903.4 869.0
4 851.0 757.2
5 783.8 651.3
6 746.8 597.1
7 761.5 620.4
8 816.5 708.1
9 869.0 819.1
10 903.4 912.0
11 903.4 972.3
12 903.4 998.1
Parameter Huon Peninsula Great Barrier Reef
Σp (mm) 2602.69 1147.5
ΣQ (cal/cm2/day) 173.2 ± 42.5 161.4 ± 85.8
ΣQA (cal/cm2/day) 312.7 ± 63.3 299.5 ± 149.2
Monthly Insolation (cal/cm2/day)
27
Phosphorous ranged between 0.004 – 0.009 µM (Phosphate; Furnas and Mitchell, 1983). If these
results are representative of the very proximal location where PT-1 lived, increased nitrogen
might be responsible for some of the growth seen during the dry seasons as the rainy season
likely incorporated ammonium and nitrate into the lagoon. Although zooxanthellae can uptake
ammonium (Fitt et al., 1993), over a brief period of time, the nitrogen was likely fixed to become
nitrate and consumed by phytoplankton, which subsequently were filtered by the clams. The
large difference in nutrient availability between collection sites could be an important factor to
explain differences in growth as well as microstructure in the studied T. gigas specimens.
The combined processes surrounding these environmental parameters lead to the
conclusion that higher concentrations of nutrients, influenced by rainfall, and phytoplankton,
combined with an increase in solar irradiance, as suggested by Sano et al., (2012) and calculated
utilizing rainfall, would favor a faster growth rate. Therefore, the assumed seasonal order of
events begins with a period of increased rainfall, during which T. gigas should have a slower
growth rate due to an inferred increase in cloudiness preventing optimal photosynthesis (Sano et
al., 2012), followed by a period of enhanced solar irradiance and likely a spike in nutrient
availability, yielding increased shell growth (Fig. 1.11).
Biomineralization Model
Any model attempting to explain the biomineralization of T. gigas shells has to account for the
secretion of both internal and external layers (Fig. 1.12). Although the geochemistry of the
external layer has been studied (Elliot et al., 2009), its microstructure has not been fully
described and it is assumed to be composed of crossed lamellar aragonite (Patzold et al., 1991;
Lin et al., 2006). However, the external layer of another giant clam species, Hippopus hippopus,
28
has been described to have a dendritic nature (Taylor, 1973), which is a precursor of the crossed
lamellar structure, although it does not have a first order lamellae (Kouchinsky, 2000). Dendritic
growth patterns are consistent with the current observations (Fig. 1.12). The microstructure of
the external layers is identical for all studied individuals, confirmed by Raman spectroscopy data
which show nearly identical intensities of Raman scattering (Fig. 1.8). This supports the idea that
external layers are secreted in the same manner, and possibly more highly controlled biologically
than the internal layers because the internal layers tend to differ while the external are identical.
Figure 1.12, The dendritic microstructure of the external layer of K-133 (PNG) compared
with the prismatic internal microstructure displays that the layers are thought to propagate
bi-directionally, as shown by arrows, the white box in (a) shows a representative area from
where (b) was imaged; the external layer is composed of two crystal orientations. Stable
carbon isotope profiles of the external and internal layers across the pallial line: (c) K-133,
from PNG and (d) PT-1, Palm Island, GBR.
29
To determine possible differences in the metabolic pathways of shell deposition for both
internal and external layers, δ13
C was measured in the external layer and in the first season of
growth in the internal layer of both PT-1 and K-133 (Fig. 1.12). In K-133 there is a large positive
δ13
C shift of between 0.29 and 0.67 (‰VPDB) across the pallial line that separates external and
internal layers within a 95% confidence interval. The external δ13
C in the GBR specimen PT-1 is
also substantially higher than that of the internal by between 1.40 and 1.77 (‰VPDB) in a 95%
confidence interval, consistent with previous observations by Elliot et al. (2009) who found a
difference of about 2 (‰VPDB). As δ13
C appears to be consistently higher within the external
layer than internal, it further suggests that there are likely two metabolic pathways responsible
for shell secretion.
T. gigas has two mantle organs, which is uncommon in mollusks, and it may cause the
observed discrepancies between the internal and external shell layers. The siphonal mantle is in
Figure 1.13, Schematic representation of the
mantles and water currents in Tridacna gigas
(modified after Norton and James, 1992):
Siphonal mantle (SM), ctenidia (CT), incurrent
water (IWC), excurrent water chamber (ECW),
digestive mass (DM), and lateral mantle (LM).
Zooxanthellae tubular system is denoted by the
red pathway. The mechanism by which water is
filtered is shown by the blue pathway: incurrent
water moves through ctenidia and food is
removed within the ctenidia gills, processed,
and ultimately ending up in the digestive mass.
The digestive mass shares a boundary with the
hinge gland, which is partially bounded by the
lateral mantle and extra pallial space. The
lateral mantle is a membranous lining of the
inside of the valves and is confined by the
excurrent water chamber, which can hold and
squirt water as a method of deterring predators
at rates dependent on the individuals size (Neo
and Todd, 2011).
30
Figure 1.14, Schematic representation of external (EL) and internal (IL) layers
of T. gigas shell in relation to the position of two mantles (blue: siphonal
mantle, green: lateral mantle; a). (b) Three folds of the siphonal mantle: outer
fold (OF), middle fold (MF), and inner fold (IF), responsible for the secretion of
the dendritic microstructure observed in the external layer of the shell (c). (d)
Cuboidal epithelial cells line of the lateral mantle, responsible for the secretion
of shield-like crystals in the internal layers of specimens from the Palm Island
(e) and the orthogonal needles and clinogonal crystals of internal layers in the
specimen from the PNG (f).
direct contact with the external layer while the lateral mantle lines the inside of the shell (Fig.
1.13). These results suggest that the siphonal mantle is responsible for the secretion of the
external shell layer. Histological studies show that there are three folds along the margin of this
mantle: inner fold, middle fold and, outer fold (Norton and James, 1992; Fig. 1.14). Each fold
displays tightly packed columnar epithelial cells on the outside, which are not exposed (Norton
and James, 1992; Fig. 1.14). The loosely folded inside of the inner fold is the colorful, visible
part of the mantle that holds the zooxanthellae (Norton and James, 1992). The size of the
dendritic structures produced is likely a direct representation of the space the epithelial cell had
to fill. Thus, it is proposed that tight folds are likely responsible for the third order lamellae while
31
loose folds are likely responsible for the second order lamellae, defining the dendritic
microstructure
The lateral mantle is connected to the siphonal mantle at the pallial line, below which the
internal layer of the shell is covered with a very thin layer of membranous material (Norton and
James, 1992; Fig. 1.13). Simple cuboidal epithelial cells cover the lateral mantle along the shell
and are likely responsible for secreting the aragonitic needles or shield-like crystals that compose
internal microstructures of both GBR and PNG specimens (Fig. 1.13). The cuboidal epithelia are
not folded which explains the simplicity of the aragonite microstructure they produce. It is
possible that the size of the epithelial cells depends on the environment in which the clam lives,
providing an explanation for different microstructures produced in each unique locality, besides
nutrient availability.
32
3. MICROSTRUCTURE VARIABILITY IN FOSSIL GIANT CLAMS (TRIDACNA GIGAS)
FROM THE HUON PENINSULA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA: AN ARCHIVE OF SOLAR
MODULATION?
M. E. Gannon1, P. Aharon1 and A. Pérez-Huerta1
1Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
33
Abstract
Massive, aragonitic shells of fossil giant clams, Tridacna gigas, are often well preserved and
provide robust bioarchives for paleoclimate studies because they are long-lived and exhibit fast
growth rates. Modern and fossil specimens from the uplifted coral reef terraces of the Huon
Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, display daily growth increments at the microscale that are
composed of pairs of complex prismatic aragonitic needles (daytime) and small crystals, oblique
to needles (nighttime). An exception includes two mid-Holocene-aged individuals, composed of
elongated, clinogonal aragonite crystals, oblique to the outside of the shell. Daily growth of
modern T. gigas has been documented to correlate with solar irradiance, and it is likely that fossil
T. gigas do also because similar growth increments are displayed. This study assesses fossil T.
gigas spanning the last 200 ka for microstructural differences as well as monitoring aragonitic
needle width (ANW) through time. The results show that ANW follows a cyclic pattern, similar
to those of solar radiation variability and δ18O, suggesting a relationship between solar irradiance
and the width of aragonitic needles over the past 200 ka. Due to microstructural and
microtextural differences between modern and mid-Holocene T. gigas, it is likely that there are
fundamental environmental differences between these times. The results of this study, suggesting
co-variation between ANW of fossil T. gigas and solar modulation, advance the potential of
giant clams to assist in the reconstruction of past solar modulation at a resolution higher than so
far achieved.
34
Introduction
The study of past seasonal climate variability is important in order to understand current and
future climate trends. Ice cores, sediments, and fossils serve as useful archives of paleoclimate
data based on the analysis of climate proxies. However, well documented records are rare for the
tropics (Sano et al., 2012; Duprey et al., 2015; NOAA Index of Public Paleoclimatology
Datasets) although low latitudes predominantly control global climate, including El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) as well as Asian and African monsoons (Chiang, 2009).
Reef building organisms (e.g., corals, bivalves, algae) are important high resolution
bioarchives of the ambient environment and are extremely sensitive to climate shifts that are
embedded in the chemistry of their carbonate exoskeletons (McCulloch et al., 1999; Watanabe et
al., 2004; McGregor and Gagan, 2004; Elliot et al., 2009; Batenburg et al., 2011; Welsh et al.,
2011; Shöne and Surge, 2012). Giant clams, Tridacna species, are particularly useful bioarchives
of paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental change because of the following reasons: (i) their
massive aragonitic shells are typically well preserved (Hearty and Aharon, 1988; Romanek and
Grossman, 1989; Welsh et al., 2011; Warter et al., 2015); (ii) high growth rates afford daily to
seasonal resolution (Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Watanabe et al., 2004; Elliot et al., 2009;
Batenburg et al., 2011; Welsh et al., 2011; Yan et al., 2013; Duprey et al., 2015; Warter et al.,
2015); (iii) massive aragonite is deposited in oxygen isotope equilibrium and carbon isotope
equivalency with the ambient seawater (Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Jones et al., 1986; Aharon,
1991; Watanabe et al., 2004; Ayling, 2006; Batenburg et al., 2011; Welsh et al., 2011) and (iv)
major and trace chemical elements, (e.g., Sr, Mg, Ba) normalized to Ca, are useful proxies of the
ambient seawater environment (Elliot et al., 2009; Sano et al., 2012; Yan et al., 2013; Warter et
al., 2015; Hori et al., 2015; Yan et al., 2015). Yet, in spite of the recent flurry of geochemical
35
proxy studies listed above, the variability of Tridacna shell microstructure in modern and fossil
specimens that may impact the records is rarely considered because it is thought that
macroscopic shell growth is relatively understood. For example, it has been documented that
bundles (botryoids) consisting of fibrous aragonitic needles in the internal layers of T. gigas tend
to widen in fossil samples while still preserving the original aragonite mineralogy (Chappell and
Polach, 1972; Aharon and Chappell, 1986). The question of whether the changing aragonite
needle width (ANW), previously observed in the fossil samples, shows an geologic age-
dependency or is variable and controlled by changes in ambient factors has not yet been
explored. The aim of this study is to quantitatively describe the microstructure of the internal
layers of fossil T. gigas shells of Late Pleistocene age in order to establish their variability and
explore whether ANW is governed by age or ambient changes.
Geological Context
The Huon Peninsula on the eastern borderland of Papua New Guinea (PNG) (6°S and 148°E)
(Fig. 2.1) is considered one of the best examples of raised coral reef terraces worldwide
(Pirazzoli et al., 1991). This region is subjected to an uplift rate of up to 2.5 m per 1000 years
due to massive compression of the Australian and Pacific Plates (Chappell, 1974a; Cutler et al.,
2003). The terraces have been the subject of extensive studies over several decades (Veeh and
Chappell, 1970; Chappell and Polach, 1972; Bloom et al., 1974; Aharon and Chappell, 1986;
Stein et al., 1993; Cutler et al., 2003; Ayling, 2006, among others) and yielded one of the most
detailed Late Pleistocene sea level change histories that confirmed the Milankovitch theory of ice
ages (Veeh and Chappell, 1970; Bloom et al., 1974; Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Chappell et al.,
1996; Lambeck and Chappell, 2001; Yokoyama et al., 2001; Cutler et al., 2003). Fringing,
36
Figure 2.1, Plan view map of uplifted coral reef terraces along the
Sialum section of the Huon Peninsula, Papua-New Guinea (From
Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Terrace numbers are marked on
appropriate terrace locations (Table 2.1). RMF: Ramu-Markham
Fault.
barrier and lagoonal reefs are distinguished in the field on the basis of their geomorphology
(Chappell, 1974b; Aharon, 1983; Aharon and Chappell, 1986). The terrace units contain a
variety of coral species of Indo-Pacific affinity (Veeh and Chappell, 1970; Bloom et al., 1974;
Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Stein et al., 1993; Yokoyama et al., 2001), bivalves, coralline algae
and fine to coarse-grained reef sediments that are lithified into hard limestone (Chappell, 1974b;
Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Tridacna clams are commonly well preserved and often found in
growth position on the raised coral reef terraces.
Terrace Ages
The age assignment of the terraces, important to our evaluation of ANW variability in time, is
based on precise 238U/230Th and 235U/231Pa dating of relatively [U]-rich aragonitic corals (Veeh
and Chappell, 1970; Bloom et al., 1974; Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Stein et al., 1993; Cutler et
37
al., 2003). Because of the rarity of diagenetically unaltered corals on the terraces on the one hand
and the impracticality of using well preserved but [U]-poor T. gigas on the other, the radiocarbon
method was used to date pristine T. gigas from terraces younger than 40 ka (1 ka = 1000 years)
(Veeh and Chappell, 1970; Bloom et al., 1974). Additionally, D-alloisoleucine/L-isoleucine
(D/L) ratios were measured in T. gigas whose ages were calibrated against radiometrically dated
coral reef terraces from Huon Peninsula. The relationship between the D/L ratios and the
radiometric ages offers an alternative method for estimating undated or insufficiently dated
terraces (Hearty and Aharon, 1988).
With an exception below, Table 2.1 offers a summary of the terrace ages I to VIII (Fig.
2.1) using U/Th and U/Pa age data from corals published so far (Veeh and Chappell, 1970;
Bloom et al., 1974; Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Stein et al., 1993; Cutler et al., 2003). The
exception includes two mid-Holocene T. gigas that were dated recently using the radiocarbon
method (Table 2.1). Careful consideration was given to each reported age and, in order to be
accepted for use in the current study, samples must have been in pristine condition, free of
Table 2.1, Weighted means and errors of accepted radiometric dates for each terrace based on
recent and previous studies (see text). Terrace numbers according to Figure 2.1. Terrace Dating Method Age (ka)
1Error (ka)
2Range (ka) n Reef Material
I Δ14
C 5.4 3
0.07 5.3-5.5 2 T. gigas
II U-Th & Pa-U 36.7 6, 8
0.01 31-37 5 coral
IIIb U-Th 41.7 5, 6
0.6 40-42 4 coral
IIIa U-Th 51.0 4, 6
0.6 49-53 3 coral
IV U-Th 62.5 4, 5, 6
0.6 57-74 7 coral
V U-Th & Pa-U 92.1 5, 6, 8
3.1 85-95 7 coral
VI U-Th 107.0 5, 6
0.2 106-108 3 coral
VIIb U-Th 119.1 4, 6, 7
1.9 116-124 8 coral
VIIa U-Th 134.1 4, 5, 6, 7
1.4 132-142 8 coral
VIII U-Th 198.7 7
4.6 180-190 1 coral
1Weighted Mean;
2Weighted Mean Error;
3Aharon, personal communication;
4Veeh and Chappell, 1970;
5Bloom et al., 1974;
6Aharon and Chappell, 1986;
7Stein et al., 1992;
8Cutler et al., 2003.
38
diagenetic effects. If a particular coral age was significantly different from others on the same
terrace unit it was considered suspect and discarded (Table 2.1).
Methods
Materials Studied
Fossil specimens used in this study were collected by P. Aharon from the Huon Peninsula, PNG,
during three months of field work in the fall of 1977 (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2; Table 2.2). During this
collection, specimens were acquired only if both valves were found together and attached to the
limestone substrate (Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Petrographic and SEM observations were
made on the internal layer of the first season of growth within 1 to 2 millimeters of the umbo
(Fig. 2.3). In specimens where the umbo was not preserved, the measurements were made in the
area that was thought to be closest to that region. Resulting observations of the microstructure of
Table 2.2, Age assignment (Table 2.1) and specific reef
morphology of the sampling sites for each specimen
investigated in this study (see Fig. 2.2).
Sample Terrace Terrace Age (ka) Reef Facies
K-133 Modern 0 fringing reef crest
K-134 I 5.35 ± 0.02 1
fringing reef crest
K-135 I 5.52 ± 0.02 1
fringing reef crest
K-9 IIIb 41.7 ± 0.6 regression slope-fringing
K-8 IV 62.5 ± 0.6 fringing reef crest
K-14 V 92.1 ± 3.1 fringing reef crest
K-15 V 92.1 ± 3.1 fringing reef crest
K-17 VI 107 ± 0.2 fringing reef crest
K-46 VI 107 ± 0.2 fringing reef crest
K-131 VIIb 119.1 ± 1.9 regression slope-fringing
K-126 VIIa 134.1 ± 1.4 barrier reef
K-24 VIIa 134.1 ± 1.4 lagoonal
K-38 VIIa 134.1 ± 1.4 fringing reef crest1Aharon, peronal communication.
39
internal layers were then compared to those from a modern specimen (K-133) collected from the
same locality (Fig. 2.4).
Optical Microscopy
Thin sections of the internal layer were analyzed using a Nikon stereoscopic microscope and
SPOT Advanced imaging software at the Alabama Stable Isotope Laboratory (ASIL) in the
Department of Geological Sciences of The University of Alabama.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Shell sections of the internal layer from first stage of growth of each T. gigas (Fig. 2.3) were cut,
embedded in resin, and ground using sand paper from coarse to fine grit size. Subsequently, each
sample was polished using alumina oxide of 1.0 µm and 0.3 µm and etched for 30 seconds using
2% HCl. Samples were coated with ~ 20 nm of gold. SEM analyses were performed using a
Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) JEOL 7000 located in the Central
Analytical Facility (CAF) of The University of Alabama. Imaging was obtained at high vacuum,
using a medium probe current of 8 nA, and an accelerating voltage of 8 kV.
Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD)
Samples used for SEM were re-polished and coated with 2.5 nm of carbon for EBSD analysis
(Pérez-Huerta and Cusack, 2009). The EBSD study of modern T. gigas (K-133) was carried out
with an Oxford Nordlys camera mounted on a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope
(FE-SEM) JEOL 7000 located in the Central Analytical Facility (CAF) of The University of
Alabama. EBSD data were collected with Oxford Aztec 2.0 software at high vacuum, 20 kV, a
40
Figure 2.2, Shell internal layer sections of fossil T. gigas specimens.
41
Figure 2.3, Aragonitic needle width (ANW) measurements were
acquired during SEM imaging of the internal layers (IL) overlaying
the first season of growth (black circle). Black box: section of shell
prepared for analysis; EL: External Layer. This example is K-15 from
Terrace V (see Fig. 2.2).
large probe current of 15 nA, working distance of 10 mm and a resolution of 1.15 μm step size
for crystallographic maps. Data for a mid-Holocene-aged specimen (K-134) were acquired using
a TESCAN LYRA FESEM also located in the Central Analytical Facility (CAF) at the
University of Alabama. EBSD data of K-134 were collected at high vacuum, 30 kV, a large
probe current (beam size) of 20 nA, working distance of 12.34 mm and a resolution of 1.0 μm
step size. Finally, data were analyzed using OIM 5.3 from EDAX-TSL. EBSD data are
represented by crystallographic maps and pole figures in reference to the {001} plane of
aragonite (see further details in Pérez-Huerta et al., 2011).
Results
Shell Growth Features
Hand specimens show macroscopic light and dark banding (Fig. 2.2), with coupled increments
thought to represent yearly couplets of seasonal growth (Aharon and Chappell, 1986). Based on
our petrographic observations, most fossil specimens exhibit regular growth lines, composed of
42
paired light and dark increments that have been previously interpreted as daily growth lines
(Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Watanabe et al., 2004) (Fig. 2.5) consistent with the modern
specimen (Fig. 2.4b). The mid-Holocene-age specimen (K134) observed petrographically, does
not have clear daily growth increments regularly through ontogeny, but increments can be
identified in several locations (Fig. 2.5). Although the dissimilar structure is consistent in the
entire section, complicated sample preparation could cause this effect.
Figure 2.4, Modern T. gigas (K-133) is
the benchmark specimen to which fossils
are compared. (a) Section of K-133; (b)
Photomicrograph showing regular paired
light and dark bands that represent a daily
growth increment; plane view; (c) SEM
image of a single daily growth increment
showing aragonitic needles with small,
clinogonal, oblique crystals, representa-
tive of the overall microstructure found in
this individual. Arrow denotes direction
of growth.
43
Shell Microstructure
Observations under high-resolution SEM imaging show that the entire ontogeny of modern T.
gigas (K-133) is composed of pairs of complex prismatic aragonitic needles, orthogonal to the
Figure 2.5, Photomicrographs of fossil T. gigas from thin sections; plane view. Light and dark
pairs represent daily growth increments. Arrow denotes direction of growth.
