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Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering
Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering
Edited by
CA O'Flaherty
Contributing authors
MGH Bell, BA (Cantab), MSc, PhD (Leeds), FIHT PW BonsaU, BA (Oxon), DipTRE MCIT
GR Leake, BSc, MSc (Birmingham), DipTE, CEng, MICE, MIHT AD May, MA (Cantab), FEng, FICE, MIHT, FCIT
CA Nash, BA (Econ), PhD (Leeds), MCIT CA O'Flaherty, BE (NUI), MS PhD (Iowa State), Hon LLD (Tasmania),
CEng, FICE, FIEI, FIEAust, FCIT,,FIHT
ELSEVIER BU'ITERWORTH
HEINEMANN
A M S T E R D A M �9 B O S T O N �9 H E I D E L B E R G ~ L O N D O N ~ N E W Y O R K ~ O X F O R D P A R I S ~ S A N D I E G O ~ S A N F R A N C I S C O ~ S I N G A P O R E ~ S Y D N E Y ~ T O K Y O
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
First edition published by Arnold 1997 Reprinted 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006
Copyright �9 1997, M.G.H. Bell, P.W. Bonsall, G.R. Leake, A.D. May, C.A. Nash and C.A. O'Flaherty. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
The right of M.G.H. Bell, P.W. Bonsall, G.R. Leake, A.D. May, C.A. Nash and C.A. O'Flaherty to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN-13:978-0-340-66279-3 ISBN-10:0-340-66279-4
For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com
Printed and bound in The Netherlands
06 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6
Contents
About the contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
xiii
XV
xvi
Part I: Planning for transport Chapter 1 Evolution of the transport task
C.A. O'Flaherty
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
The road in history Railways, bicycles and motor vehicles Some changes associated with the motor vehicle Britain's road network A final comment References
Chapter 2 Transport administration and planning C.A. O'Flaherty
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Transport administration in Great Britain The statutory land use planning process Finance Some transport planning considerations References
Chapter 3 Transport policy A.D. May
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12
Introduction A logical approach to transport policy formulation Problem-oriented planning and the objectives-led approach Types of objective A possible set of objectives Quantified objectives and targets Problem identification The instruments of transport policy Infrastructure measures Management measures Information provision Pricing measures
2 5
10 18 19 20
21
21 26 27 28 41
42
42 42 44 45 46 51 55 56 57 61 67 69
vi Contents
3.13 Land use measures 3.14 Integration of policy measures 3.15 References
Chapter 4 Economic and environmental appraisal of transport
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12
improvement projects C.A. Nash
Economic efficiency Economic efficiency and markets Valuing costs and benefits Valuing environmental effects Equity considerations Economic regeneration considerations Budget constraints Appraisal criteria Appraisal of pricing policies Public transport appraisal Final comment References
Chapter 5 Principles of transport analysis and forecasting P W. Bonsall
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8
The role of models in the planning process Desirable features of a model Specification, calibration and validation Fundamental concepts Selecting a model Classes of model available to the transport analyst Transport modelling in practice References
Chapter 6 Transport planning strategies CA. O'Flaherty
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7
Do-minimum approach The land use planning approach The car-oriented approach The public