44
external layer of the shell (Majewske, 1974; Flügel, 2013) and small, clinogonal aragonite
crystals, oblique to the aragonitic needles (Fig. 2.4c). Imaging of fossil T. gigas indicate that
daily growth increments are visible in most specimens and are also composed of complex
Figure 2.6, High resolution SEM images of fossil specimens exhibiting two morphological
types (Table 2.3). Mid-Holocene-aged T. gigas have elongated, clinogonal aragonite crystals,
oblique to the outside of the shell, an example is outlined a dashed, black line for K-134 and
K-135. Other T. gigas display orthogonal, complex prismatic aragonite needles. Arrow
denotes direction of growth.
45
prismatic aragonite needles with an additional increment of small, clinogonal aragonite crystals,
oblique to the aragonitic needles (K-8, K-14, K-15, K-17, K-24, K-131 and K-38; Figs. 2.6 and
2.7b), similar to those present in the modern specimen (K-133; Fig. 2.4c). Several specimens
have poorly defined small, clinogonal crystals making the aragonitic needles appear to end
abruptly (K-9 and K-126; Figs. 2.6 and 2.7a) although their overall microstructure is comparable
with most of the other specimens. A T. gigas from Terrace VI, K-46, contains increments of
small, clinogonal, oblique aragonite crystals and poorly defined aragonitic needles although the
measured ANW is nearly the same as that of the other T. gigas (K-17) from Terrace VI, (see
Discussion). An exception includes mid-Holocene-age samples, K-134 and K-135, which are
composed of elongated, clinogonal crystals, oblique to the external shell layer (Figs. 2.6 and
2.7c).
Microtextural analyses of modern T. gigas show there is tight control over the
crystallographic domain of the aragonitic needles and small crystals, which are also well defined
in the crystallography map and pole figure (Fig. 2.8c and 2.8d). The c-axis is parallel to the
elongation of the needles, shown by the a- and b-axes alternating between needles.
Crystallographic preference extends through the small, clinogonal crystal increment, denoted by
the white dashed line (Fig. 2.8c). A mid-Holocene-aged sample, K-134, differs from the modern
in terms of microstructure as well as microtexture, displayed by the crystallography map and
Figure 2.7, Two needle morphological types documented in T.
gigas (a) orthogonal, aragonitic needles (daytime deposition)
with increments of small, clinogonal crystals, oblique to needles
(nighttime deposition) (K-8, K-14, K-15, K-17, K-24, K-131, K-
133 (Fig. 2.4a) and K-38; see Figs. 2.2 and 2.6), although several
samples have poorly defined small, clinogonal, oblique crystals
that are not easily visible (K-9 and K-126; see Figs. 2.2 and 2.6);
(b) elongated, clinogonal, oblique crystals that are primarily
observed in specimens of mid-Holocene-age (K-134 and K-135).
46
pole figure obtained by EBSD (Fig. 2.8a and 2.8b). Elongated, clinogonal crystals, oblique to the
outside of the shell, are well-defined and present single crystallographic domains. Although the
c-axis of aragonite is overall parallel to the elongation of the crystals in each specimen, K-134
has less organization of the orientation of the crystallographic domains, represented by the
variability in the pole figure (Fig. 2.8b).
Figure 2.8, EBSD crystallographic maps and pole figures for a mid-Holocene-aged specimen
(K-134: a and b) and modern specimen (K-133: c and d) show that the c-axis is elongated in
the direction of growth, however the pole figures show that the modern specimen (d) had
more control over growth than the Holocene-age specimen (b) because the poles are more
constricted along the center of the figure (c-axis). White dashed lines constrict the nighttime
(NT) interval from the daytime (DT), displaying the retained crystallographic domain through
each interval (c). Red spots (a) and black spots (c) are areas of non-diffraction, which are
different colors due to the different equipment used to obtain EBSD data.
47
Discussion
Aragonite Needle Width (ANW) Variability
Chappell and Polach (1972) proposed that botryoids of aragonite needles increase in width
through time due to diagenetic alteration from aragonite to calcite although needles retain their
morphology (Chappell and Polach, 1972; Aharon and Chappell, 1986; Ayling, 2006).
Differences in aragonite and calcite crystal densities (2.930 gcm-3
and 2.710 gcm-3
, respectively)
may explain the authors’ observations. It has also been suggested that neomorphism from
aragonite to a secondary aragonite is possible (Moir, 1990; Ayling, 2006). EBSD maps show that
there is no calcite in either modern or mid-Holocene specimens (Fig. 2.8). Additionally,
orthogonal needles (K-133) and clinogonal, oblique crystals (K-134 and K-135) are well defined
crystallographically ruling out a secondary phase of aragonite. If aragonite dissolution caused by
diagenesis were present (other than slight effects from etching with dilute HCl, required in SEM
Sample Terrace Age (ka) Microstructure
Average
ANW (µm)
(n = 20) σ se
K-133 Modern 0 Needles 3.04 0.69 0.15
K-134 I 5.4 Oblique Crystals 1.56 1.32 0.30
K-135 I 5.4 Oblique Crystals 1.13 0.40 0.09
K-9 IIIb 41.7 Needles 1.07 0.43 0.10
K-8 IV 62.5 Needles 2.43 1.12 0.25
K-14 V 92.1 Needles 1.32 0.48 0.11
K-15 V 92.1 Needles 1.65 0.59 0.13
K-17 VI 107 Needles 4.54 1.02 0.23
K-46 VI 107 Needles 4.52 1.74 0.39
K-131 VIIb 119.1 Needles 2.62 0.81 0.18
K-126 VIIa 134.1 Needles 4.50 1.10 0.25
K-24 VIIa 134.1 Needles 2.21 0.59 0.13
K-38 VIIa 134.1 Needles 3.08 0.71 0.14
σ: standard deviation; se: standard error
Table 2.3, Microstructure type, average needle width, 1σ standard deviation and standard
error of the mean for each T. gigas individual.
48
sample preparation), then the EBSD analyses paired with SEM imaging would have recognized
it. Hence the aragonitic needles of each T. gigas are likely representatives of the geologic time in
which it lived. Due to the discrepancies in microstructure and microtexture between the mid-
Holocene specimens and other fossil T. gigas, measurements made on these crystals might not be
comparable with those of the aragonitic needles, however they are included in the ANW
comparison in this study. While it is found that ANW does increase through time, the upward
trend is not uniform but rather cyclical (Fig. 2.9a; Table 2.3). The relationship between daily
growth and solar irradiance, previously established in modern T. gigas by Sano et al. (2012) and
Hori et al. (2015), opens the opportunity for reconstructing past solar modulation (total
irradiance) variability using the ANW cyclicity in fossil T. gigas. According to van Geel et al.
(1999) and Sharma (2002), solar modulation is caused by complex interactions between galactic
cosmic rays, solar wind (solar magnetic field intensity) and the geomagnetic field intensity of the
Earth. Radiocarbon and 10
Be-based solar modulation reconstructed for the last 1000 years
exhibits an excellent match with the Schwabe (11-yr) irradiance cycle suggesting that solar
forcing may have contributed to a proportion of the warming since 1860 AD (Lean et al., 1995;
Muscheler et al., 2007).
Solar modulation variability has been estimated for the past 200 ka by Sharma (2002) on
the basis of 10
Be variability in deep-sea cores. According to the Sharma (2002) model, the
strongest solar modulation occurred between 111-125 ka followed by a general weakened trend
to the Holocene followed by modern high values (Fig. 2.9b). The solar modulation model of
Sharma (2002) matches well with the contemporaneous benthic marine δ18
O time-series (Grootes
et al., 1993; Johnson et al., 1997; Herbert et al., 2001; Lisiecki and Lisiecki, 2002) suggesting
that in general, warm periods during the interglacials (190 ka, 125 ka and modern) are typified
49
Figure 2.9, Mean and standard error of ANW for each individual
giant clam plotted against age (a; Tables 2.2 & 2.3). Open boxes
represent the mid-Holocene-aged specimens with microstructure
varying from of other specimens. The black dashed line is a cubic
spline, showing the interpolation between ANW as it changes
through time. (b) Normalized solar modulation for the past 200 ka
(black dots) is plotted with δ18
O values (red line) (Lisiecki and
Lisiecki, 2002). Blue shaded and white boxes denote phase changes
and transitions between interglacial (blue) and glacial (white)
intervals. A rough correspondence is apparent between solar
modulation, δ18
O excursions and ANW variability [(b) modified
after Sharma, 2002].
50
by high solar modulation and lower δ18
O values whereas colder intervals during interstadials and
glaciations are associated with weaker solar modulation and higher δ18
O values.
Aragonite secretion at the microstructural level is controlled diurnally by photosynthetic
processes due to T. gigas’ symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae (Watanabe et al., 2004;
Sano et al., 2012; Yan et al., 2013; Hori et al., 2015). During daylight, photosynthesis of the
zooxanthellae allows the shell to calcify at a higher rate, thus producing the organized aragonitic
needles (Fig. 2.7). It follows that growth of fossil T. gigas also occurred under the diurnal
influence due to the presence of daytime and nighttime increments, similar to the modern K-133
(Fig. 2.4). Given the documented relationship between solar irradiance and growth attributed to
photosynthesis for modern T. gigas (Sano et al., 2013), we test below the hypothesis of a
correspondence between solar modulation change through time and giant clam growth pattern
expressed in terms of aragonite needle width (ANW) variability.
Notwithstanding that the number of T. gigas fossils in the pool of samples is scant, the
matching of the phase mode changes in the ANW record with those of the solar modulation and
δ18
O records is intriguing (Fig. 2.9). For example, the rise in solar modulation during the
penultimate interglacial, the last interglacial and the modern, accompanied by δ18
O negative
excursions, matches reasonably well with rises in ANW values of fossil T. gigas associated with
the coral reef terraces VIII at 198.7 ± 4.6 ka, VIIa at 134.1 ± 1.4 ka and VIIb at 119.1 ± 1.9 ka
and the modern reef. Substantial drops in solar modulation associated with positive δ18
O
excursions correspond to drops in ANW values of coral reef terraces formed during interstadials
(Terrace V at 92.1 ± 3.1 ka, Terrace IV at 62.5 ± 0.6 ka and Terrace IIIb, at 41.7 ± 0.6 ka).
Discrepancies between the exact timing of phase changes are discerned between ANW record in
Figure 2.9a and the records in Figure 2.9b. For example, whereas the maximum solar modulation
51
values occur at around 124 ka, the ANW values peak 17 ka later at 107 ±0.2 ka. Additionally,
two fossil T. gigas samples from coral reef terrace VIIa at 134 ka yield significantly different
ANW values (Table 2.3 and Fig. 2.9a) for reasons that are not understood. These observed
discrepancies suggest either the presence of unidentifiable artifacts in the databases or some
leads and lags in the systems.
The discrepancies in microstructure between modern, K-133 and mid-Holocene-age T.
gigas, K-134 and K-135, as well as the microtextural differences between K-133 and K-134,
suggest that there are environmental differences between these times. Variations that could affect
shell microstructure include solar modulation, rainfall and nutrient availability. Based on these
circumstances, it is impossible to determine the reason for differences in biomineralization
mechanisms between modern and Holocene times though it is thought that they are likely
environmentally influenced.
Conclusions
Modern and fossil T. gigas from the raised coral reef terraces of the Huon Peninsula are
composed of orthogonal, complex, prismatic, aragonitic needles representing daylight deposition
and small, crystals, oblique to the needles, representing nighttime deposition. Mid-Holocene-
aged specimens are exceptional in their microstructure being composed of elongated aragonite
crystals, oblique to the outside of the shell. T. gigas depend on the solar irradiance for enhanced
daytime growth, which is a significant part of their shell deposition strategy; when solar
irradiance is high, the individual clams produce wider needles. The ANW in fossil specimens
shows phase-change modes that roughly match solar modulation and δ18
O variability over the
past 200 ka. Discrepancies between modern and mid-Holocene T. gigas are most likely due to
52
yet unidentified environmental changes that cause a biological response. These initial results
suggest that shell microstructure (ANW) is likely affected by variations in solar activity and can
be quantified for comparisons through geologic time. Future studies will need a much larger
sample pool of wider age distribution to confirm the results reported here.
53
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APPENDIX I: BIOLOGY
Relevant Anatomy
Organs responsible for shell production are those involved with the organism’s respiration and
digestion (Fig. 1.12). The siphonal mantle is visible when the valves are opened. Iridophores of
brilliant shades of blue and green are characteristic of T. gigas (Rosewater, 1965), produced by
photosynthetic zooxanthellae making this species unique from most other bivalves (Norton, et
al., 1992). Zooxanthellae live within a tubular system that extends from the siphonal mantle to
the digestive mass (Norton et al., 1992). The siphonal mantle also holds the internal and external
siphons that are responsible for filtering water in to and out of the organism. Surrounding these
orifices are sensory hyaline organs that allow the animal to detect predators, increasing their
awareness and longevity (Norton et al., 1992). Incurrent water moves through ctenidia and food
is filtered out within the ctenidial gills, processed, and ultimately ending up in the digestive mass
(Norton and Jones, 1992). The digestive mass shares a boundary with the hinge gland, which is
partially bounded by the lateral mantle and extra pallial space (Norton and Jones, 1992). The
lateral mantle is a membranous lining of the inside of the valves and is confined by the excurrent
water chamber, which can hold and squirt water as a method of deterring predators at rates
dependent on the individuals size (Neo and Todd, 2011). The pallial line is the location on the
shell where the siphonal and lateral mantles attach to the valves. This is also the interface of the
internal and external layers of shell (Norton et al., 1992).
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Feeding Mechanisms
In order to maintain rapid shell growth, a large source of nutrients is required. T. gigas fulfills
this need through two feeding mechanisms: traditional filter feeding, and symbiotic
dinoflagellate zooxanthellae. In the juvenile stage, the clam ingests and retains photosynthetic
zooxanthellae within their siphonal mantle (Fitt and Trench, 1981) by the means of sequestering
through a tubular system from their digestive mass (Norton et al., 1992). Zooxanthellae provide
the individual with carbon for calcification in the forms of glycerol and glucose (Rees et al,
1993). They can also be harvested if there is a lack of phytoplankton in the water, obtained
during filter feeding. During early ontogeny, T. gigas depends on both sources of nutrients; as it
grows, it becomes increasingly dependent on the symbiotic relationship: particulate carbon from
filter feeding decreases in absorbance from 65% to 34% (Klumpp et al., 1992).
Reproduction
T. gigas are sequential simultaneous hermaphrodites; individuals produce both egg and sperm in
a sequential pattern, although they are not spawned at the same time (Braley, 1984). Upon
reaching sexual maturity between 10 years (Jones, et al., 1986) and 12 years of age (Watanabe et
al., 2004), the gonads develop initially as male components and later add female ovaries (Norton
and Jones, 1992). The gonads are located along the side of the wall of the digestive mass (Norton
and Jones, 1992), likely allowing for easy reallocation of nutrients from shell secretion during
spawning, which is associated with decreased summer growth at the onset of sexual maturity
(Romanek and Grossman, 1989). Lunar periodicity affects when spawning occurs, however it
differs with locality ranging from on the day of the new moon to 13 days after the new moon
(Braley, 1984). The lunar month is often recorded within the shell in patterns of simple and
63
complex (light and dark) daily growth increments that remain fairly consistent in thickness
through the duration of the month (Pannella and MacClintock, 1968). Due to the energy and
nutrients spawning requires, there could potentially be microstructural influences visible in the
shell.
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APPENDIX II: SEASONAL GROWTH INCREMENTS
SEM band counting and assuming daily increments for the growth lines, light and dark
microscopically visible increments at low resolution, displays microstructural changes at a
regular interval every two to three lunar months (29.53 days per lunar month) for all modern
specimens analyzed. GBR specimens showed a microstructural modification at growth breaks
represented by a band of organized needles bounded on either side by the normal growth of
shield-like aragonite crystals (Fig. A.1). Growth breaks at these intervals are also apparent in the
T. gigas from PNG (Fig. A.2). The microstructure in K-133 is composed of small disorganized
crystals in bands that span the height of several days of growth (Figs. 1.7a and 1.7b). The EBSD
crystallography map and pole figure of a K-133 seasonal break shows a continuity of the c-axis
of aragonite following the elongation of needles in the direction of growth, although the
diffraction is reduced and corresponds to the small crystal size present at these seasonal break
increments (Fig. A.2c and A.2d).
65
Figure A.1, Seasonal breaks are seen at regular intervals of approximately three months in
GBR specimens by semi-organized needles with a noticeable break in growth for early
ontogenies [PT-3 (a) and PT-1 (b)] as well as during the last stage of the individual’s life [PT-
3 (c) and PT-1 (d)].
66
Figure A.2, Seasonal increments in the T. gigas from PNG are composed of tiny
disorganized crystals in early ontogeny (a) and later ontogeny (b). Reduced size of the
crystals at seasonal breaks is seen in microtexture EBSD mapping (c) which retains c-axis in
the same position as non-seasonal increments (d).
67
APPENDIX III: NEEDLE MEASUREMENTS
(See Figs. 1.6 and 2.3)
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
Modern K-133 1 FG 3.69
Modern K-133 2 FG 2.04
Modern K-133 3 FG 2.62
Modern K-133 4 FG 1.57
Modern K-133 5 FG 4.71
Modern K-133 6 FG 2.35
Modern K-133 7 FG 3.45
Modern K-133 8 FG 2.66
Modern K-133 9 FG 2.74
Modern K-133 10 FG 3.46
Modern K-133 11 FG 2.97
Modern K-133 12 FG 2.93
Modern K-133 13 FG 3.17
Modern K-133 14 FG 3.08
Modern K-133 15 FG 2.75
Modern K-133 16 FG 2.93
Modern K-133 17 FG 2.58
Modern K-133 18 FG 3.98
Modern K-133 19 FG 3.82
Modern K-133 20 FG 3.36
Modern K-133 1 LG 8.01
Modern K-133 2 LG 3.41
Modern K-133 3 LG 3.32
Modern K-133 4 LG 3.75
Modern K-133 5 LG 3.99
Modern K-133 6 LG 3.41
Modern K-133 7 LG 5.79
Modern K-133 8 LG 6.21
Modern K-133 9 LG 6.78
Modern K-133 10 LG 4.78
Modern K-133 11 LG 4.48
Modern K-133 12 LG 3.28
68
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
Modern K-133 13 LG 3.50
Modern K-133 14 LG 4.05
Modern K-133 15 LG 4.02
Modern K-133 16 LG 5.78
Modern K-133 17 LG 6.16
Modern K-133 18 LG 3.88
Modern K-133 19 LG 3.23
Modern K-133 20 LG 5.02
Modern PT-1 1 FG 1.03
Modern PT-1 2 FG 0.72
Modern PT-1 3 FG 1.15
Modern PT-1 4 FG 1.00
Modern PT-1 5 FG 0.75
Modern PT-1 6 FG 0.72
Modern PT-1 7 FG 0.62
Modern PT-1 8 FG 0.75
Modern PT-1 9 FG 1.12
Modern PT-1 10 FG 1.12
Modern PT-1 11 FG 0.87
Modern PT-1 12 FG 1.25
Modern PT-1 13 FG 0.87
Modern PT-1 14 FG 0.84
Modern PT-1 15 FG 0.59
Modern PT-1 16 FG 0.93
Modern PT-1 17 FG 0.84
Modern PT-1 18 FG 0.69
Modern PT-1 19 FG 0.75
Modern PT-1 20 FG 0.90
Modern PT-1 1 LG 5.10
Modern PT-1 2 LG 3.02
Modern PT-1 3 LG 4.01
Modern PT-1 4 LG 4.10
Modern PT-1 5 LG 1.59
Modern PT-1 6 LG 2.33
Modern PT-1 7 LG 3.01
Modern PT-1 8 LG 2.31
Modern PT-1 9 LG 4.34
Modern PT-1 10 LG 2.92
69
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
Modern PT-1 11 LG 2.86
Modern PT-1 12 LG 3.44
Modern PT-1 13 LG 2.33
Modern PT-1 14 LG 8.76
Modern PT-1 15 LG 3.81
Modern PT-1 16 LG 3.75
Modern PT-1 17 LG 3.54
Modern PT-1 18 LG 4.49
Modern PT-1 19 LG 1.32
Modern PT-1 20 LG 4.33
Modern PT-3 1 FG 3.50
Modern PT-3 2 FG 2.34
Modern PT-3 3 FG 3.63
Modern PT-3 4 FG 2.95
Modern PT-3 5 FG 3.77
Modern PT-3 6 FG 3.63
Modern PT-3 7 FG 3.26
Modern PT-3 8 FG 1.19
Modern PT-3 9 FG 1.81
Modern PT-3 10 FG 2.94
Modern PT-3 11 FG 2.57
Modern PT-3 12 FG 2.27
Modern PT-3 13 FG 3.03
Modern PT-3 14 FG 2.32
Modern PT-3 15 FG 2.88
Modern PT-3 16 FG 2.82
Modern PT-3 17 FG 2.78
Modern PT-3 18 FG 2.08
Modern PT-3 19 FG 3.07
Modern PT-3 20 FG 2.02
Modern PT-3 1 LG 3.36
Modern PT-3 2 LG 1.50
Modern PT-3 3 LG 2.15
Modern PT-3 4 LG 2.47
Modern PT-3 5 LG 3.06
Modern PT-3 6 LG 2.72
Modern PT-3 7 LG 2.90
Modern PT-3 8 LG 1.92
70
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
Modern PT-3 9 LG 2.95
Modern PT-3 10 LG 4.65
Modern PT-3 11 LG 3.73
Modern PT-3 12 LG 1.37
Modern PT-3 13 LG 4.27
Modern PT-3 14 LG 2.72
Modern PT-3 15 LG 3.13
Modern PT-3 16 LG 3.00
Modern PT-3 17 LG 2.99
Modern PT-3 18 LG 2.86
Modern PT-3 19 LG 3.76
Modern PT-3 20 LG 2.06
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 1 FG 1.19
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 2 FG 1.54
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 3 FG 1.69
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 4 FG 2.70
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 5 FG 0.75
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 6 FG 0.77
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 7 FG 1.63
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 8 FG 0.88
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 9 FG 1.13
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 10 FG 1.89
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 11 FG 1.88
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 12 FG 2.26
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 13 FG 0.78
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 14 FG 4.01
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 15 FG 2.00
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 16 FG 2.33
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 17 FG 0.75
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 18 FG 1.02
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 19 FG 0.84
5.35 ± 0.02 K-134 20 FG 1.14
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 1 FG 0.19
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 2 FG 0.09
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 3 FG 0.53
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 4 FG 0.13
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 5 FG 0.09
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 6 FG 0.28
71
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 7 FG 0.00
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 8 FG 0.09
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 9 FG 0.07
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 10 FG 0.31
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 11 FG 0.15
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 12 FG 0.06
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 13 FG 0.28
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 14 FG 0.30
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 15 FG 0.36
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 16 FG 0.00
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 17 FG 0.07
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 18 FG 0.01
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 19 FG 0.00
5.52 ± 0.02 K-135 20 FG 0.21
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 1 FG 0.85
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 2 FG 1.27
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 3 FG 0.95
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 4 FG 1.60
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 5 FG 1.05
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 6 FG 0.72
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 7 FG 0.87
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 8 FG 1.25
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 9 FG 0.87
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 10 FG 0.52
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 11 FG 1.12
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 12 FG 1.25
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 13 FG 0.55
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 14 FG 1.25
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 15 FG 0.72
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 16 FG 1.37
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 17 FG 2.05
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 18 FG 1.15
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 19 FG 0.75
41.7 ± 0.6 K-9 20 FG 1.12
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 1 FG 3.54
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 2 FG 3.70
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 3 FG 3.75
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 4 FG 3.29
72
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 5 FG 0.83
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 6 FG 5.07
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 7 FG 2.75
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 8 FG 1.92
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 9 FG 2.27
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 10 FG 2.55
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 11 FG 0.94
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 12 FG 2.71
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 13 FG 1.62
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 14 FG 1.28
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 15 FG 2.00
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 16 FG 0.82
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 17 FG 2.09
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 18 FG 1.33
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 19 FG 3.70
62.5 ± 0.6 K-8 20 FG 2.48
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 1 FG 1.82
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 2 FG 0.97
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 3 FG 1.13
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 4 FG 0.79
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 5 FG 2.94
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 6 FG 1.08
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 7 FG 1.33
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 8 FG 1.01
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 9 FG 2.08
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 10 FG 1.25
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 11 FG 0.96
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 12 FG 1.58
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 13 FG 1.34
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 14 FG 1.20
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 15 FG 0.95
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 16 FG 1.08
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 17 FG 1.41
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 18 FG 1.25
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 19 FG 1.40
92.1 ± 3.1 K-14 20 FG 0.89
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 1 FG 2.54
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 2 FG 0.91
73
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 3 FG 2.59
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 4 FG 1.16
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 5 FG 2.39
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 6 FG 2.83
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 7 FG 2.11
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 8 FG 1.66
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 9 FG 1.88
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 10 FG 1.77
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 11 FG 1.67
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 12 FG 1.21
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 13 FG 1.49
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 14 FG 0.66
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 15 FG 1.35
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 16 FG 1.21
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 17 FG 1.71
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 18 FG 0.86
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 19 FG 1.71
92.1 ± 3.1 K-15 20 FG 1.32
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 1 FG 4.23
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 2 FG 4.27
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 3 FG 3.01
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 4 FG 4.58
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 5 FG 5.64
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 6 FG 3.68
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 7 FG 4.93
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 8 FG 5.31
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 9 FG 4.70
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 10 FG 5.41
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 11 FG 4.36
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 12 FG 5.40
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 13 FG 3.63
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 14 FG 5.86
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 15 FG 5.40
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 16 FG 3.88
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 17 FG 2.62
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 18 FG 4.48
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 19 FG 6.45
107.0 ± 0.2 K-17 20 FG 2.87
74
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 1 FG 4.77
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 2 FG 1.68
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 3 FG 3.43
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 4 FG 1.58
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 5 FG 4.70
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 6 FG 1.99
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 7 FG 6.43
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 8 FG 4.27
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 9 FG 8.14
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 10 FG 4.69
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 11 FG 5.52
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 12 FG 2.19
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 13 FG 7.37
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 14 FG 5.37
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 15 FG 3.01
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 16 FG 5.23
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 17 FG 5.12
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 18 FG 5.16
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 19 FG 4.56
107.0 ± 0.2 K-46 20 FG 5.17
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 1 FG 1.98
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 2 FG 4.19
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 3 FG 2.92
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 4 FG 2.21
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 5 FG 2.37
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 6 FG 2.29
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 7 FG 1.98
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 8 FG 2.79
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 9 FG 2.19
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 10 FG 1.85
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 11 FG 3.39
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 12 FG 3.05
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 13 FG 3.62
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 14 FG 1.93
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 15 FG 3.72
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 16 FG 2.71
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 17 FG 1.77
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 18 FG 1.87
75
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 19 FG 2.06
119.1 ± 1.9 K-131 20 FG 3.57
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 1 FG 4.15
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 2 FG 3.79
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 3 FG 3.77
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 4 FG 5.89
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 5 FG 4.30
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 6 FG 3.90
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 7 FG 3.09
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 8 FG 4.57
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 9 FG 2.95
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 10 FG 3.62
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 11 FG 5.81
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 12 FG 4.02
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 13 FG 5.62
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 14 FG 5.11
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 15 FG 6.88
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 16 FG 6.43
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 17 FG 3.92
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 18 FG 4.70
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 19 FG 4.57
134.1 ± 1.4 K-126 20 FG 2.95
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 1 FG 3.20
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 2 FG 1.95
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 3 FG 1.79
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 4 FG 2.46
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 5 FG 1.85
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 6 FG 2.08
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 7 FG 1.34
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 8 FG 1.57
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 9 FG 3.02
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 10 FG 2.22
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 11 FG 1.76
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 12 FG 3.01
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 13 FG 1.43
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 14 FG 3.40
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 15 FG 1.68
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 16 FG 2.55
76
Age (Table 2.1) Specimen n Layer (Fig. 1.1) Needle Width (µm)
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 17 FG 1.99
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 18 FG 2.47
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 19 FG 1.77
134.1 ± 1.4 K-24 20 FG 2.57
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 1 FG 2.66
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 2 FG 2.21
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 3 FG 3.59
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 4 FG 3.48
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 5 FG 3.05
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 6 FG 3.45
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 7 FG 3.21
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 8 FG 2.83
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 9 FG 3.60
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 10 FG 2.42
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 11 FG 3.93
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 12 FG 5.32
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 13 FG 2.03
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 14 FG 3.44
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 15 FG 2.50
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 16 FG 3.13
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 17 FG 2.44
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 18 FG 1.81
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 19 FG 2.58
198.7 ± 4.6 K-38 20 FG 3.91
77
APPENDIX IV: DAILY GROWTH
Low Resolution Daily Band Thickness (µm)
Sample K-133 PT-1
Shell Location FG LG FG LG
1 31.90 17.57 19.99 17.47
2 34.04 17.80 27.43 18.08
3 31.90 20.08 22.28 22.29
4 31.90 25.60 25.71 18.28
5 37.20 12.30 22.86 17.88
6 31.40 14.80 28.57 23.08
7 35.10 22.09 28.57 27.92
8 31.40 24.50 31.43 22.01
9 34.04 23.50 26.86 20.94
10 27.66 33.45 27.43 18.26
Average 32.65 21.17 26.11 20.62
78
APPENDIX V: DAYTIME AND NIGHTTIME GROWTH
High Resolution Band Thickness (µm)
Sample K-133
Needle type Daytime Nighttime
1 30.30 10.65
2 46.80 5.15
3 27.50 10.40
4 29.26 13.30
5 33.84 7.69
6 36.97 9.95
7 32.80 13.30
8 30.72 5.68
9 31.60 11.60
10 42.99 15.14
11 35.10 9.10
12 23.60 4.43
Average 33.46 9.70
79
APPENDIX VI: HIGH TIDE DATA
Dreger Harbor, Papua New Guinea
(6.6500° S, 147.8667° E)
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
7-Apr-74 3:35:00 AM
8/7/76 8:00 PM
14-Apr-74 5:02:00 AM
8/14/76 11:25 PM
21-Apr-74 2:54:00 AM
8/21/76 7:14 PM
28-Apr-74 4:34:00 AM
8/28/76 10:34 AM
5-May-74 2:38:00 AM
9/4/76 7:06 PM
12-May-74 4:15:00 AM
9/11/76 10:15 AM
19-May-74 1:51:00 AM
9/18/76 6:18 PM
26-May-74 3:56:00 AM
9/25/76 9:34 AM
2-Jun-74 1:36:00 AM
10/2/76 6:06 PM
9-Jun-74 3:39:00 AM
10/9/76 9:22 AM
16-Jun-74 12:15:00 AM
10/16/76 5:07 PM
23-Jun-74 3:29:00 AM
10/23/76 8:42 AM
30-Jun-74 12:00:00 AM
10/30/76 4:53 PM
7-Jul-74 3:10:00 AM
11/6/76 8:39 AM
14-Jul-74 10:24:00 PM
11/13/76 2:35 PM
21-Jul-74 3:07:00 AM
11/20/76 7:56 AM
28-Jul-74 8:39:00 PM
11/27/76 3:03 PM
4-Aug-74 2:42:00 AM
12/4/76 8:04 AM
11-Aug-74 7:40:00 PM
12/11/76 11:59 AM
18-Aug-74 2:42:00 AM
12/18/76 7:12 AM
25-Aug-74 6:48:00 PM
12/25/76 12:32 PM
1-Sep-74 2:04:00 AM
1/1/77 7:35 AM
8-Sep-74 6:11:00 PM
1/8/77 10:43 AM
15-Sep-74 2:06:00 AM
1/15/77 6:27 AM
22-Sep-74 5:35:00 PM
1/22/77 11:02 AM
29-Sep-74 4:03:00 PM
1/29/77 7:04 AM
6-Oct-74 5:06:00 PM
2/5/77 9:41 AM
13-Oct-74 3:55:00 PM
2/12/77 5:29 AM
20-Oct-74 4:39:00 PM
2/19/77 9:53 AM
27-Oct-74 3:07:00 PM
2/26/77 6:24 AM
80
Dreger Harbor, Papua New Guinea
(6.6500° S, 147.8667° E)
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
3-Nov-74 4:14:00 PM
3/5/77 8:42 AM
10-Nov-74 3:03:00 PM
3/12/77 3:53 AM
17-Nov-74 3:53:00 PM
3/19/77 8:53 AM
24-Nov-74 2:18:00 PM
3/26/77 5:01 AM
1-Dec-74 3:33:00 PM
4/2/77 7:43 AM
8-Dec-74 2:28:00 PM
4/9/77 1:25 AM
15-Dec-74 3:18:00 PM
4/16/77 7:57 AM
22-Dec-74 3:22:00 PM
4/23/77 9:22 AM
29-Dec-74 2:27:00 PM
4/30/77 6:40 AM
5-Jan-75 3:29:00 PM
5/7/77 11:48 AM
12-Jan-75 2:23:00 PM
5/14/77 7:41 PM
19-Jan-75 7:31:00 AM
5/21/77 11:32 PM
26-Jan-75 1:56:00 PM
5/28/77 6:21 PM
2-Feb-75 6:08:00 AM
6/4/77 11:39 PM
9-Feb-75 1:54:00 PM
6/11/77 7:02 PM
16-Feb-75 5:39:00 AM
6/18/77 10:28 PM
23-Feb-75 1:04:00 PM
6/25/77 3:53 AM
2-Mar-75 4:55:00 AM
7/2/77 10:29 PM
9-Mar-75 1:48:00 PM
7/9/77 6:21 PM
16-Mar-75 4:30:00 AM
7/16/77 9:29 PM
23-Mar-75 6:08:00 AM
7/23/77 1:42 AM
30-Mar-75 3:55:00 AM
7/30/77 9:26 PM
6-Apr-75 5:35:00 AM
8/6/77 5:27 PM
13-Apr-75 3:30:00 AM
8/13/77 8:32 PM
20-Apr-75 5:18:00 AM
8/20/77 1:03 PM
27-Apr-75 3:01:00 AM
8/27/77 8:26 PM
4-May-75 4:56:00 AM
9/3/77 3:16 PM
11-May-75 2:33:00 AM
9/10/77 7:36 PM
18-May-75 4:51:00 AM
9/17/77 11:28 AM
25-May-75 2:10:00 AM
9/24/77 7:28 PM
1-Jun-75 4:31:00 AM
10/1/77 11:22 AM
8-Jun-75 1:33:00 AM
10/8/77 6:38 PM
15-Jun-75 4:32:00 AM
10/15/77 10:22 AM
22-Jun-75 1:12:00 AM
10/22/77 6:30 PM
29-Jun-75 4:11:00 AM
10/29/77 10:17 AM
6-Jul-75 12:04:00 AM
11/5/77 5:35 PM
81
Dreger Harbor, Papua New Guinea
(6.6500° S, 147.8667° E)
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
13-Jul-75 4:13:00 AM
11/12/77 9:28 AM
20-Jul-75 12:00:00 AM
11/19/77 5:26 PM
27-Jul-75 3:48:00 AM
11/26/77 9:28 AM
3-Aug-75 11:52:00 PM
12/3/77 3:55 PM
10-Aug-75 3:50:00 AM
12/10/77 8:40 AM
17-Aug-75 8:40:00 PM
12/17/77 4:01 PM
24-Aug-75 3:20:00 AM
12/24/77 8:47 AM
31-Aug-75 7:45:00 PM
12/31/77 12:43 PM
7-Sep-75 3:24:00 AM
1/7/78 7:54 AM
14-Sep-75 6:36:00 PM
1/14/78 1:40 PM
21-Sep-75 4:20:00 PM
1/21/78 8:08 AM
28-Sep-75 6:15:00 PM
1/28/78 11:12 AM
5-Oct-75 3:57:00 PM
2/4/78 7:07 AM
12-Oct-75 5:34:00 PM
2/11/78 11:40 AM
19-Oct-75 3:21:00 PM
2/18/78 7:28 AM
26-Oct-75 5:22:00 PM
2/25/78 10:06 AM
2-Nov-75 3:02:00 PM
3/4/78 6:12 AM
9-Nov-75 4:51:00 PM
3/11/78 10:23 AM
16-Nov-75 2:25:00 PM
3/18/78 6:39 AM
23-Nov-75 4:44:00 PM
3/25/78 9:06 AM
30-Nov-75 2:57:00 AM
4/1/78 4:57 AM
7-Dec-75 4:20:00 PM
4/8/78 9:21 AM
14-Dec-75 1:23:00 PM
4/15/78 5:27 AM
21-Dec-75 4:14:00 PM
4/22/78 8:40 PM
28-Dec-75 12:00:00 AM
4/29/78 3:02 AM
4-Jan-76 3:55:00 PM
5/6/78 9:04 PM
11-Jan-76 11:23:00 AM
5/13/78 2:46 AM
18-Jan-76 3:17:00 PM
5/20/78 7:53 PM
25-Jan-76 7:28:00 AM
5/27/78 12:59 AM
1-Feb-76 3:34:00 PM
6/3/78 8:22 PM
8-Feb-76 6:56:00 AM
6/10/78 11:14 AM
15-Feb-76 3:22:00 PM
6/17/78 7:07 PM
22-Feb-76 5:50:00 AM
6/24/78 11:36 AM
29-Feb-76 3:11:00 PM
7/1/78 7:42 PM
7-Mar-76 5:32:00 AM
7/8/78 11:11 PM
14-Mar-76 2:53:00 PM
7/15/78 6:19 PM
82
Dreger Harbor, Papua New Guinea
(6.6500° S, 147.8667° E)
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
21-Mar-76 4:44:00 AM
7/22/78 11:08 PM
28-Mar-76 4:46:00 AM
7/29/78 7:00 PM
4-Apr-76 4:27:00 AM
8/5/78 10:00 PM
11-Apr-76 4:16:00 AM
8/12/78 5:20 PM
18-Apr-76 3:49:00 AM
8/19/78 9:56 PM
25-Apr-76 4:07:00 AM
8/26/78 6:10 PM
2-May-76 3:32:00 AM
9/2/78 8:56 PM
9-May-76 4:05:00 AM
9/9/78 3:34 PM
16-May-76 3:03:00 AM
9/16/78 8:52 PM
23-May-76 4:04:00 AM
9/23/78 5:01 PM
30-May-76 2:43:00 AM
9/30/78 7:56 PM
6-Jun-76 4:45:00 AM
10/7/78 12:51 PM
13-Jun-76 2:23:00 AM
10/14/78 7:52 PM
20-Jun-76 11:51:00 PM
10/21/78 2:21 PM
27-Jun-76 1:56:00 AM
10/28/78 6:59 PM
4-Jul-76 4:57:00 AM
11/4/78 11:22 AM
11-Jul-76 1:48:00 AM
11/11/78 6:56 PM
18-Jul-76 7:56:00 PM
11/18/78 11:29 AM
25-Jul-76 12:58:00 AM
11/25/78 6:03 PM
1-Aug-76 7:00:00 PM
12/2/78 10:18 AM
8-Aug-76 1:01:00 AM
12/9/78 6:01 PM
15-Aug-76 6:21:00 PM
12/16/78 10:20 AM
22-Aug-76 12:00:00 AM
12/23/78 4:56 PM
29-Aug-76 5:40:00 PM
12/30/78 9:24 AM
5-Sep-76 12:00:00 AM
1/6/79 4:59 PM
12-Sep-76 5:10:00 PM
1/13/79 9:28 AM
19-Sep-76 6:42:00 PM
1/20/79 1:48 PM
26-Sep-76 4:36:00 PM
1/27/79 8:33 AM
3-Oct-76 5:46:00 PM
2/3/79 3:16 PM
10-Oct-76 4:09:00 PM
2/10/79 8:39 AM
17-Oct-76 5:51:00 PM
2/17/79 11:30 AM
24-Oct-76 3:40:00 PM
2/24/79 7:41 AM
31-Oct-76 5:09:00 PM
3/3/79 12:18 AM
7-Nov-76 3:16:00 PM
3/10/79 7:50 AM
14-Nov-76 5:32:00 PM
3/17/79 10:24 AM
21-Nov-76 4:29:00 AM
3/24/79 6:43 AM
83
Dreger Harbor, Papua New Guinea
(6.6500° S, 147.8667° E)
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
28-Nov-76 4:53:00 PM
3/31/79 11:57 PM
5-Dec-76 2:09:00 PM
4/7/79 6:56 AM
12-Dec-76 5:14:00 PM
4/14/79 10:12 PM
19-Dec-76 1:47:00 PM
4/21/79 5:35 AM
26-Dec-76 4:41:00 PM
4/28/79 10:47 PM
2-Jan-77 1:18:00 PM
5/5/79 5:50 AM
9-Jan-77 4:51:00 PM
5/12/79 9:26 PM
16-Jan-77 12:55:00 PM
5/19/79 4:02 AM
23-Jan-77 4:25:00 PM
5/26/79 9:54 PM
30-Jan-77 10:15:00 AM
6/2/79 4:11 AM
6-Feb-77 4:25:00 PM
6/9/79 8:40 PM
13-Feb-77 7:16:00 AM
6/16/79 2:02 AM
20-Feb-77 4:05:00 PM
6/23/79 9:06 PM
27-Feb-77 6:52:00 AM
6/30/79 1:00 AM
6-Mar-77 3:58:00 PM
7/7/79 7:53 PM
13-Mar-77 5:45:00 AM
7/14/79 12:18 AM
20-Mar-77 4:19:00 AM
7/21/79 8:19 PM
27-Mar-77 5:32:00 AM
7/28/79 11:45 PM
3-Apr-77 3:42:00 AM
8/4/79 7:05 PM
10-Apr-77 4:47:00 AM
8/11/79 11:46 PM
17-Apr-77 3:25:00 AM
8/18/79 7:31 PM
24-Apr-77 4:35:00 AM
8/25/79 10:24 PM
1-May-77 2:49:00 AM
9/1/79 6:12 PM
8-May-77 4:01:00 AM
9/8/79 10:26 PM
15-May-77 2:36:00 AM
9/15/79 6:38 PM
22-May-77 3:49:00 AM
9/22/79 9:17 PM
29-May-77 1:56:00 AM
9/29/79 5:03 PM
5-Jun-77 3:25:00 AM
10/6/79 9:04 AM
12-Jun-77 1:53:00 AM
10/13/79 5:35 PM
19-Jun-77 3:11:00 AM
10/20/79 8:24 AM
26-Jun-77 12:00:00 AM
10/27/79 2:58 PM
3-Jul-77 2:59:00 AM
11/3/79 8:15 AM
10-Jul-77 11:05:00 PM
11/10/79 4:04 PM
17-Jul-77 2:37:00 AM
11/17/79 7:44 AM
24-Jul-77 9:01:00 PM
11/24/79 12:32 PM
31-Jul-77 2:40:00 AM
12/1/79 7:31 AM
84
Dreger Harbor, Papua New Guinea
(6.6500° S, 147.8667° E)
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
7-Aug-77 7:53:00 PM
12/8/79 12:58 PM
14-Aug-77 1:59:00 AM
12/15/79 7:12 AM
21-Aug-77 6:53:00 PM
12/22/79 11:08 AM
28-Aug-77 2:15:00 AM
12/29/79 6:48 AM
4-Sep-77 6:19:00 PM
1/5/80 11:12 AM
11-Sep-77 12:56:00 AM
1/12/80 6:45 AM
18-Sep-77 5:37:00 PM
1/19/80 10:05 AM
25-Sep-77 1:29:00 AM
1/26/80 6:00 AM
2-Oct-77 5:12:00 PM
2/2/80 10:03 AM
9-Oct-77 4:16:00 PM
2/9/80 6:19 AM
16-Oct-77 4:38:00 PM
2/16/80 9:07 AM
23-Oct-77 4:18:00 PM
2/23/80 4:50 AM
30-Oct-77 4:17:00 PM
3/1/80 9:05 AM
3/8/80 5:29 AM
3/15/80 8:09 AM
3/22/80 2:29 AM
3/29/80 8:09 AM
4/5/80 10:22 AM
4/12/80 7:09 AM
4/19/80 12:15 AM
4/26/80 7:13 AM
5/3/80 11:13 PM
5/10/80 6:03 AM
5/17/80 10:46 AM
5/24/80 6:13 AM
5/31/80 10:20 PM
6/7/80 4:44 AM
6/14/80 10:50 PM
6/21/80 4:59 AM
6/28/80 9:28 PM
7/5/80 3:00 AM
7/12/80 9:48 PM
7/19/80 2:26 AM
7/26/80 8:35 PM
8/2/80 1:03 AM
8/9/80 8:51 PM
85
Lucinda, Australia
(18.5167° S, 146.3333° E)
Date
Time of day of the highest
tide
8/16/80 12:29 PM
8/23/80 7:41 PM
8/30/80 12:06 PM
9/6/80 7:56 PM
9/13/80 10:33 PM
9/20/80 6:44 PM
9/27/80 10:48 AM
10/4/80 7:01 PM
10/11/80 9:52 AM
10/18/80 5:41 PM
10/25/80 9:48 AM
11/1/80 6:02 PM
11/8/80 9:07 AM
11/15/80 4:13 PM
11/22/80 8:58 AM
11/29/80 4:48 PM
12/6/80 8:28 AM
12/13/80 1:43 PM
12/20/80 8:12 AM
12/27/80 2:32 PM
86
APPENDIX VII: SOLAR IRRADIANCE CALCULATIONS
Palm Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia
(18.517˚S, 146.3˚E)
Q = QA [(-0.5 • (p/Σp)) + (ΣQ/ΣQA) + 0.054]
Σp: 1147.5 mm
ΣQ: 161.4 ± 85.8 (cal/cm2/day)
ΣQA: 299.5 ± 149.2 (cal/cm2/day)
Monthly
Insolation
(cal/cm2/day)
Monthly
Rainfall
(mm)
Total Solar
Irradiance
(cal/cm2/day)
Month QA p Q
30-Aug-76 708.1 0.9 419.7
30-Sep-76 819.1 3.2 484.6
30-Oct-76 912.0 22.9 531.8
30-Nov-76 972.3 70.6 546.7
30-Dec-76 998.1 317.8 453.7
30-Jan-77 989.5 97.6 544.7
28-Feb-77 946.5 478.4 364.0
30-Mar-77 869.0 271.8 412.5
30-Apr-77 757.2 84.6 421.1
30-May-77 651.3 180.8 335.0
30-Jun-77 597.1 0.2 354.1
30-Jul-77 620.4 0.4 367.8
30-Aug-77 708.1 22.2 413.1
30-Sep-77 819.1 20.4 478.5
30-Oct-77 912.0 2.4 539.9
30-Nov-77 972.3 33.4 562.4
30-Dec-77 998.1 127.6 536.4
30-Jan-78 989.5 436.6 398.6
28-Feb-78 946.5 210.2 474.6
30-Mar-78 869.0 76.4 486.4
30-Apr-78 757.2 115.2 411.0
87
Monthly
Insolation
(cal/cm2/day)
Monthly
Rainfall
(mm)
Total Solar
Irradiance
(cal/cm2/day)
Month QA p Q
30-May-78 651.3 37 375.8
30-Jun-78 597.1 2.6 353.4
30-Jul-78 620.4 21.8 362.0
30-Aug-78 708.1 29 411.0
30-Sep-78 819.1 18.4 479.2
30-Oct-78 912.0 13.4 535.6
30-Nov-78 972.3 49 555.8
30-Dec-78 998.1 60.8 565.5
30-Jan-79 989.5 183.6 507.6
28-Feb-79 946.5 217.4 471.6
30-Mar-79 869.0 309.6 398.1
30-Apr-79 757.2 53.2 431.5
30-May-79 651.3 5 384.9
30-Jun-79 597.1 34.4 345.2
30-Jul-79 620.4 9.4 365.4
30-Aug-79 708.1 0.4 419.8
30-Sep-79 819.1 10.8 481.9
30-Oct-79 912.0 15.8 534.6
30-Nov-79 972.3 0.4 576.4
30-Dec-79 998.1 185 511.5
30-Jan-80 989.5 257.4 475.8
29-Feb-80 946.5 94.8 522.2
30-Mar-80 869.0 153.6 457.2
30-Apr-80 757.2 21.4 442.0
15-May-80 651.3 41.1 374.6
88
Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea
(6˚S, 147.5˚E)
Q = QA [(-0.5 • (p/Σp)) + (ΣQ/ΣQA) + 0.054]
Σp: 2602.69 mm
ΣQ: 173.2 ± 42.5 (cal/cm2/day)
ΣQA: 312.7 ± 63.3 (cal/cm2/day)
Monthly
Insolation
(cal/cm2/day)
Monthly
Rainfall
(mm)
Total Solar
Irradiance
(cal/cm2/day)
Month QA p Q
15-Apr-74 851.0 434.0 446.2
15-May-74 783.8 305.0 430.5
15-Jun-74 746.8 338.0 405.4
15-Jul-74 761.5 84.0 450.5
15-Aug-74 816.5 133.0 475.4
15-Sep-74 869.0 96.0 512.1
15-Oct-74 903.4 265.0 503.1
15-Nov-74 903.4 279.0 500.7
15-Dec-74 903.4 488.0 464.4
15-Jan-75 912.0 383.0 487.2
15-Feb-75 920.7 449.0 480.1
15-Mar-75 903.4 352.0 488.0
15-Apr-75 851.0 308.0 466.8
15-May-75 783.8 306.0 430.3
15-Jun-75 746.8 349.0 403.8
15-Jul-75 761.5 345.0 412.3
15-Aug-75 816.5 443.0 426.8
15-Sep-75 869.0 240.0 488.1
15-Oct-75 903.4 614.0 442.5
15-Nov-75 903.4 233.0 508.6
15-Dec-75 903.4 322.0 493.2
15-Jan-76 912.0 344.0 494.0
15-Feb-76 920.7 231.0 518.7
15-Mar-76 903.4 277.0 501.0
15-Apr-76 851.0 548.0 427.6
15-May-76 783.8 329.0 426.8
15-Jun-76 746.8 126.0 435.8
89
Monthly
Insolation
(cal/cm2/day)
Monthly
Rainfall
(mm)
Total Solar
Irradiance
(cal/cm2/day)
Month QA p Q
15-Jul-76 761.5 184.0 435.9
15-Aug-76 816.5 159.0 471.3
15-Sep-76 869.0 22.0 524.5
15-Oct-76 903.4 120.0 528.2
15-Nov-76 903.4 233.0 508.6
15-Dec-76 903.4 322.0 493.2
15-Jan-77 912.0 244.0 511.6
15-Feb-77 920.7 285.0 509.1
15-Mar-77 903.4 356.0 487.3
15-Apr-77 851.0 211.0 482.7
15-May-77 783.8 480.0 404.1
15-Jun-77 746.8 216.0 422.9
15-Jul-77 761.5 58.0 454.3
15-Aug-77 816.5 64.0 486.2
15-Sep-77 869.0 79.0 515.0
15-Oct-77 903.4 215.0 511.8
90
APPENDIX VIII: PRECIPITATION AND GROWTH
Sample Date
Growth Thickness (per
29 day interval; µm)
Precipitation
(mm)
K-133 15-Apr-74 1095.8 434.0
K-133 15-May-74 1109.5 305.0
K-133 15-Jun-74 755.1 338.0
K-133 15-Jul-74 816.1 84.0
K-133 15-Aug-74 1151.2 133.0
K-133 15-Sep-74 1559.3 96.0
K-133 15-Oct-74 961.4 265.0
K-133 15-Nov-74 875.8 279.0
K-133 15-Dec-74 665.6 488.0
K-133 15-Jan-75 571.6 383.0
K-133 15-Feb-75 681.1 449.0
K-133 15-Mar-75 1015.4 352.0
K-133 15-Apr-75 820.7 308.0
K-133 15-May-75 801.4 306.0
K-133 15-Jun-75 1029.5 349.0
K-133 15-Jul-75 797.9 345.0
K-133 15-Aug-75 820.7 443.0
K-133 15-Sep-75 835.4 240.0
K-133 15-Oct-75 635.4 614.0
K-133 15-Nov-75 966.7 233.0
K-133 15-Dec-75 862.8 322.0
K-133 15-Jan-76 646.3 344.0
K-133 15-Feb-76 906.3 231.0
K-133 15-Mar-76 691.9 277.0
K-133 15-Apr-76 637.5 548.0
K-133 15-May-76 826.3 329.0
K-133 15-Jun-76 914.4 126.0
K-133 15-Jul-76 1067.0 184.0
K-133 15-Aug-76 917.9 159.0
K-133 15-Sep-76 1037.5 22.0
K-133 15-Oct-76 713.3 120.0
K-133 15-Nov-76 658.2 233.0
91
Sample Date
Growth Thickness (per
29 day interval; µm)
Precipitation
(mm)
K-133 15-Dec-76 693.0 322.0
K-133 15-Jan-77 633.7 244.0
K-133 15-Feb-77 850.9 285.0
K-133 15-Mar-77 655.4 356.0
K-133 15-Apr-77 691.2 211.0
K-133 15-May-77 612.3 480.0
K-133 15-Jun-77 496.5 216.0
K-133 15-Jul-77 575.8 58.0
K-133 15-Aug-77 582.8 64.0
K-133 15-Sep-77 656.8 79.0
K-133 15-Oct-77 520.4 215.0
PT-1 30-Aug-76 1348.8 0.9
PT-1 30-Sep-76 1045.7 3.2
PT-1 30-Oct-76 819.7 22.9
PT-1 30-Nov-76 974.5 70.6
PT-1 30-Dec-76 1338.1 317.8
PT-1 30-Jan-77 929.6 97.6
PT-1 28-Feb-77 925.8 478.4
PT-1 30-Mar-77 1484.5 271.8
PT-1 30-Apr-77 1603.0 84.6
PT-1 30-May-77 1355.3 180.8
PT-1 30-Jun-77 1621.6 0.2
PT-1 30-Jul-77 1361.7 0.4
PT-1 30-Aug-77 1205.8 22.2
PT-1 30-Sep-77 994.1 20.4
PT-1 30-Oct-77 833.1 2.4
PT-1 30-Nov-77 502.1 33.4
PT-1 30-Dec-77 968.6 127.6
PT-1 30-Jan-78 1158.1 436.6
PT-1 28-Feb-78 1353.5 210.2
PT-1 30-Mar-78 1051.4 76.4
PT-1 30-Apr-78 1381.6 115.2
PT-1 30-May-78 827.7 37
PT-1 30-Jun-78 867.4 2.6
PT-1 30-Jul-78 1532.9 21.8
PT-1 30-Aug-78 950.3 29
PT-1 30-Sep-78 1245.0 18.4
PT-1 30-Oct-78 1511.6 13.4
92
Sample Date
Growth Thickness (per
29 day interval; µm)
Precipitation
(mm)
PT-1 30-Nov-78 1203.4 49
PT-1 30-Dec-78 977.8 60.8
PT-1 30-Jan-79 744.4 183.6
PT-1 28-Feb-79 1228.2 217.4
PT-1 30-Mar-79 1727.7 309.6
PT-1 30-Apr-79 1329.3 53.2
PT-1 30-May-79 1431.8 5
PT-1 30-Jun-79 930.3 34.4
PT-1 30-Jul-79 913.6 9.4
PT-1 30-Aug-79 651.7 0.4
PT-1 30-Sep-79 863.1 10.8
PT-1 30-Oct-79 621.6 15.8
PT-1 30-Nov-79 752.5 0.4
PT-1 30-Dec-79 770.2 185
PT-1 30-Jan-80 767.7 257.4
PT-1 29-Feb-80 660.9 94.8
PT-1 30-Mar-80 662.5 153.6
PT-1 30-Apr-80 764.3 21.4
PT-1 15-May-80 354.5 41.1
Rainfall data from Madang, Papua-New Guinea (IAEA/WMO (2014)
and Orpheus Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Bureau of
Meteorology, Government of Australia (2014).
93
APPENDIX VIX: RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY
Raman Scattering (arbitrary units)
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
76.62 562.00 330.25 611.25 542.25 1408.50 969.00
77.91 673.00 362.50 634.00 618.00 1632.75 1050.00
79.20 739.00 397.50 721.00 660.25 1841.25 1163.50
80.47 797.00 415.00 735.00 715.00 1980.00 1251.25
81.76 825.33 411.75 765.25 767.25 2164.25 1265.50
83.05 843.67 419.50 770.00 778.25 2250.25 1361.75
84.35 886.00 435.25 798.00 811.25 2328.50 1367.75
85.64 866.00 439.75 807.50 793.75 2423.50 1410.00
86.93 880.33 438.25 846.75 852.25 2481.25 1469.25
88.20 891.33 447.00 853.75 836.00 2563.75 1459.75
89.49 895.00 450.50 852.75 873.25 2586.50 1509.50
90.78 920.33 438.50 868.50 922.50 2719.50 1607.00
92.07 945.00 466.25 919.50 937.00 2788.25 1630.50
93.36 1000.33 464.50 934.25 1017.00 2893.75 1679.50
94.63 1053.00 466.00 983.00 1060.25 2996.25 1764.25
95.92 1089.00 497.25 1031.50 1075.50 3085.00 1846.00
97.22 1158.67 527.50 1080.75 1155.25 3234.25 1952.75
98.48 1203.00 539.00 1138.75 1174.00 3360.00 2055.00
99.78 1237.33 567.25 1176.00 1251.75 3525.50 2116.75
101.07 1308.00 601.50 1249.25 1289.25 3692.00 2244.25
102.36 1347.00 586.50 1281.50 1339.75 3851.00 2278.25
103.63 1331.33 622.25 1296.50 1402.25 3967.75 2370.75
104.92 1382.67 636.75 1353.00 1397.75 4015.75 2467.00
106.21 1419.67 648.25 1416.00 1378.50 4070.00 2483.25
107.48 1413.67 611.00 1378.75 1448.50 4247.75 2485.50
108.77 1421.67 615.25 1408.25 1442.75 4242.00 2538.00
110.06 1399.33 615.25 1394.00 1409.00 4242.50 2534.00
111.33 1390.00 610.00 1398.00 1415.50 4237.25 2507.75
112.62 1408.33 637.50 1400.00 1445.75 4273.50 2510.00
113.91 1413.33 621.00 1394.00 1421.25 4271.50 2510.25
94
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
115.18 1382.67 642.50 1395.25 1403.00 4232.25 2544.50
116.47 1406.00 624.75 1385.75 1434.00 4265.00 2465.00
117.74 1393.67 613.00 1384.50 1371.50 4188.50 2510.50
119.03 1395.33 601.00 1370.00 1412.25 4207.00 2462.25
120.32 1374.00 603.00 1337.50 1409.00 4195.75 2443.00
121.59 1428.33 615.50 1382.00 1405.25 4254.25 2422.25
122.88 1399.00 609.25 1360.75 1429.75 4206.75 2464.00
124.15 1408.67 596.00 1354.75 1403.50 4274.75 2414.00
125.44 1361.67 611.00 1354.75 1393.50 4222.50 2463.25
126.71 1398.67 589.25 1315.75 1413.00 4248.75 2488.00
128.00 1404.33 611.50 1346.75 1429.50 4211.00 2459.00
129.27 1389.33 620.00 1375.00 1412.75 4239.50 2504.75
130.56 1420.33 614.25 1354.75 1444.25 4257.25 2484.50
131.83 1421.67 623.00 1378.50 1488.00 4347.50 2520.50
133.12 1448.33 622.50 1378.00 1478.75 4316.00 2522.00
134.39 1441.33 625.50 1380.25 1524.75 4396.75 2567.25
135.68 1427.00 639.75 1401.25 1585.75 4390.50 2706.75
136.95 1425.00 700.25 1439.75 1617.00 4525.50 2708.75
138.24 1450.67 701.50 1474.50 1680.50 4550.25 2879.00
139.51 1532.33 756.75 1524.75 1767.50 4635.25 2938.50
140.80 1514.67 770.50 1570.75 1836.75 4819.00 3083.25
142.07 1573.33 801.25 1669.25 1931.25 5061.75 3232.75
143.33 1607.00 854.25 1765.50 2056.25 5179.75 3400.25
144.63 1636.33 918.75 1824.50 2208.25 5403.75 3564.50
145.89 1696.33 983.75 1987.75 2372.00 5771.50 3792.00
147.18 1733.00 1061.25 2117.00 2523.00 6009.75 4120.00
148.45 1738.67 1149.25 2232.75 2727.00 6323.00 4429.00
149.72 1844.00 1256.00 2495.00 2966.75 6685.50 4766.00
151.01 1901.33 1355.50 2708.75 3099.25 6961.25 5018.50
152.28 1929.67 1417.50 2833.25 3003.50 7138.00 5176.25
153.55 1897.00 1347.00 2872.25 2910.00 7129.00 5189.00
154.84 1832.67 1211.50 2798.00 2642.75 7050.50 4918.50
156.10 1718.33 1064.75 2663.50 2418.25 6790.25 4473.25
157.37 1632.00 970.25 2387.75 2147.25 6486.50 4185.00
158.66 1589.33 921.50 2187.75 2015.00 6033.25 3862.25
159.93 1554.33 851.25 1997.75 1869.25 5638.00 3584.50
161.20 1520.00 810.75 1798.00 1776.75 5336.25 3369.00
95
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
162.49 1518.00 740.50 1664.75 1701.00 5081.00 3108.75
163.76 1484.00 697.75 1555.25 1601.50 4856.50 2935.50
165.02 1422.00 674.25 1471.00 1593.75 4729.25 2767.00
166.29 1433.33 595.75 1417.25 1497.00 4590.50 2599.25
167.58 1441.67 619.75 1355.00 1492.25 4544.50 2550.75
168.85 1472.33 582.50 1313.50 1488.25 4453.00 2471.50
170.12 1431.00 582.75 1297.50 1496.50 4385.75 2470.25
171.39 1428.33 565.25 1288.25 1487.75 4394.00 2469.00
172.68 1420.33 574.00 1277.75 1500.50 4410.75 2472.00
173.94 1446.33 582.50 1303.50 1509.75 4390.25 2438.50
175.21 1449.67 580.00 1278.75 1584.00 4431.25 2555.75
176.48 1507.67 603.25 1297.00 1631.50 4522.75 2566.50
177.75 1478.00 648.75 1374.25 1596.25 4616.25 2642.25
179.01 1493.67 623.50 1352.00 1627.00 4630.25 2622.75
180.31 1516.33 614.00 1389.50 1658.75 4596.75 2674.25
181.57 1478.00 608.00 1385.50 1604.50 4586.00 2644.25
182.84 1472.33 596.25 1361.50 1569.00 4589.75 2572.50
184.11 1484.00 566.50 1336.00 1571.75 4630.50 2601.75
185.37 1450.33 592.75 1343.00 1591.75 4515.00 2567.75
186.64 1474.00 580.50 1330.50 1573.75 4556.75 2495.25
187.91 1502.33 572.00 1312.00 1537.00 4497.50 2528.25
189.20 1505.67 606.50 1289.50 1556.00 4513.25 2505.00
190.47 1426.33 588.75 1284.00 1575.50 4586.00 2541.75
191.74 1507.00 574.00 1302.00 1585.75 4506.00 2517.50
193.00 1481.67 574.25 1305.25 1597.00 4505.50 2546.75
194.27 1444.00 572.00 1277.00 1579.00 4519.00 2520.50
195.54 1443.00 575.75 1316.75 1592.50 4511.25 2542.00
196.80 1474.67 572.00 1324.00 1637.25 4605.25 2597.50
198.07 1490.33 584.25 1360.50 1700.25 4700.50 2643.25
199.34 1470.00 638.75 1396.25 1791.50 4782.50 2782.75
200.61 1524.00 681.00 1481.75 1892.50 4896.00 2947.75
201.87 1559.67 723.00 1568.75 2017.00 5114.25 3087.50
203.14 1623.00 821.00 1678.50 2163.00 5380.00 3316.00
204.41 1686.67 909.50 1842.50 2269.75 5517.75 3577.25
205.67 1733.67 934.25 2007.75 2298.25 5726.00 3750.25
206.94 1724.00 934.75 2069.50 2162.75 5711.50 3745.50
208.21 1662.00 805.50 2080.00 2102.75 5742.75 3579.25
96
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
209.48 1561.33 734.00 1963.75 1986.25 5603.25 3422.50
210.74 1539.67 683.50 1753.25 1862.25 5412.00 3159.25
212.01 1521.00 659.25 1660.25 1750.75 5213.50 2993.50
213.28 1563.00 660.00 1522.00 1717.50 4992.25 2794.75
214.54 1541.33 641.25 1456.00 1674.50 4861.50 2712.25
215.81 1501.00 602.75 1390.75 1585.25 4761.50 2650.75
217.08 1482.00 608.75 1337.25 1587.50 4624.25 2546.50
218.32 1546.33 599.00 1313.50 1520.50 4550.25 2487.00
219.59 1522.67 585.25 1273.75 1474.00 4511.00 2458.00
220.86 1502.00 558.00 1252.00 1472.75 4436.75 2401.75
222.12 1451.00 556.25 1222.75 1480.25 4305.25 2357.25
223.39 1489.67 554.50 1213.25 1404.50 4256.25 2348.75
224.66 1456.33 547.50 1172.75 1441.00 4325.75 2282.75
225.92 1444.67 536.00 1157.25 1407.25 4262.50 2265.75
227.19 1461.00 544.25 1148.75 1413.00 4280.75 2249.50
228.43 1433.33 521.25 1084.75 1420.75 4171.75 2280.75
229.70 1463.33 551.00 1117.50 1402.00 4128.50 2236.25
230.97 1472.33 517.25 1094.25 1364.50 4171.00 2216.50
232.24 1459.67 524.50 1129.00 1419.00 4094.25 2214.00
233.50 1466.00 505.25 1143.50 1394.00 4148.00 2209.00
234.75 1419.67 506.00 1079.75 1430.25 4180.25 2236.50
236.01 1458.67 509.25 1089.00 1389.50 4150.25 2234.25
237.28 1468.67 499.75 1101.00 1426.00 4127.75 2209.50
238.55 1444.67 518.75 1095.50 1410.75 4099.00 2236.50
239.79 1451.33 509.25 1081.00 1386.25 4178.25 2263.25
241.06 1439.67 506.75 1092.75 1429.00 4146.00 2196.00
242.32 1487.00 505.75 1097.25 1402.00 4208.75 2294.50
243.59 1443.33 509.50 1114.75 1434.00 4247.75 2259.25
244.83 1447.33 524.75 1121.75 1460.50 4213.25 2279.00
246.10 1452.33 511.00 1145.75 1449.50 4223.50 2317.50
247.37 1458.00 511.50 1138.50 1456.25 4218.75 2313.25
248.64 1416.67 489.00 1129.00 1462.50 4247.75 2356.50
249.88 1423.67 519.25 1129.50 1460.25 4250.75 2256.25
251.14 1417.67 499.50 1150.75 1415.50 4273.50 2315.50
252.39 1462.33 484.50 1153.50 1435.25 4199.00 2276.00
253.65 1454.67 501.50 1138.50 1438.75 4276.00 2282.75
254.92 1444.33 492.50 1128.00 1457.75 4178.25 2283.00
97
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
256.16 1425.00 487.25 1157.00 1463.50 4191.25 2262.75
257.43 1449.00 499.50 1133.75 1483.00 4224.00 2304.75
258.70 1446.67 513.50 1137.25 1457.50 4249.75 2314.00
259.94 1446.33 503.25 1145.00 1453.25 4248.00 2311.25
261.21 1438.67 495.00 1153.25 1460.00 4286.00 2328.00
262.48 1447.00 489.00 1135.00 1459.50 4288.50 2290.50
263.72 1430.33 480.00 1157.00 1480.25 4307.25 2274.50
264.98 1443.00 503.00 1113.00 1427.50 4252.00 2289.75
266.23 1433.33 495.75 1096.50 1473.25 4248.50 2283.50
267.49 1412.00 489.50 1136.25 1431.75 4170.25 2236.00
268.74 1486.67 479.25 1111.75 1455.00 4242.75 2296.50
270.00 1461.33 503.25 1117.00 1483.25 4222.25 2257.75
271.25 1497.33 502.25 1120.75 1473.50 4218.25 2274.25
272.51 1460.33 485.00 1156.75 1439.50 4229.00 2258.75
273.78 1425.67 495.50 1134.75 1448.00 4234.50 2284.75
275.02 1471.00 495.00 1114.25 1471.00 4254.25 2261.25
276.29 1460.33 469.00 1098.00 1437.75 4257.00 2241.75
277.53 1441.00 488.00 1107.75 1458.00 4249.25 2253.25
278.77 1488.33 488.00 1118.75 1438.25 4254.50 2295.75
280.04 1455.33 505.25 1105.00 1424.75 4253.75 2279.00
281.28 1491.67 496.25 1108.50 1441.00 4228.00 2293.25
282.55 1468.00 493.50 1099.50 1448.75 4240.50 2263.75
283.79 1469.33 503.50 1104.25 1406.75 4203.50 2237.75
285.06 1428.33 482.25 1078.25 1435.50 4186.25 2237.00
286.30 1454.33 474.25 1109.00 1425.00 4233.25 2249.25
287.57 1434.67 471.00 1114.50 1409.00 4182.75 2241.00
288.81 1424.33 459.25 1098.75 1399.75 4177.25 2220.00
290.06 1439.33 449.00 1064.50 1423.25 4192.25 2177.75
291.32 1465.00 452.25 1064.75 1425.50 4146.50 2214.00
292.57 1403.67 455.50 1055.00 1394.50 4093.25 2136.75
293.83 1447.33 425.25 1049.50 1381.25 4085.00 2209.25
295.07 1455.67 429.25 1032.00 1431.00 4077.75 2159.25
296.32 1438.00 433.50 1067.25 1396.75 4096.00 2128.25
297.58 1435.67 443.00 1023.75 1367.50 4102.50 2131.00
298.83 1393.00 455.25 1021.25 1373.25 4069.00 2174.25
300.07 1447.33 427.50 1064.00 1377.50 4079.75 2159.50
301.34 1405.00 446.50 1063.00 1400.25 4125.00 2157.25
98
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
302.58 1406.33 410.75 1018.00 1400.50 4083.50 2110.75
303.82 1397.67 431.75 1002.75 1379.50 4054.75 2135.00
305.09 1411.33 425.00 1034.00 1353.50 4067.25 2160.25
306.33 1407.00 420.00 1029.75 1379.50 4065.50 2149.25
307.57 1404.33 427.75 1026.50 1397.50 4111.50 2118.50
308.84 1410.33 417.00 1045.00 1407.50 4119.50 2147.00
310.08 1392.00 424.50 1028.50 1400.00 4044.75 2152.75
311.32 1432.33 431.75 1014.00 1400.75 4086.25 2134.75
312.57 1386.67 416.25 1037.50 1379.50 4108.00 2165.75
313.83 1399.67 427.25 1000.50 1371.50 4115.75 2127.00
315.08 1392.33 419.00 1036.50 1403.00 4096.00 2102.50
316.32 1410.33 414.25 1013.75 1378.25 4045.25 2114.50
317.56 1399.00 432.50 999.50 1399.75 4053.25 2111.25
318.80 1391.67 398.75 1006.50 1369.50 4029.25 2153.25
320.07 1421.67 419.50 1030.75 1374.50 4029.25 2120.00
321.31 1447.33 410.25 1060.75 1386.00 4039.25 2138.50
322.56 1419.67 416.00 1035.75 1409.25 4008.25 2147.00
323.80 1453.00 410.25 1016.25 1379.00 4078.75 2152.50
325.04 1366.67 411.00 1006.75 1357.00 4113.25 2124.75
326.31 1414.67 418.50 1012.50 1411.50 4083.25 2163.25
327.55 1411.33 397.50 1019.75 1398.50 4088.25 2118.25
328.79 1373.67 413.50 1037.50 1362.25 4072.25 2110.25
330.03 1407.67 414.75 1042.75 1386.00 4042.25 2113.00
331.28 1395.00 410.75 997.25 1405.25 4073.75 2113.00
332.52 1416.33 418.25 1014.75 1412.25 4089.50 2102.50
333.76 1400.33 429.00 1022.50 1357.25 4046.25 2159.00
335.00 1434.33 405.75 1015.50 1401.50 4056.25 2155.00
336.27 1385.00 408.00 1006.00 1368.25 4087.25 2143.00
337.51 1435.67 406.00 1016.75 1375.75 4077.75 2129.00
338.76 1429.67 408.75 1024.75 1396.75 4050.25 2126.25
340.00 1402.33 406.25 1001.50 1363.25 4052.50 2121.75
341.24 1408.00 417.25 1010.00 1377.50 4064.25 2153.50
342.48 1381.00 418.50 1004.25 1388.00 4084.50 2124.25
343.73 1433.00 405.25 1010.00 1397.50 4028.75 2112.25
344.97 1427.00 409.25 998.00 1372.75 4029.25 2091.00
346.21 1402.67 434.50 1027.25 1385.25 4048.50 2104.00
347.45 1377.67 398.00 998.00 1388.25 4146.00 2119.25
99
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
348.69 1363.00 409.50 1012.50 1385.00 3978.50 2133.25
349.94 1367.67 423.50 1019.50 1389.75 4010.25 2142.00
351.18 1419.67 427.75 985.00 1382.25 4025.75 2133.00
352.42 1414.33 404.75 1027.00 1386.00 4096.00 2127.50
353.66 1375.00 422.50 1004.50 1365.00 4064.50 2106.00
354.91 1437.67 408.00 989.25 1386.25 4062.00 2140.00
356.15 1387.33 395.00 1002.50 1408.25 4070.25 2121.50
357.39 1416.67 412.50 993.75 1374.75 4105.00 2120.50
358.63 1395.33 404.25 994.50 1373.00 4047.25 2083.00
359.88 1418.33 415.75 1005.50 1381.00 3980.75 2134.75
361.12 1452.33 420.50 1000.25 1385.75 4032.75 2113.75
362.34 1408.67 428.00 1014.25 1412.75 4090.00 2121.75
363.58 1401.00 408.75 1030.00 1414.25 4040.50 2058.00
364.82 1370.33 402.00 1013.50 1397.50 4010.00 2140.25
366.06 1391.33 409.25 1033.75 1408.75 4062.75 2129.75
367.31 1447.00 400.50 1001.00 1393.00 4055.00 2128.25
368.55 1387.67 413.00 992.50 1406.00 4062.50 2125.00
369.79 1411.33 419.50 1021.50 1412.25 4103.00 2123.75
371.03 1463.00 428.50 979.75 1397.50 4056.25 2109.25
372.25 1418.33 418.50 1009.00 1364.00 4050.75 2134.75
373.49 1414.33 416.50 1028.50 1383.50 4086.75 2098.00
374.73 1399.00 412.75 1004.25 1429.25 4133.25 2113.75
375.98 1418.67 396.50 1002.75 1430.50 4081.00 2127.75
377.22 1423.00 423.50 1030.50 1392.75 4056.00 2128.25
378.46 1411.00 399.75 1019.75 1376.00 4092.50 2101.00
379.68 1453.33 426.75 1036.50 1383.25 4047.75 2114.75
380.92 1412.00 431.00 1014.75 1394.00 4059.00 2136.75
382.16 1411.67 416.00 1024.00 1421.25 4108.00 2158.25
383.41 1402.00 406.75 1006.75 1409.50 4049.25 2145.00
384.62 1394.67 402.50 1009.25 1366.50 4065.25 2125.25
385.87 1454.33 434.25 1020.75 1344.25 3998.75 2107.25
387.11 1445.67 413.25 1021.75 1399.75 4122.50 2172.25
388.35 1398.33 406.75 1029.00 1387.75 4124.50 2162.50
389.57 1455.67 419.25 1000.00 1389.25 4072.00 2121.50
390.81 1417.33 409.25 1045.00 1420.75 4077.00 2146.75
392.05 1430.67 409.50 1018.50 1384.00 4048.50 2127.50
393.30 1413.33 398.25 998.75 1410.50 4089.75 2144.25
100
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
394.51 1414.67 415.00 1035.00 1401.50 4081.50 2108.75
395.76 1439.67 411.50 1020.00 1422.25 4119.50 2100.75
397.00 1421.67 414.50 1005.25 1401.00 4082.50 2138.75
398.22 1395.33 406.50 1012.00 1388.25 4075.50 2120.00
399.46 1404.67 406.50 999.25 1410.00 4044.50 2144.25
400.70 1395.33 410.00 988.00 1419.00 4038.00 2130.25
401.92 1419.00 411.75 996.50 1418.00 4016.25 2110.25
403.16 1402.33 410.25 1010.00 1390.75 4119.75 2132.75
404.40 1394.67 419.50 1021.75 1411.75 4048.50 2131.00
405.62 1399.00 410.50 1018.75 1382.00 4058.50 2131.75
406.86 1392.00 416.50 1006.00 1419.50 4074.25 2143.25
408.08 1433.33 415.75 991.00 1417.00 4058.25 2117.50
409.32 1412.00 402.25 1035.25 1432.75 4052.50 2089.75
410.54 1395.00 417.25 1020.75 1386.75 4052.50 2133.00
411.78 1445.33 417.75 1009.25 1409.75 4047.75 2118.75
413.02 1418.67 411.75 996.75 1373.00 4077.25 2133.00
414.24 1395.67 409.50 1010.00 1380.50 4085.25 2082.25
415.48 1429.67 410.75 1014.75 1410.00 4077.25 2093.75
416.70 1442.33 403.00 1012.25 1413.00 4028.50 2149.25
417.94 1410.33 415.75 997.75 1382.00 4091.00 2103.25
419.16 1417.67 415.50 1002.00 1392.50 4121.75 2144.00
420.40 1438.00 411.25 1022.75 1389.00 4056.75 2107.25
421.62 1381.33 393.25 1024.00 1408.00 4087.75 2097.50
422.86 1428.33 401.00 1003.00 1399.50 4091.00 2114.75
424.08 1373.67 414.00 1005.25 1411.50 4107.50 2110.75
425.32 1399.00 409.75 1015.50 1389.00 4061.75 2146.75
426.54 1410.33 404.00 1027.00 1382.00 4043.00 2134.75
427.78 1405.00 428.75 997.50 1406.50 3986.75 2163.00
429.00 1393.00 411.00 1008.75 1395.75 4053.50 2118.75
430.24 1395.00 399.25 988.00 1423.50 4037.00 2153.75
431.46 1414.33 418.00 1047.75 1425.50 3973.75 2122.25
432.70 1388.67 409.50 999.75 1385.75 3998.00 2132.75
433.92 1393.33 416.25 1013.25 1385.75 4014.75 2144.00
435.14 1399.00 406.25 1001.25 1419.50 4059.25 2116.75
436.38 1432.00 412.50 1022.00 1393.25 4037.75 2092.75
437.60 1404.00 418.50 964.50 1407.00 4029.50 2113.00
438.84 1406.00 404.00 1029.75 1375.00 4081.00 2105.75
101
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
440.06 1400.00 402.75 1013.50 1370.75 4044.00 2123.25
441.28 1408.33 425.00 1024.50 1388.75 4053.50 2099.75
442.52 1411.67 400.50 984.25 1367.50 4042.25 2103.25
443.74 1403.67 387.25 991.50 1392.25 4051.25 2131.00
444.95 1378.00 413.00 1008.00 1425.25 4034.50 2091.75
446.20 1434.00 401.25 989.25 1399.00 4078.75 2096.50
447.41 1412.33 405.00 982.25 1370.50 4035.50 2148.25
448.63 1408.00 398.50 1005.75 1403.75 4049.00 2073.75
449.87 1411.67 403.50 1010.50 1401.00 4024.00 2098.00
451.09 1415.67 417.00 990.75 1389.00 4060.00 2123.75
452.31 1379.67 407.50 1012.00 1412.75 4068.25 2124.25
453.55 1424.67 415.00 1011.25 1386.75 3994.00 2055.00
454.77 1392.00 423.50 1002.75 1396.50 4075.25 2112.25
455.98 1400.00 400.75 1018.25 1403.25 4024.75 2085.75
457.23 1350.00 418.75 990.50 1423.50 4026.50 2124.25
458.44 1421.33 403.25 1009.50 1415.25 4028.00 2087.75
459.66 1430.33 403.75 1018.00 1402.50 4048.25 2117.25
460.88 1415.33 410.75 996.75 1416.50 4050.75 2144.50
462.10 1411.33 418.75 994.50 1417.25 4046.25 2090.25
463.34 1419.67 393.00 1003.25 1421.25 4006.00 2099.00
464.56 1399.00 418.00 1009.75 1408.50 4029.50 2093.00
465.77 1401.00 408.50 996.50 1428.50 3989.25 2112.25
466.99 1389.33 418.25 1000.00 1402.50 4023.00 2069.25
468.23 1417.00 418.00 1006.75 1434.75 4040.50 2125.00
469.45 1401.00 397.75 1011.25 1384.25 4085.00 2125.75
470.67 1405.67 407.00 1018.50 1406.75 3998.00 2137.00
471.89 1420.00 407.25 994.25 1391.25 4074.75 2106.50
473.10 1393.00 410.25 994.25 1391.75 4027.00 2099.00
474.32 1428.00 420.75 1000.25 1412.25 4050.75 2117.75
475.56 1396.00 408.75 1025.50 1408.75 4076.50 2092.50
476.78 1387.67 417.00 982.00 1425.75 4077.25 2134.00
478.00 1396.00 406.75 992.00 1396.00 4039.00 2117.25
479.22 1401.00 419.50 1005.75 1373.00 3999.00 2136.25
480.43 1421.00 407.75 1029.25 1404.00 4004.75 2129.75
481.65 1419.67 394.25 1010.50 1435.00 4044.00 2125.75
482.87 1421.33 398.25 1022.75 1404.00 4057.25 2120.50
484.09 1424.67 433.75 1002.50 1399.75 4012.25 2128.25
102
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
485.30 1405.67 418.75 1014.75 1427.25 3996.75 2090.75
486.52 1424.67 407.25 1005.50 1391.75 4062.50 2085.50
487.74 1396.00 400.25 1009.50 1433.75 3972.00 2093.25
488.98 1416.33 406.50 1000.25 1373.00 4038.75 2121.50
490.20 1420.33 412.00 1004.75 1404.25 4017.50 2098.50
491.42 1425.00 396.25 1013.00 1437.00 4069.50 2064.00
492.63 1389.67 406.25 991.75 1410.75 4016.25 2116.25
493.85 1400.00 389.25 995.75 1427.00 4046.75 2120.50
495.07 1425.67 408.00 977.50 1397.75 4062.00 2128.50
496.29 1396.33 396.75 991.50 1397.75 3995.50 2127.00
497.50 1380.33 407.75 1008.50 1385.50 4013.25 2103.75
498.72 1417.00 391.75 1003.75 1390.50 3985.75 2110.75
499.94 1421.33 403.50 998.75 1409.25 4071.25 2091.50
501.16 1378.33 391.50 976.50 1398.75 4013.75 2095.00
502.37 1424.67 407.50 1000.00 1408.50 4037.75 2075.75
503.57 1392.00 383.25 971.00 1430.75 4064.25 2110.25
504.78 1407.00 390.75 978.50 1379.50 3929.75 2076.50
506.00 1415.00 407.75 966.50 1375.50 4039.50 2105.25
507.22 1398.33 406.00 983.75 1404.25 3995.25 2086.25
508.44 1379.67 382.00 959.50 1380.25 4010.00 2072.25
509.65 1416.67 388.75 980.75 1384.75 3964.75 2106.00
510.87 1389.33 393.00 945.25 1397.50 4001.50 2044.75
512.09 1388.67 387.50 982.00 1406.75 4012.50 2060.25
513.31 1371.67 393.25 971.25 1364.75 3935.50 2061.50
514.52 1436.67 394.00 993.75 1401.50 3975.50 2037.50
515.74 1389.00 392.00 983.50 1367.75 3936.50 2067.75
516.94 1351.00 409.00 967.25 1402.75 4000.25 2123.75
518.15 1390.33 401.25 960.50 1402.00 4003.25 2084.75
519.37 1370.67 404.00 978.75 1389.50 3979.75 2064.25
520.59 1386.33 406.75 974.00 1393.75 3961.25 2080.50
521.81 1441.33 389.25 946.50 1364.50 3895.25 2060.75
523.02 1398.67 394.25 973.50 1371.50 3967.75 2070.25
524.22 1412.67 386.25 963.25 1353.75 4013.75 2013.75
525.43 1393.33 391.75 963.00 1359.50 3968.00 2041.75
526.65 1383.67 389.50 974.25 1390.25 3964.25 2035.25
527.87 1407.00 398.25 956.25 1367.75 3941.00 2068.75
529.09 1346.33 402.25 957.50 1392.50 3997.00 2065.25
103
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
530.28 1378.67 391.75 969.25 1360.00 3999.75 2058.25
531.50 1345.00 370.75 962.50 1394.50 3931.00 2051.00
532.71 1385.00 374.75 949.00 1356.75 3964.50 2062.75
533.93 1387.33 391.25 948.50 1322.25 3883.50 2058.25
535.12 1406.67 388.25 966.25 1370.75 3914.25 2051.25
536.34 1402.00 403.25 961.75 1344.75 3932.50 2019.25
537.56 1384.33 390.25 929.50 1363.25 3905.00 2032.75
538.75 1360.67 402.00 962.50 1376.25 3873.50 2037.25
539.97 1393.33 394.50 970.50 1378.50 3891.50 2020.75
541.19 1383.33 379.25 977.25 1356.25 3947.75 2029.50
542.40 1361.67 398.00 966.75 1341.75 3949.25 2076.50
543.60 1358.33 399.25 952.75 1373.50 3906.50 2013.50
544.81 1373.00 376.75 944.25 1389.50 3897.50 2037.50
546.03 1357.67 400.25 945.00 1364.75 3872.00 2047.50
547.22 1394.00 374.25 948.75 1387.75 3955.50 2016.25
548.44 1369.00 387.25 946.50 1383.50 3817.00 2028.50
549.66 1381.33 391.00 962.25 1388.00 3956.00 2072.75
550.85 1385.67 404.25 934.00 1378.75 3942.00 2066.50
552.07 1390.00 397.25 957.25 1391.00 3893.50 2055.50
553.26 1367.67 377.25 920.00 1355.00 3885.75 2069.50
554.48 1400.33 394.50 950.00 1410.25 3923.00 2027.00
555.70 1354.00 377.75 945.50 1359.00 3890.75 2024.00
556.89 1363.33 377.00 963.50 1379.00 3894.00 2041.50
558.11 1367.33 396.50 959.00 1361.00 3871.25 1993.00
559.30 1371.67 376.50 941.00 1404.50 3880.00 2039.00
560.52 1378.67 398.75 937.00 1372.25 3934.75 2020.00
561.71 1362.33 386.00 928.00 1355.50 3901.25 2017.50
562.93 1398.67 384.25 931.50 1384.75 3875.50 2009.75
564.14 1374.67 367.00 962.50 1373.25 3896.25 2043.50
565.34 1357.67 387.00 964.00 1373.00 3874.00 2062.25
566.55 1377.67 402.75 936.75 1383.25 3867.00 2013.75
567.75 1381.33 398.00 965.75 1376.00 3970.25 2032.00
568.96 1377.33 390.25 946.00 1378.50 3890.75 2023.00
570.16 1392.00 383.50 937.25 1372.50 3896.50 2016.75
571.38 1388.00 377.25 961.25 1357.25 3866.50 2021.75
572.57 1357.00 392.00 949.25 1393.25 3911.00 2015.00
573.79 1405.00 401.25 939.50 1367.00 3937.00 2069.50
104
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
574.98 1390.00 387.25 959.50 1408.75 3935.25 2003.25
576.20 1360.67 390.50 964.75 1389.25 3915.25 2016.25
577.39 1403.33 389.00 950.50 1388.75 3882.75 2031.50
578.58 1399.67 387.50 942.25 1391.00 3948.50 2005.00
579.80 1365.00 379.50 923.50 1361.50 3913.25 2034.00
580.99 1381.33 383.75 973.75 1373.75 3915.25 2023.50
582.21 1420.33 398.50 940.00 1363.00 3925.75 2018.75
583.40 1381.00 401.75 955.75 1410.75 3930.50 2039.25
584.62 1378.33 388.25 928.50 1405.50 3896.25 1991.50
585.81 1351.33 405.75 931.75 1398.00 3859.50 2012.50
587.00 1361.33 407.75 930.75 1367.25 3915.75 1994.25
588.22 1389.67 396.25 939.25 1396.25 3935.25 2047.00
589.41 1416.67 395.00 955.75 1372.50 3918.50 2033.50
590.61 1418.00 391.50 969.50 1401.50 3949.25 2005.50
591.82 1413.00 389.50 959.50 1390.50 3938.00 2043.50
593.02 1408.00 385.25 918.00 1365.00 3915.75 2038.00
594.21 1354.33 392.00 920.75 1390.75 3923.00 2067.50
595.43 1427.00 406.50 958.50 1381.25 3951.50 2013.75
596.62 1423.33 377.50 943.25 1391.00 4008.00 2078.00
597.81 1398.67 379.25 938.50 1400.75 3963.75 2038.75
599.03 1393.33 393.50 953.75 1411.75 3935.00 2028.75
600.22 1370.67 385.00 946.25 1378.00 3927.00 2073.00
601.42 1388.33 386.00 947.00 1379.25 3947.00 1992.25
602.63 1381.67 399.00 952.25 1377.75 3932.50 1997.25
603.83 1413.33 388.50 937.25 1371.50 4004.25 2038.00
605.02 1414.33 387.25 936.75 1393.50 3886.00 2053.25
606.21 1421.00 369.75 952.75 1381.25 3941.75 2055.25
607.43 1385.00 395.75 957.75 1400.25 3892.75 2082.00
608.62 1392.33 381.00 965.25 1395.75 3929.50 2030.50
609.81 1393.33 375.75 934.00 1433.75 3889.50 2064.00
611.01 1417.33 383.00 956.25 1399.25 3879.25 2038.00
612.22 1413.33 375.50 956.25 1396.50 3884.50 2015.25
613.42 1402.00 400.00 937.25 1351.25 3920.75 2011.50
614.61 1433.33 383.25 927.50 1383.50 3880.50 2029.50
615.80 1404.00 372.75 932.75 1408.00 3933.00 2029.75
616.99 1382.33 401.25 949.75 1396.25 3902.50 1992.50
618.21 1395.33 375.25 937.50 1393.25 3921.00 2049.75
105
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
619.40 1452.67 381.50 926.75 1396.75 3912.75 2027.25
620.60 1394.67 398.25 937.75 1386.50 3851.00 2044.00
621.79 1354.67 387.25 940.00 1375.50 3879.00 2047.00
622.98 1383.67 386.25 939.75 1365.75 3911.00 2064.25
624.18 1404.33 399.75 939.00 1381.50 3939.25 2033.25
625.37 1430.33 391.00 934.00 1377.00 3906.75 2029.00
626.59 1388.00 388.75 957.75 1353.00 3883.50 2038.25
627.78 1425.33 393.00 962.00 1410.50 3929.00 2073.00
628.97 1413.67 372.50 914.00 1395.75 3933.75 2015.75
630.16 1368.00 385.75 949.25 1393.00 3894.00 2057.00
631.36 1422.00 368.00 943.50 1369.75 3886.50 1995.00
632.55 1374.00 378.00 937.75 1361.75 3903.25 2017.25
633.74 1369.00 384.00 939.75 1404.50 3856.25 1998.75
634.93 1457.33 379.00 950.75 1385.25 3902.00 1954.25
636.13 1389.67 393.00 920.75 1408.50 3854.00 2004.50
637.32 1383.67 374.25 926.50 1393.25 3897.00 2023.00
638.51 1410.00 380.50 931.25 1378.00 3886.25 2052.00
639.70 1390.33 388.75 925.25 1391.00 3820.00 1994.75
640.90 1408.33 395.00 916.50 1399.75 3865.50 2009.75
642.09 1413.67 393.00 927.75 1355.00 3911.75 2054.00
643.28 1417.00 380.50 925.00 1373.00 3915.00 2009.75
644.48 1370.33 384.50 927.00 1356.50 3866.75 2013.00
645.67 1406.33 381.75 950.50 1359.25 3906.75 2062.50
646.86 1400.67 368.50 939.25 1381.75 3871.00 2023.00
648.05 1372.67 386.75 948.25 1390.00 3915.00 2039.25
649.25 1379.67 386.75 928.00 1387.50 3911.00 2029.75
650.44 1370.67 380.25 959.25 1388.75 3870.25 1994.75
651.63 1431.33 388.50 951.75 1365.00 3945.00 2045.25
652.82 1418.00 377.00 929.75 1399.25 3836.50 2003.50
654.02 1400.00 386.25 932.50 1354.25 3838.00 2053.25
655.21 1406.67 384.25 950.75 1342.75 3843.25 2039.25
656.40 1428.67 376.50 928.00 1394.00 3843.50 1988.00
657.59 1397.67 378.75 922.50 1373.50 3878.50 1959.50
658.79 1396.00 373.75 940.50 1363.00 3797.75 2022.75
659.98 1401.67 365.00 928.75 1352.50 3803.50 2027.00
661.17 1411.33 387.00 940.00 1370.50 3850.25 2010.75
662.34 1400.67 370.50 941.75 1351.00 3863.50 1999.25
106
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
663.53 1382.67 374.75 929.25 1364.00 3898.75 1993.25
664.73 1378.00 370.50 952.00 1390.50 3864.50 1995.25
665.92 1382.67 358.00 936.25 1363.00 3815.50 2006.25
667.11 1400.33 392.00 910.50 1374.50 3849.00 2022.00
668.30 1341.67 381.50 928.25 1358.50 3786.75 2002.50
669.50 1397.33 389.25 923.50 1366.50 3820.75 1953.25
670.66 1402.00 381.50 938.75 1360.00 3815.50 2007.25
671.86 1357.00 381.50 932.50 1355.75 3865.25 1997.00
673.05 1406.00 387.75 911.75 1374.00 3847.75 1996.00
674.24 1424.33 379.50 918.25 1371.50 3871.50 1985.25
675.44 1399.67 378.00 934.75 1362.50 3792.25 2031.75
676.60 1386.67 362.75 922.50 1374.75 3840.25 1990.00
677.80 1382.67 369.50 926.75 1389.50 3805.75 2010.50
678.99 1393.33 384.75 940.25 1370.75 3871.00 2012.75
680.18 1371.00 381.25 923.25 1356.25 3849.00 2019.50
681.35 1398.00 381.75 909.00 1357.75 3903.00 2015.50
682.54 1400.33 362.50 936.00 1378.50 3827.75 1981.75
683.73 1384.67 383.75 909.50 1378.00 3825.25 1981.25
684.93 1347.67 386.50 938.25 1386.50 3850.75 2005.25
686.09 1346.00 380.00 913.25 1365.25 3812.50 2002.00
687.29 1438.00 379.50 914.25 1386.50 3849.75 1985.75
688.48 1381.33 371.25 916.25 1408.00 3857.50 2022.75
689.65 1342.33 390.25 932.25 1386.25 3853.75 1981.25
690.84 1400.00 375.25 922.00 1387.75 3850.50 2021.50
692.03 1374.00 388.00 934.75 1395.75 3829.00 2007.50
693.20 1354.00 370.75 920.25 1425.25 3871.25 2019.00
694.39 1406.00 404.00 911.50 1441.25 3899.25 2074.25
695.59 1366.33 411.00 967.75 1462.50 4003.25 2084.75
696.75 1427.67 400.75 937.25 1493.50 4051.00 2168.25
697.95 1463.00 420.25 987.25 1549.75 4167.75 2212.25
699.14 1480.67 452.75 979.75 1641.50 4241.50 2307.25
700.31 1557.67 539.25 1081.50 1729.00 4338.00 2436.25
701.50 1541.33 569.75 1181.00 1751.00 4511.50 2520.25
702.69 1521.33 551.25 1266.75 1766.75 4526.75 2572.50
703.86 1526.67 536.25 1259.50 1755.25 4589.75 2601.00
705.05 1598.67 585.00 1256.50 1715.25 4581.00 2540.00
706.22 1538.00 552.25 1283.00 1671.75 4620.25 2578.00
107
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
707.41 1465.67 470.00 1263.00 1570.50 4486.25 2483.50
708.58 1415.33 437.00 1193.25 1459.25 4345.50 2303.00
709.77 1464.67 418.25 1085.75 1426.75 4244.00 2219.00
710.97 1379.67 399.00 1024.50 1397.50 4044.75 2158.25
712.13 1366.33 383.50 986.50 1393.50 4070.25 2056.50
713.33 1403.00 389.25 979.00 1399.00 3986.25 2078.00
714.49 1363.00 388.50 942.00 1408.00 3920.00 2024.00
715.69 1413.33 387.25 981.75 1389.50 3929.50 2068.75
716.86 1387.33 388.50 964.50 1394.00 3900.75 2037.50
718.05 1389.00 371.00 937.00 1360.00 3882.25 2067.50
719.22 1377.67 379.25 938.00 1335.25 3853.25 2033.00
720.41 1414.67 387.00 912.50 1385.50 3849.25 1972.00
721.58 1373.33 389.25 922.50 1354.75 3837.75 2016.00
722.77 1393.33 374.75 918.00 1346.25 3812.50 2000.50
723.94 1374.00 383.75 911.50 1364.00 3856.50 1994.25
725.13 1405.00 370.25 908.00 1367.25 3862.00 1969.75
726.30 1383.67 365.00 908.75 1362.25 3785.50 1971.25
727.47 1373.33 375.75 921.25 1363.50 3838.00 1997.00
728.66 1409.00 367.25 907.50 1332.50 3799.00 1984.00
729.83 1368.67 366.75 916.75 1354.50 3750.50 1983.50
731.02 1366.00 356.50 895.50 1338.50 3827.50 1967.75
732.19 1396.67 378.75 907.50 1337.50 3778.25 1924.75
733.38 1375.67 365.50 907.75 1346.75 3816.75 1989.25
734.55 1378.33 363.75 913.75 1340.00 3779.25 1951.25
735.71 1394.00 370.50 915.00 1377.75 3810.25 1954.50
736.91 1345.33 384.25 899.50 1377.50 3849.50 1961.75
738.07 1383.33 378.50 936.00 1343.00 3758.00 1933.50
739.24 1403.33 382.25 898.25 1333.25 3747.50 1995.25
740.44 1358.33 377.25 898.00 1342.00 3740.50 1955.75
741.60 1413.67 359.00 888.00 1337.25 3779.75 1984.00
742.80 1393.00 354.75 894.50 1334.50 3837.25 1984.00
743.96 1370.33 354.00 896.25 1352.00 3752.25 1988.00
745.13 1381.00 369.75 924.50 1344.00 3712.75 1894.75
746.32 1360.67 366.75 894.75 1349.50 3741.75 1955.50
747.49 1384.33 361.00 864.75 1373.25 3776.50 1944.50
748.66 1403.67 376.25 891.75 1326.50 3763.50 1931.25
749.83 1378.00 375.25 894.75 1347.75 3806.25 1932.25
108
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
751.02 1383.33 366.75 864.50 1342.00 3783.75 1910.25
752.19 1394.00 379.25 887.00 1343.00 3742.50 1957.50
753.36 1404.67 382.00 905.75 1331.75 3812.25 1969.00
754.52 1401.67 369.25 882.25 1318.25 3755.75 1967.25
755.72 1373.67 370.75 904.25 1311.50 3723.25 1939.00
756.88 1406.00 356.00 891.75 1340.75 3739.75 1957.00
758.05 1391.33 368.00 896.00 1329.00 3732.00 1922.00
759.22 1368.00 367.50 863.50 1354.50 3688.25 1913.75
760.41 1390.00 366.25 928.00 1337.00 3799.75 1952.75
761.58 1426.33 371.00 882.50 1328.00 3733.75 1959.75
762.75 1426.67 369.75 887.00 1348.75 3753.25 1933.00
763.92 1376.33 364.75 913.75 1350.00 3752.25 1929.50
765.08 1384.00 375.75 897.25 1328.75 3778.50 1908.75
766.28 1391.33 369.75 907.50 1337.50 3719.75 1936.00
767.44 1375.67 372.25 899.75 1338.00 3738.75 1950.75
768.61 1386.67 352.50 883.00 1368.50 3694.50 1978.75
769.78 1387.00 362.50 908.75 1320.50 3720.75 1933.25
770.95 1381.33 370.75 892.25 1321.25 3728.75 1926.75
772.12 1360.33 358.50 893.00 1315.25 3759.75 1970.50
773.31 1368.33 371.75 858.75 1340.75 3730.75 1961.50
774.48 1395.67 347.75 884.75 1358.25 3752.25 1953.25
775.64 1394.33 373.25 897.25 1310.50 3718.75 1950.00
776.81 1349.00 364.00 870.50 1328.25 3770.25 1970.50
777.98 1368.33 376.25 879.25 1314.75 3773.25 1901.25
779.15 1393.00 367.50 912.50 1355.00 3790.25 1949.00
780.31 1415.00 372.75 876.00 1296.50 3773.75 1953.25
781.48 1368.33 361.50 898.50 1362.00 3735.75 1951.50
782.65 1389.67 352.25 871.50 1303.75 3769.75 1953.25
783.82 1390.67 363.25 891.25 1330.50 3768.00 1951.75
785.01 1385.67 366.25 884.25 1353.75 3722.75 1916.50
786.18 1350.33 360.75 887.00 1340.25 3719.75 1968.50
787.35 1375.33 359.75 891.00 1315.75 3703.25 1934.25
788.51 1389.00 366.50 869.50 1334.50 3742.50 1940.75
789.68 1361.67 366.50 866.50 1300.50 3742.25 1958.25
790.85 1386.00 370.75 877.00 1330.00 3750.50 1890.00
792.02 1383.33 379.75 891.75 1333.50 3743.50 1932.50
793.19 1380.33 361.25 899.50 1318.25 3682.50 1955.75
109
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
794.35 1382.00 348.25 869.00 1330.50 3683.75 1932.75
795.52 1399.33 367.75 898.25 1326.50 3732.75 1910.00
796.69 1374.00 356.50 872.75 1340.75 3725.25 1878.75
797.86 1395.00 381.25 897.75 1338.50 3657.25 1914.50
799.02 1356.00 377.25 889.25 1336.75 3713.75 1916.75
800.19 1430.33 346.75 892.50 1324.75 3695.25 1904.00
801.36 1395.67 368.25 875.50 1314.25 3728.00 1934.00
802.50 1369.00 368.50 885.50 1321.00 3788.50 1918.25
803.67 1372.33 351.25 880.50 1348.75 3685.25 1878.75
804.84 1364.33 380.00 909.00 1326.25 3707.50 1962.75
806.01 1390.33 379.25 881.75 1318.75 3731.00 1905.25
807.17 1392.00 359.75 899.25 1330.50 3714.50 1908.25
808.34 1390.00 342.25 891.75 1291.75 3707.75 1919.25
809.51 1369.67 356.75 868.25 1307.75 3735.75 1933.50
810.68 1397.33 361.50 875.50 1326.25 3705.75 1890.75
811.85 1368.00 372.50 888.75 1330.75 3772.50 1898.75
813.01 1396.67 347.75 885.50 1319.75 3707.75 1938.50
814.16 1414.00 363.50 868.25 1306.25 3672.75 1906.50
815.32 1383.67 378.75 875.75 1334.00 3698.50 1915.50
816.49 1381.33 358.75 875.75 1323.00 3713.75 1900.00
817.66 1428.67 367.75 869.25 1301.75 3665.25 1928.50
818.83 1379.33 362.75 915.75 1307.50 3686.25 1943.25
820.00 1378.00 349.75 890.50 1307.25 3741.75 1922.00
821.14 1383.00 364.00 895.00 1273.75 3702.00 1946.00
822.31 1381.33 356.50 889.00 1284.75 3705.75 1943.50
823.47 1375.33 358.75 899.00 1315.25 3715.00 1930.75
824.64 1385.00 351.75 892.75 1351.50 3657.00 1884.50
825.81 1417.33 351.00 878.25 1330.75 3685.00 1963.25
826.95 1392.67 364.00 846.50 1315.75 3659.75 1929.00
828.12 1371.00 362.00 870.25 1287.00 3659.00 1934.50
829.29 1373.00 352.75 858.50 1323.00 3653.75 1927.75
830.46 1400.00 373.75 859.25 1314.00 3794.00 1882.25
831.60 1411.67 351.50 891.75 1288.50 3704.50 1965.50
832.77 1402.33 368.25 881.75 1282.50 3725.25 1918.50
833.94 1348.00 342.75 862.50 1320.25 3688.50 1925.00
835.10 1409.33 353.50 876.75 1315.50 3746.75 1938.00
836.25 1382.00 357.25 878.75 1324.00 3711.25 1918.25
110
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
837.41 1385.67 361.75 861.25 1282.50 3737.25 1895.75
838.58 1347.67 374.50 847.75 1310.75 3736.50 1882.25
839.72 1430.67 358.50 890.25 1296.00 3687.00 1955.50
840.89 1407.00 374.50 874.25 1285.00 3696.75 1903.50
842.06 1385.33 345.25 858.25 1295.00 3666.00 1914.50
843.20 1411.00 359.75 899.50 1304.00 3668.75 1933.00
844.37 1379.67 361.75 866.50 1356.75 3703.25 1952.50
845.54 1392.67 354.25 866.25 1300.00 3631.25 1914.25
846.68 1396.67 345.50 876.50 1309.50 3732.50 1931.25
847.85 1390.67 369.25 862.75 1279.25 3678.50 1905.50
849.02 1363.33 367.00 851.00 1317.25 3667.00 1918.25
850.16 1376.33 349.00 873.75 1275.00 3722.00 1923.50
851.33 1440.00 361.00 862.25 1332.75 3723.00 1934.25
852.50 1397.33 369.50 873.50 1313.25 3691.75 1879.75
853.64 1372.00 369.00 897.50 1316.50 3678.50 1910.25
854.81 1352.33 355.25 892.25 1337.25 3710.25 1949.50
855.95 1376.00 353.00 891.00 1338.50 3724.75 1940.50
857.12 1384.67 353.75 862.75 1343.25 3712.50 1909.50
858.26 1381.00 340.75 883.00 1303.75 3622.75 1946.75
859.43 1425.67 365.75 868.75 1300.25 3635.50 1926.25
860.60 1362.67 356.25 875.75 1302.50 3701.25 1877.50
861.74 1380.00 351.25 872.75 1311.75 3678.25 1936.75
862.91 1376.67 369.75 873.25 1297.00 3650.75 1865.25
864.05 1357.67 362.50 855.00 1308.00 3656.00 1906.50
865.22 1408.00 360.00 843.25 1307.25 3643.25 1884.50
866.36 1388.33 366.00 890.50 1301.50 3701.00 1904.50
867.53 1385.00 355.50 865.75 1308.00 3675.00 1926.50
868.67 1360.67 369.25 867.25 1306.25 3623.75 1913.00
869.84 1361.00 363.00 861.00 1292.00 3631.50 1885.25
870.98 1355.00 370.25 877.25 1295.25 3731.00 1929.25
872.15 1398.00 366.25 842.00 1304.00 3701.00 1863.75
873.29 1379.67 363.00 855.00 1326.50 3654.75 1870.25
874.46 1404.67 356.75 852.50 1301.00 3721.75 1888.25
875.60 1384.33 347.50 853.25 1312.50 3622.25 1880.75
876.77 1374.67 363.00 879.75 1299.75 3649.50 1899.00
877.91 1374.00 358.25 834.75 1272.25 3668.50 1880.75
879.06 1399.00 359.50 859.75 1310.25 3628.75 1882.50
111
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
880.23 1406.33 371.25 853.00 1298.75 3675.00 1902.50
881.37 1368.67 348.25 868.00 1274.50 3601.75 1898.00
882.54 1365.33 349.00 850.75 1298.75 3645.75 1889.00
883.68 1358.67 357.75 866.75 1311.50 3667.00 1882.75
884.82 1376.67 355.00 861.00 1278.00 3685.50 1847.00
885.99 1405.67 362.00 836.00 1291.50 3627.25 1905.25
887.13 1381.67 356.75 850.50 1310.00 3624.25 1868.75
888.30 1361.33 375.00 875.00 1303.50 3594.25 1899.25
889.44 1394.33 361.00 852.75 1289.00 3602.75 1934.25
890.59 1390.00 342.25 878.25 1306.25 3660.75 1918.75
891.75 1376.33 351.50 871.75 1275.75 3637.00 1876.00
892.90 1393.00 353.00 872.75 1297.00 3659.50 1882.50
894.04 1391.00 361.50 864.00 1278.00 3625.75 1846.25
895.21 1406.33 365.00 867.50 1280.25 3608.50 1911.00
896.35 1381.00 338.50 855.00 1275.00 3611.75 1856.25
897.49 1407.67 342.50 847.50 1311.25 3596.75 1914.00
898.66 1389.00 354.75 861.50 1312.00 3617.50 1866.00
899.81 1376.67 348.25 862.00 1272.50 3605.25 1909.00
900.95 1423.33 351.75 868.00 1273.75 3646.50 1901.50
902.09 1392.00 349.75 844.25 1293.75 3620.25 1884.00
903.26 1375.67 355.00 853.00 1290.50 3643.00 1889.25
904.40 1415.33 358.25 861.25 1312.50 3662.00 1880.25
905.54 1393.67 360.50 841.25 1259.25 3652.75 1888.00
906.69 1409.67 362.00 868.25 1304.50 3618.75 1908.25
907.86 1389.33 369.00 835.25 1280.00 3653.25 1883.75
909.00 1401.67 354.25 863.50 1322.75 3652.50 1880.75
910.14 1415.00 347.75 868.50 1318.75 3662.75 1857.25
911.28 1388.67 359.25 839.75 1312.75 3625.75 1885.00
912.45 1353.33 353.75 881.50 1321.50 3623.50 1896.50
913.60 1371.33 343.50 850.25 1316.50 3585.25 1898.25
914.74 1432.67 348.00 861.50 1310.75 3660.75 1863.50
915.88 1402.00 351.25 864.50 1275.75 3647.00 1875.75
917.02 1348.00 359.25 863.00 1323.25 3626.75 1865.75
918.19 1401.33 353.75 844.25 1258.50 3617.50 1897.75
919.33 1387.00 363.75 863.00 1297.00 3565.75 1872.50
920.48 1380.67 356.75 860.00 1289.50 3681.25 1905.25
921.62 1424.00 355.50 845.25 1306.75 3696.00 1851.25
112
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
922.76 1393.33 353.75 864.25 1287.50 3668.75 1870.25
923.91 1390.33 341.50 854.25 1301.50 3632.50 1902.25
925.05 1411.67 352.75 859.00 1270.75 3651.75 1872.50
926.19 1392.33 368.00 866.50 1287.75 3637.00 1886.75
927.36 1381.00 348.25 855.50 1296.00 3666.00 1864.00
928.50 1399.00 349.25 863.50 1292.50 3618.00 1879.75
929.65 1414.33 350.00 864.00 1279.50 3660.25 1856.00
930.79 1387.33 342.25 864.50 1273.00 3633.00 1874.50
931.93 1378.00 341.75 888.00 1305.00 3670.50 1914.00
933.08 1410.67 352.25 851.25 1293.50 3619.00 1894.25
934.22 1397.00 354.00 841.00 1299.50 3638.25 1897.50
935.36 1416.67 369.50 855.75 1288.50 3647.00 1837.50
936.50 1405.00 355.50 860.50 1299.00 3627.00 1893.00
937.65 1392.33 356.25 846.25 1261.50 3612.25 1882.50
938.79 1419.33 341.75 849.25 1293.25 3673.75 1856.25
939.93 1403.67 347.00 853.25 1258.25 3646.00 1892.75
941.08 1419.00 355.75 871.00 1290.00 3621.50 1890.00
942.22 1382.33 342.75 870.50 1265.75 3625.75 1887.00
943.36 1379.67 364.25 859.25 1262.50 3652.75 1873.50
944.51 1375.00 348.75 861.25 1305.00 3647.50 1901.25
945.65 1398.00 340.50 845.25 1271.75 3628.75 1878.25
946.79 1401.67 353.00 846.75 1291.75 3618.25 1871.75
947.93 1395.67 346.75 853.00 1270.25 3602.75 1908.75
949.08 1391.33 366.75 845.00 1309.75 3632.50 1914.75
950.22 1411.00 345.25 840.75 1265.25 3625.25 1873.75
951.36 1401.33 355.50 849.75 1271.00 3604.25 1866.25
952.51 1447.00 361.75 837.50 1310.00 3628.25 1863.25
953.65 1404.67 358.50 830.00 1268.50 3615.50 1892.75
954.79 1396.67 355.00 865.25 1305.25 3663.00 1890.75
955.93 1381.33 361.50 832.75 1283.50 3613.25 1880.75
957.08 1370.33 360.50 852.00 1317.25 3579.75 1888.25
958.22 1387.67 355.75 856.50 1282.00 3629.00 1855.50
959.36 1422.00 350.25 877.00 1293.75 3582.25 1859.25
960.48 1404.33 366.25 842.75 1306.00 3617.50 1869.50
961.62 1369.67 350.25 871.00 1241.75 3632.00 1833.00
962.77 1430.00 350.75 849.50 1273.50 3614.50 1891.50
963.91 1407.00 348.25 856.25 1277.00 3643.00 1847.00
113
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
965.05 1413.33 357.50 843.75 1283.50 3648.00 1879.00
966.20 1421.33 345.75 848.75 1308.25 3630.00 1890.75
967.34 1403.33 357.50 809.25 1287.25 3562.50 1828.50
968.46 1382.67 339.75 838.75 1296.00 3626.50 1860.25
969.60 1401.00 352.50 853.50 1281.75 3607.50 1881.25
970.74 1391.00 335.75 846.00 1274.00 3639.25 1894.75
971.89 1396.00 353.50 829.00 1272.50 3637.25 1883.50
973.03 1378.33 362.75 857.75 1276.25 3635.00 1869.75
974.17 1376.00 347.25 856.00 1304.00 3619.25 1858.50
975.29 1431.33 339.25 824.00 1275.50 3653.00 1856.00
976.43 1393.33 352.25 824.00 1277.50 3662.50 1852.00
977.58 1423.00 352.00 837.50 1252.75 3585.25 1834.25
978.72 1367.33 362.75 821.75 1259.75 3623.75 1868.50
979.84 1382.00 367.50 817.50 1256.00 3622.50 1893.25
980.98 1347.33 346.00 843.25 1255.50 3549.25 1881.00
982.12 1422.67 340.00 832.25 1274.25 3611.75 1873.50
983.27 1411.67 360.50 828.50 1289.75 3559.25 1870.75
984.38 1391.67 363.00 830.50 1255.25 3595.00 1871.25
985.53 1396.67 353.00 837.25 1248.25 3608.00 1870.00
986.67 1386.33 351.00 862.50 1282.25 3588.00 1890.25
987.81 1387.67 355.50 831.00 1246.75 3568.50 1861.75
988.93 1393.33 339.75 859.50 1296.50 3621.00 1847.25
990.07 1407.67 342.25 843.00 1263.00 3589.50 1891.25
991.22 1389.33 335.00 844.50 1266.00 3598.50 1864.25
992.34 1402.00 348.50 820.25 1267.00 3551.25 1842.00
993.48 1386.33 347.25 838.50 1226.50 3508.50 1849.50
994.62 1367.67 336.25 841.25 1256.25 3602.75 1823.50
995.74 1382.00 355.50 800.25 1285.50 3508.75 1868.50
996.88 1405.33 348.75 836.75 1269.25 3547.00 1850.50
998.03 1386.00 336.25 845.00 1264.25 3572.75 1859.00
999.14 1412.00 348.75 828.75 1279.25 3556.50 1839.25
1000.29 1382.00 364.25 841.50 1255.50 3571.25 1853.50
1001.40 1393.67 344.25 838.00 1244.50 3586.25 1853.25
1002.55 1391.67 355.50 843.75 1275.00 3566.50 1845.75
1003.69 1398.00 342.00 859.25 1278.50 3580.00 1851.75
1004.81 1381.00 354.25 851.00 1282.00 3584.25 1853.50
1005.95 1373.33 350.25 840.25 1262.25 3553.75 1860.25
114
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
1007.09 1366.67 352.50 847.75 1274.50 3497.75 1866.50
1008.21 1399.67 332.75 837.75 1271.25 3603.25 1882.25
1009.36 1455.33 360.75 825.25 1240.50 3645.00 1825.75
1010.47 1394.67 352.00 834.50 1254.50 3517.25 1844.00
1011.62 1375.00 354.25 837.75 1236.75 3557.00 1824.50
1012.73 1409.67 331.75 816.00 1241.75 3490.00 1845.25
1013.88 1393.33 330.00 817.00 1261.50 3575.25 1841.75
1015.00 1352.67 356.75 826.00 1223.75 3636.00 1830.75
1016.14 1355.67 354.25 835.00 1277.50 3550.00 1803.25
1017.26 1413.33 364.75 814.75 1253.25 3589.25 1836.75
1018.40 1380.67 369.25 864.75 1262.75 3534.50 1817.50
1019.52 1397.00 349.75 842.00 1260.25 3575.00 1863.00
1020.66 1426.67 335.75 834.75 1241.75 3530.50 1848.75
1021.78 1401.67 355.25 842.25 1253.75 3590.00 1847.75
1022.92 1404.67 327.75 836.00 1223.00 3562.75 1820.50
1024.04 1397.67 343.75 833.75 1239.75 3483.00 1869.50
1025.18 1387.00 353.50 839.75 1260.00 3530.25 1831.50
1026.30 1425.33 336.75 825.00 1257.25 3593.50 1824.00
1027.44 1395.33 340.50 859.25 1264.00 3627.00 1875.75
1028.56 1396.67 350.75 827.50 1278.25 3539.50 1870.50
1029.71 1391.33 340.00 824.75 1252.25 3509.75 1855.50
1030.82 1434.67 353.50 820.75 1222.00 3521.25 1845.25
1031.94 1387.00 354.75 849.75 1275.50 3589.75 1834.25
1033.08 1386.67 347.50 845.25 1249.25 3610.50 1827.50
1034.20 1387.33 355.25 834.25 1231.50 3568.50 1828.50
1035.35 1384.33 361.00 828.00 1256.75 3521.25 1844.75
1036.46 1369.67 349.50 853.25 1246.50 3499.00 1816.50
1037.58 1394.67 354.00 810.00 1261.75 3582.50 1826.00
1038.72 1404.00 346.00 821.25 1233.25 3483.50 1829.00
1039.84 1405.67 366.50 814.25 1258.00 3538.00 1801.25
1040.96 1394.00 362.00 830.25 1239.50 3544.75 1877.75
1042.10 1423.33 347.25 841.50 1261.50 3597.50 1858.50
1043.22 1402.00 354.50 841.00 1250.75 3592.00 1842.50
1044.37 1428.67 371.50 854.25 1267.75 3588.00 1882.25
1045.48 1407.00 349.75 823.25 1236.25 3553.25 1858.75
1046.60 1484.00 338.00 841.00 1284.75 3607.75 1842.00
1047.74 1400.00 356.75 820.75 1293.25 3547.50 1867.25
115
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
1048.86 1422.33 341.25 822.50 1270.50 3583.25 1873.25
1049.98 1442.00 355.00 829.50 1244.50 3541.50 1829.50
1051.10 1413.33 337.25 832.25 1264.50 3580.50 1839.25
1052.24 1379.33 348.00 823.75 1245.75 3560.00 1822.25
1053.36 1376.33 360.00 854.50 1254.00 3552.25 1836.00
1054.48 1416.33 322.00 812.25 1269.50 3610.50 1875.00
1055.62 1425.00 363.00 838.75 1279.50 3542.50 1854.00
1056.74 1441.00 355.50 817.75 1251.25 3562.50 1838.25
1057.86 1419.00 367.25 840.25 1239.00 3553.75 1863.50
1058.98 1414.33 363.75 845.50 1302.50 3571.50 1880.00
1060.09 1424.67 367.75 862.50 1258.25 3577.75 1863.50
1061.24 1434.00 365.25 855.50 1261.00 3632.50 1848.00
1062.35 1456.00 366.50 853.00 1290.25 3601.50 1904.50
1063.47 1432.00 364.25 846.75 1253.75 3621.00 1840.00
1064.59 1390.00 375.50 837.50 1288.75 3588.75 1886.25
1065.73 1417.00 368.50 834.50 1263.00 3604.25 1889.50
1066.85 1402.33 363.25 890.00 1276.75 3614.00 1884.00
1067.97 1435.33 361.25 888.50 1289.50 3602.25 1897.00
1069.09 1418.67 377.00 860.75 1311.00 3626.25 1887.25
1070.21 1412.67 381.25 872.00 1287.25 3650.75 1917.25
1071.32 1409.00 395.50 890.25 1296.75 3680.50 1931.50
1072.47 1435.00 379.25 899.50 1317.25 3689.00 1965.50
1073.59 1405.33 392.75 881.00 1324.75 3706.00 1983.50
1074.70 1485.00 394.75 920.50 1392.00 3722.25 2011.75
1075.82 1470.67 424.75 969.50 1432.75 3783.75 2139.25
1076.94 1461.67 425.75 1001.50 1595.25 3887.50 2199.75
1078.06 1481.67 470.75 1066.75 1799.50 4047.75 2455.50
1079.18 1542.67 509.00 1195.25 2140.00 4482.25 2768.50
1080.29 1590.33 618.50 1389.00 2451.75 5129.75 3363.50
1081.44 1767.67 814.50 1704.25 2974.25 5944.50 4042.25
1082.56 2113.33 1219.75 2164.75 3650.25 6794.50 4921.75
1083.67 2840.67 2112.00 2901.25 4539.25 7756.00 6110.75
1084.79 3769.67 3140.75 4050.25 4962.25 8660.75 7468.75
1085.91 3234.00 2739.75 5081.50 4057.00 9321.75 8096.25
1087.03 2084.00 1523.25 5211.00 2931.25 9204.50 6640.75
1088.15 1678.00 851.00 3729.75 2145.00 8058.00 4843.25
1089.26 1548.33 554.75 2456.75 1670.75 6848.25 3609.00
116
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
1090.38 1452.67 462.50 1764.50 1427.00 5720.75 2812.00
1091.50 1464.00 398.75 1311.25 1355.25 4712.75 2318.75
1092.62 1460.67 385.00 1061.75 1289.25 4143.25 2096.25
1093.74 1415.00 376.00 966.75 1247.00 3817.50 1966.00
1094.85 1417.00 381.75 902.00 1286.25 3693.25 1936.75
1095.97 1432.00 367.25 873.50 1277.75 3657.25 1915.75
1097.09 1461.67 346.50 867.25 1257.25 3596.75 1889.25
1098.21 1440.67 363.75 847.25 1252.25 3593.75 1882.50
1099.33 1450.33 356.00 838.25 1258.75 3538.50 1831.25
1100.45 1437.67 358.50 838.75 1231.25 3581.00 1850.00
1101.56 1471.67 345.75 829.50 1216.50 3601.75 1825.50
1102.68 1384.67 339.00 821.75 1228.50 3566.50 1828.75
1103.80 1374.33 347.50 814.75 1239.50 3550.00 1849.00
1104.92 1418.33 348.00 819.75 1243.25 3590.75 1827.00
1106.04 1412.00 348.75 792.50 1267.00 3525.50 1802.25
1107.15 1451.67 347.50 780.25 1238.25 3537.25 1800.25
1108.27 1437.67 343.25 804.75 1217.50 3513.00 1816.75
1109.37 1451.67 340.50 805.75 1209.75 3536.25 1809.25
1110.48 1416.00 343.00 803.75 1239.75 3487.00 1793.75
1111.60 1411.00 339.25 802.75 1236.50 3572.00 1847.00
1112.72 1434.00 329.50 812.75 1215.00 3511.50 1796.75
1113.84 1431.00 337.00 817.00 1222.25 3440.75 1851.00
1114.96 1432.06 340.08 806.59 1235.20 3506.24 1808.31
1116.07 1379.53 335.03 801.87 1212.74 3495.75 1809.59
1117.19 1391.29 353.98 793.22 1221.93 3478.59 1763.85
1118.29 1392.89 345.06 814.06 1226.44 3495.15 1755.63
1119.40 1433.24 342.48 808.69 1223.01 3530.06 1831.88
1120.52 1413.14 359.98 786.75 1224.64 3470.30 1795.13
1121.64 1442.73 344.02 797.84 1207.83 3536.55 1776.75
1122.76 1387.34 337.08 778.41 1219.20 3475.77 1790.94
1123.88 1418.64 328.42 812.60 1226.01 3453.91 1784.25
1124.97 1411.68 338.14 790.16 1229.47 3496.10 1788.69
1126.09 1402.04 338.70 788.19 1202.39 3473.79 1763.50
1127.21 1434.97 339.80 796.72 1220.56 3476.95 1793.09
1128.32 1412.62 358.61 797.63 1212.32 3482.33 1799.28
1129.44 1408.78 345.61 791.62 1215.18 3439.19 1747.44
1130.54 1414.02 348.28 785.13 1193.42 3460.51 1788.03
117
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
1131.65 1376.25 345.70 794.00 1217.24 3461.37 1799.03
1132.77 1392.14 340.06 811.91 1191.36 3464.05 1761.97
1133.89 1417.15 339.41 795.03 1203.09 3465.78 1785.97
1134.98 1371.55 337.91 786.47 1193.66 3428.05 1773.69
1136.10 1409.04 339.86 793.16 1212.45 3467.29 1777.22
1137.22 1377.67 334.08 789.19 1184.25 3423.35 1797.22
1138.34 1400.27 333.72 783.06 1215.95 3453.06 1748.38
1139.43 1385.85 339.09 779.59 1198.47 3442.55 1730.28
1140.55 1411.61 327.02 778.19 1196.33 3379.24 1759.28
1141.67 1375.46 331.98 797.56 1194.03 3438.44 1749.25
1142.76 1403.30 327.39 776.31 1195.29 3457.33 1752.41
1143.88 1396.59 342.91 768.81 1221.11 3384.91 1758.53
1145.00 1387.07 340.75 785.47 1203.67 3386.94 1741.75
1146.09 1413.70 334.14 780.50 1220.44 3400.82 1736.97
1147.21 1376.11 336.08 764.28 1191.97 3355.54 1748.88
1148.33 1382.68 334.06 786.44 1199.08 3395.49 1719.07
1149.42 1366.92 338.34 755.09 1197.04 3327.79 1745.81
1150.54 1390.99 340.16 789.00 1208.31 3402.07 1721.31
1151.66 1413.11 331.95 778.56 1181.12 3357.70 1743.97
1152.75 1449.42 334.06 765.31 1200.27 3383.01 1751.91
1153.87 1429.60 319.73 781.60 1201.14 3388.63 1707.85
1154.96 1387.64 329.66 771.25 1203.99 3396.49 1745.78
1156.08 1378.45 332.53 759.72 1182.12 3361.22 1709.94
1157.20 1377.39 336.64 781.00 1178.56 3370.88 1732.16
1158.29 1394.19 330.84 783.16 1157.86 3374.59 1768.50
1159.41 1397.91 329.89 757.44 1201.21 3346.36 1725.53
1160.50 1376.67 314.13 778.88 1188.83 3383.19 1725.09
1161.62 1386.08 328.53 788.81 1169.57 3389.64 1743.22
1162.74 1407.61 326.86 783.25 1210.43 3305.41 1742.44
1163.83 1395.11 324.03 764.25 1185.15 3400.71 1738.97
1164.95 1347.32 320.20 750.09 1181.20 3337.25 1738.13
1166.04 1358.94 339.47 769.00 1188.33 3321.56 1750.53
1167.16 1404.23 316.56 762.94 1185.95 3388.71 1748.19
1168.25 1399.56 336.48 747.75 1167.59 3343.36 1726.63
1169.37 1404.67 322.17 776.56 1186.52 3346.60 1731.10
1170.46 1385.95 334.84 769.16 1175.14 3300.08 1732.50
1171.58 1382.42 330.39 752.03 1192.19 3353.94 1722.47
118
Huon Peninsula (K-133) Palm Island (PT-1)
Wavelength External FG LG External FG LG
1172.68 1385.42 325.09 766.41 1197.28 3368.74 1740.72
1173.79 1354.33 327.64 745.72 1186.60 3345.37 1726.06
1174.89 1404.48 325.73 771.03 1161.46 3372.66 1729.34
1176.01 1402.88 324.45 755.56 1187.93 3329.64 1730.85
1177.10 1401.24 320.52 752.28 1190.61 3332.61 1743.81
1178.22 1391.39 333.78 769.00 1172.45 3347.67 1730.47
1179.31 1403.97 330.16 770.88 1177.12 3316.34 1733.28
1180.43 1359.40 330.36 771.53 1184.94 3322.10 1702.16
1181.52 1389.07 325.97 765.44 1208.59 3319.03 1724.28
1182.61 1377.80 324.42 749.28 1169.19 3269.04 1719.91
1183.73 1394.03 315.75 754.03 1180.55 3291.07 1694.63
1184.83 1375.52 323.45 750.09 1169.72 3311.06 1716.88
1185.94 1383.80 322.53 774.09 1153.08 3302.27 1720.25
1187.04 1382.73 329.36 753.34 1192.14 3297.40 1711.00
1188.13 1371.86 325.42 750.47 1167.31 3278.84 1695.06
1189.25 1386.73 329.03 749.50 1175.54 3300.06 1714.60
1190.34 1376.76 322.92 760.19 1180.99 3270.56 1693.10
1191.46 1368.32 325.97 755.10 1183.73 3291.48 1705.60
1192.55 1365.26 318.59 767.56 1181.07 3285.96 1713.47
1193.65 1354.36 317.33 757.94 1168.52 3295.40 1707.94
1194.77 1358.73 323.20 741.19 1162.97 3272.48 1685.44
1195.86 1374.27 314.81 752.09 1173.10 3279.53 1730.91
1196.95 1365.45 326.13 759.38 1171.46 3289.11 1695.72
1198.07 1368.52 332.67 732.31 1170.71 3291.79 1704.94
1199.16 1377.64 324.36 761.84 1159.96 3260.84 1721.84
1200.26 1354.47 319.08 768.00 1173.52 3258.31 1702.78
119
APPENDIX X: STABLE ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS
Measurements: External: Distance from initial milled trench; Internal: Distance from pallial line
Sample Layer (Fig. 1.1) Distance (µm) δ13
C (‰VPBD) δ18
O (‰VPBD)
K-133 EL -800 2.56 -1.59
K-133 EL -750 2.24 -1.68
K-133 EL -700 2.57 -1.45
K-133 EL -650 2.28 -1.56
K-133 EL -600 2.52 -1.47
K-133 EL -550 2.77 -1.40
K-133 EL -500 2.63 -1.43
K-133 EL -450 2.55 -1.48
K-133 EL -400 2.42 -1.47
K-133 EL -350 2.89 -1.36
K-133 EL -300 3.24 -1.70
K-133 EL -250 3.20 -1.80
K-133 EL -200 3.23 -1.61
K-133 EL -150 2.23 -1.67
K-133 EL -100 2.29 -1.68
K-133 EL -50 2.33 -1.54
Figure A.3, Powder for stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis was milled from the external
(EL) and internal (IL) layers of modern T. gigas shells: K-133 (PNG; left) and PT-1 (GBR;
right). The pallial line (dashed black line) separates the shell layers.
120
Sample Layer (Fig. 1.1) Distance (µm) δ13
C (‰VPBD) δ18
O (‰VPBD)
K-133 IL 0 2.23 -1.51
K-133 IL 50 2.19 -1.62
K-133 IL 100 2.19 -1.54
K-133 IL 150 2.11 -1.47
K-133 IL 200 2.14 -1.44
K-133 IL 250 2.20 -1.18
K-133 IL 300 2.20 -1.56
K-133 IL 350 2.16 -1.44
K-133 IL 400 2.25 -1.21
K-133 IL 450 2.15 -1.41
K-133 IL 500 2.27 -1.22
K-133 IL 550 2.20 -1.33
K-133 IL 600 2.19 -1.41
K-133 IL 650 2.18 -1.37
K-133 IL 700 2.17 -1.43
K-133 IL 750 2.18 -1.34
K-133 IL 800 2.17 -1.80
K-133 IL 850 2.22 -1.19
K-133 IL 900 2.12 -1.24
K-133 IL 950 2.19 -1.27
K-133 IL 1000 2.16 -1.15
K-133 IL 1050 2.30 -1.29
K-133 IL 1100 2.13 -1.21
K-133 IL 1150 2.16 -1.12
K-133 IL 1200 2.11 -1.24
K-133 IL 1250 2.22 -1.04
K-133 IL 1300 2.10 -1.22
K-133 IL 1350 2.13 -1.20
K-133 IL 1400 2.10 -1.31
K-133 IL 1450 2.06 -1.27
K-133 IL 1500 2.06 -1.27
K-133 IL 1550 2.09 -1.08
K-133 IL 1600 2.02 -1.23
K-133 IL 1650 2.04 -1.20
K-133 IL 1700 2.12 -1.14
K-133 IL 1750 2.16 -1.15
K-133 IL 1800 2.01 -1.15
K-133 IL 1850 2.04 -1.47
121
Sample Layer (Fig. 1.1) Distance (µm) δ13
C (‰VPBD) δ18
O (‰VPBD)
K-133 IL 1900 2.17 -1.41
K-133 IL 1950 2.10 -1.12
K-133 IL 2000 2.21 -1.07
K-133 IL 2050 2.27 -1.26
K-133 IL 2100 2.09 -1.36
K-133 IL 2150 2.16 -1.27
K-133 IL 2200 2.04 -1.29
K-133 IL 2250 1.98 -1.20
K-133 IL 2300 2.13 -1.52
K-133 IL 2350 2.21 -1.18
K-133 IL 2400 2.09 -1.19
K-133 IL 2450 2.03 -1.42
K-133 IL 2500 2.17 -1.09
K-133 IL 2550 2.15 -1.48
K-133 IL 2600 2.02 -1.43
K-133 IL 2650 2.05 -1.64
K-133 IL 2700 2.14 -1.41
K-133 IL 2750 2.17 -1.60
K-133 IL 2800 2.12 -1.50
PT-1 EL -950 2.95 -0.35
PT-1 EL -900 2.60 -0.43
PT-1 EL -850 3.06 -0.58
PT-1 EL -800 3.05 -0.33
PT-1 EL -750 3.25 -0.59
PT-1 EL -700 2.17 -0.24
PT-1 EL -650 3.59 -0.59
PT-1 EL -600 3.40 -0.58
PT-1 EL -550 3.22 -0.48
PT-1 EL -500 3.67 -0.61
PT-1 EL -450 3.43 -0.68
PT-1 EL -400 3.57 -0.74
PT-1 EL -350 3.52 -0.55
PT-1 EL -300 3.62 -0.76
PT-1 EL -250 3.42 -0.67
PT-1 EL -200 2.98 -0.55
PT-1 EL -150 3.09 -0.71
PT-1 EL -100 3.04 -0.59
PT-1 EL -50 3.43 -0.67
122
Sample Layer (Fig. 1.1) Distance (µm) δ13
C (‰VPBD) δ18
O (‰VPBD)
PT-1 IL 0 1.63 -1.14
PT-1 IL 50 1.42 -1.75
PT-1 IL 100 1.78 -1.14
PT-1 IL 150 1.71 -1.04
PT-1 IL 200 1.73 -0.93
PT-1 IL 250 1.70 -1.12
PT-1 IL 300 1.75 -1.02
PT-1 IL 350 1.69 -1.01
PT-1 IL 400 1.71 -0.99
PT-1 IL 450 1.76 -0.86
PT-1 IL 500 1.67 -1.01
PT-1 IL 550 1.60 -0.80
PT-1 IL 600 1.61 -0.88
PT-1 IL 650 1.66 -0.68
PT-1 IL 700 1.55 -0.75
PT-1 IL 750 1.62 -0.71
PT-1 IL 800 1.63 -0.92
PT-1 IL 850 1.50 -0.39
PT-1 IL 900 1.70 -0.30
PT-1 IL 950 1.62 -0.42
PT-1 IL 1000 1.66 -0.30
PT-1 IL 1050 1.64 -0.21
PT-1 IL 1100 1.61 0.06
PT-1 IL 1150 1.67 -0.04
PT-1 IL 1200 1.48 -0.30
PT-1 IL 1250 1.56 -0.04
PT-1 IL 1300 1.60 -0.13
PT-1 IL 1350 1.58 -0.06
PT-1 IL 1400 1.61 0.03
PT-1 IL 1450 1.61 -0.01
PT-1 IL 1500 1.48 -0.05
PT-1 IL 1550 1.60 0.05
123
APPENDIX XI: TERRACE CORRELATIONS
The Huon Peninsula is not the only location where raised coral reef terraces have been
investigated for paleoclimate studies. Chrono-correlated terraces show the same glacio-eustatic
features through morphological and chemical analyses (Aharon, 1983; Dodge et al., 1983;
Radtke and Schellmann, 2005). Differences arise in the terrace building mechanisms with only
minor discrepancies in geologic age. Along the coastal shores of Kenya in the Kilifi District,
terraces have been associated with times of interglacial, high sea level for the past 25ka. During
these times, significant coral reefs built up causing isostatic loading. When sea level dropped, the
land rebounded due to transgression (Åse, 1981).
Terraces in Haiti, Indonesia, and Barbados are preserved due to tectonic uplift, similar to the
Huon Peninsula. The Northwest Peninsula of Haiti contains reef crests composed of nearly
exclusively Acropora palmate corals, which typically thrive in less than 5m of water. Several
reef crests were dated using U/Th and produced ages of 130ka, 108ka, and 81ka (Dodge et al.,
1983). Barbados terraces are also primarily composed of A. palmate, indicating there were low
tides during the time they built up (Radtke and Schellmann, 2005). These have been
radiometrically dated using electron spin resonance (ESR), concluding the ages for one (N1) of
the many studied sites to be: 106 ± 8ka, 85 ± 5ka, and 76 ± 4ka (Radke and Schellmann, 2006).
Some of these ages are within error of dates from other terraces in Haiti and Papua New Guinea
(Radtke and Schellmann, 2006). The calculated sea level elevations in Haiti correlate to those
seen in Barbados and Huon Peninsula for similar time period (Dodge et al., 1983). Uplifted
124
Indonesian terraces on Sumba Island record the past 1-million years of sea level. Terraces in this
location were dated using ESR in order to obtain ages for early Pleistocene terraces where
Uranium-Thorium might not have been reliable. This allowed for sea level reconstruction
through MIS 25 (Pirazzoli et al., 1991). While T. gigas do not inhabit the Atlantic regions, their
use in the Huon Peninsula could help further global climate research due to the associations
between preserved terraces in these and other locations.
125
APPENDIX X: TERRACE AGES
This table represents all of the dates that have been calculated from the major projects assessing
geologic age of the raised coral reef terraces of the Huon Peninsula, Papua-New Guinea. Bolded
entries are thought to be valid and have been included in the age assignment for this study.
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
I 14
C
Aharon,
personal
communication
5.35 20 K-134 Tridacna
gigas
I 14
C
Aharon,
personal
communication
5.52 20 K-135 Tridacna
gigas
I U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 5.5 0.4 28-1351I
Hydnophora
microconos
It is not
possible to
determine
age from
these
samples
though it is
constrained
to between
5-9 ka.
I U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 6 1 ANU 165 coral
I 14C Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 6.7
0.0
6 ANU 165 coral
126
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
I U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 6.8 0.1 ANU 153
Tridacna
gigas
Not
reliable
because
uses
Tridacna
I 14
C Aharon,
Chappell 1986 7.2 0.5 Reef I crest
3 Tridacna
gigas; 5
coral
I U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 8.2 1.9 Reef I crest 5 coral
I U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 9.2 0.6 33b-1351D
Favia
stelligera
It is not
possible to
determine
age from
these
samples
though it is
constrained
to between
5-9 ka.
127
Ter
race
(F
ig.
2.1
)
Met
ho
do
logy
So
urc
e
Da
te (
ka)
Err
or
Sa
mp
le N
am
e
(Ty
pe)
Sa
mp
le T
yp
e
No
tes
I U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 9.4 0.6 2-1351H
Goniastrea
retiformis
It is not
possible to
determine
age from
these
samples
though it is
constrained
to between
5-9 ka.
I U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 9.4 0.6 29-1347H
Leptoria
phygia
It is not
possible to
determine
age from
these
samples
though it is
constrained
to between
5-9 ka.
128
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
I U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 9.7 0.6 1-1351F
Favia
stelligera
It is not
possible to
determine
age from
these
samples
though it is
constrained
to between
5-9 ka.
I U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 20 2 1-1351F
Favia
stelligera
It is not
possible to
determine
age from
these
samples
though it is
constrained
to between
5-9 ka.
II U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 3.3 0.2 21-1353B Favia sp.
Cannot be
confirmed
but 29 ka is
used for
tectonic
purposes
II U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 5.8 0.4 30-1355A
Leptoria
phygia
Cannot be
confirmed
but 29 ka is
used for
tectonic
purposes
129
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
II 14
C Aharon, Chappell
1986 28.9 0.6 Reef II crest 2 Tridacna
Not using 14
C
II 14C Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 29.3 0.9 ANU 156
Tridacna
gigas
Considered
more
reliable
than Bloom
II U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 31 2.5 Reef II crest coral
II Pa/U Cutler et al.,
2003 35.2 0.9 KNM-T-2 (b) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
II Pa/U Cutler et al.,
2003 36.3 1.6 KNM-T-2 (a) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
II U/Th Cutler et al.,
2003 36.76
0.4
2 KNM-T-2 (b) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
II U/Th Cutler et al.,
2003 36.8 0.2 KNM-T-2 (a) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
II Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 44.7 0.6 KWA-I-1 (B) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
II Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 45.1 0.9 KWA-I-1 (A) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
II U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 46.41 0.2 KWA-I-1 (B) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
II U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 46.64 0.4
5 KWA-I-1 (A) Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
130
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
II Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 49 1 KWA-N-1 (A) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis;
Ages are
too old,
maybe
from III?
II U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 50.23 0.4 KWA-N-1 (A) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis;
Ages are
too old,
maybe
from III?
II U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 50.8 0.2
6 KWA-N-1 (B) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis;
Ages are
too old,
maybe
from III?
II Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 50.8 1.2 KWA-N-1 (B) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis;
Ages are
too old,
maybe
from III?
III U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 4.9 1.4 39b-1351J
Lobophyllia
corynbosa
Disregarde
d by
author.
III U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 7.5 5 39b-1351J
Lobophyllia
corynbosa
Disregarde
d by
author.
131
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
III U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 23 2 AUN 117
Tridacna
gigas
Not
reliable
because
uses
Tridacna.
III 14C Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 30.9 0.9 ANU 150
Tridacna
gigas
Ages too
young,
maybe
from II?
IIIb Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 31.3 0.9 KAN-C-2 Favia laxa Some
diagenesis
IIIb 14
C Aharon, Chappell
1986 33.8 2.3 Reef IIIb crest
4 Tridacna
gigas
Ages too
young,
maybe
from II?
III U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 34 4 ANU 116
Tridacna
gigas
Not
reliable
because
uses
Tridacna.
III U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 35 3 24-1353C
Favia
speciosa
IIIb is
accepted s
41 ka,
maybe
there are
from II
III 14C Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 35.4 1.3 AUN 117
Tridacna
gigas
Ages too
young,
maybe
from II?
132
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
III 14C Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 35.8 1.5 ANU 116
Tridacna
gigas
Ages too
young,
maybe
from II?
IIIb Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 37.9 0.9 KWA-K-1 (B) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
IIIb U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 40.3 3.5 Reef IIIb crest 4 coral
III U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 42 3 25-1353D
Hydnophor
a exesa
IIIb is
accepted
as 41 ka
by author
III U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 42 3 26-1347D
Goniastrea
parvistella
IIIb is
accepted
as 41 ka
by author
III U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 42 3 42-1351E
Symphyllia
mobilis
IIIb is
accepted
as 41 ka
by author
IIIb Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 43.9 1.5 KWA-K-1 (A) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
III U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 46 3 ANU 150
Tridacna
gigas
Not
reliable
because
uses
Tridacna
133
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
IIIa Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 46.3 1.3 KAN-D-4 Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
IIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 47.18 0.2 KWA-K-1 (B) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
IIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 48.56 0.3
2 KAN-C-2 Favia laxa
Some
diagenesis
IIIa U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 48.76 0.3
6 KAN-D-4 Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
III U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 49 3 NG 601 (C) coral
IIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 49.81 0.2 KWA-K-1 (A) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
IIIa U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 51 2.8
Reef IIIa
transgression 2 coral
III U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 53 3 NG 600 coral
IIIa U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 60.57 0.2
6 KWA-Q-1
Gardinerose
ris planulata
No
diagenesis;
Ages are
too old,
maybe
from IV?
IIIa Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 60.8 0.8 KWA-Q-1 Gardinerose
ris planulata
No
diagenesis;
Ages are
too old,
maybe
from IV?
134
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
IV U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 48 3 6-1351A
Acropora
sp.
Species
thought to
not be
reliable by
author.
IV U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 57 4 7-1351G
Favia
pallida
IV U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 58 4 3-1347A
Favia
stelligera
IV U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 60 6 NG 623
Tridacna
gigas
Judged
reliable.
IV U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 60.4 3.5 Reef IV crest
1 Tridacna
gigas; 4
coral
IV U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 61 4 4-1351C
Favia
pallida
IV U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 66 4 45-1347E
Hydnophor
a micronos
IV U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 68.07 0.3
1 SIAL-E-1
Montipora
sp.
Some
diagenesis
IV U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 74 4 NG 625
Tridacna
gigas
Judged
reliable.
V U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 61 4 8-1347F
Platygyra
lamellina
Disregarde
d by
author,
probably
from
terrace IV.
135
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
V U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 84 4 12-1347B
Porites
lutea
Author
accepts
age of 85
ka.
V Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 84.6 4.9 KWA-U-1 (A) Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
V U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 85 1.4 Reef V crest 2 coral
V U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 86 4 38-1353E
Goniastrea
pectinata
Author
accepts
age of 85
ka.
V U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 91.61 0.5
2 KWU-U-1 (B) Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
V U/Th Cutler et al.,
2003 92.57
0.4
5 KWA-S-1 (A) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
V U/Th Cutler et al.,
2003 92.6
0.5
1 KWA-S-1 (B) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
V Pa/U Cutler et al.,
2003 92.7 5.2 KWA-S-1 (A) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
V U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 93.06 1.8
9 KWA-U-1 (A) Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
V Pa/U Cutler et al.,
2003 94.4 2.3 KWA-S-1 (B) Porites sp.
No
diagenesis
VI U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 107 7.5 Reef VI crest 2 coral
136
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
VI U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 107 9 14b-1353A
Favia
speciosa
Author
accepts
age of 107
ka.
VI U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 107 6 20-1347C
Hydnophor
a micronos
Author
accepts
age of 107
ka.
VI Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 117.6 6.7 SIAL-Q-1 Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
VI U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 119.34 0.7
6 SIAL-Q-1 Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
VI U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 121.87 0.7
8 SIAL-Q-2 Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
VI Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 126.7 8.1 SIAL-Q-2 Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
VIIb Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 98.7 5.5 KIL-5 Porites sp. Some
diagenesis
VIIb Pa/U Cutler et al., 2003 109.8 2.8 KIL-3 (c) Gardinerose
ris planulata
Some
diagenesis
VIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 113.9 0.6
5 KIL-3 (b)
Gardinerose
ris planulata
Some
diagenesis
VIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 115.36 0.6
6 KIL-3 (D)
Gardinerose
ris planulata
Some
diagenesis
137
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e (T
yp
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
V* U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 116 7 NG 618 coral
*Bloom et
al. (1974)
calls this
sample
terrace
VIIb
VIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 116.16 1.8 KIL-3 (c) Gardinerose
ris planulata
Some
diagenesis
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 116.4 1.8 KIL-5b Porites
lutea
VIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 116.8 1.1
5 KIL-5 Porites sp.
Some
diagenesis
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 117.6 1.2 KIL-5 (a-2) Porites
lutea
VIIb U/Th Cutler et al., 2003 117.77 0.6
9 KIL-3 (a)
Gardinerose
ris planulata
Some
diagenesis
VIIb U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 118 2
Reef VIIb
crest coral
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 118.1 1 HP-47
Gardinerose
ris
planulata
VIIa U/Th Stein et al., 1992 118.7 1.4 KAM-A-1 Platygyra
lamellina
KAM-A
are
different
but valid
138
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e (T
yp
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
V* U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 119 7 NG 618 coral
*Bloom et
al. (1974)
calls this
sample
terrace
VIIb
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 119.5 1.2 KIL-5 (a-1) Porites
lutea
VIIc U/Th Stein et al., 1992 123.8 1.3 SIAL-M-3 Cyphastrea
serailia
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 131.9 1.2 HP-23b Gardinerose
ris
V* U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 133 10 NG 616 coral
*Bloom et
al. (1974)
calls this
sample
terrace
VIIa
VIIc U/Th Stein et al., 1992 134 1.9 PI-155 Platygyra
n.i.
Substantial
diagenesis
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 134.7 1.3 HP-23a Gardinerose
ris
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 135.8 1.9 HP-22
Gardinerose
ris
planulata
VIIa U/Th Stein et al., 1992 136.2 2.5 HP-16c Favia
pallida
139
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e
(Typ
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 136.5 2.3 KIL-4 Porites
lutea
VIIb U/Th Aharon,
Chappell 1986 138 5
Reef VIIa
crest 2 coral
V* U/Th Veeh and
Chappell, 1970 140 10 NG 616 coral
*Bloom et
al. (1974)
calls this
sample
terrace
VIIa
VIIa U/Th Stein et al., 1992 140.8 1.5 HP-16b Favia
pallida
VII U/Th Bloom et al.,
1974 142 8 15-1347G
Porites
lutea
Author
suggests
VIIa
underlies
VIIb and
grades up
into VIIb.
VIIa U/Th Stein et al., 1992 146.4 2.6 HP-17 Favia
pallida
VIIa U/Th Stein et al., 1992 151.7 2.4 HP-16a Favia
pallida
All HP are
different,
although
from same
specimen.
VIIb U/Th Stein et al., 1992 166.9 3.5 SIAL-M-1 Platygyra
sinesis
140
Ter
race
(Fig
. 2.1
)
Met
hod
olo
gy
Sou
rce
Date
(k
a)
Err
or
Sam
ple
Nam
e (T
yp
e)
Sam
ple
Typ
e
Note
s
VIIa U/Th Stein et al., 1992 196.1 3.4 KAM-A-2 Hydnophora
microconos
VIII U/Th Stein et al., 1992 198.7 4.6 SIAL-B-1 Plesiastea
curta
VIII U/Th Stein et al., 1992 225.9 3.1 SIAL-D-1 Favia
pallida
Likely not
reliable.
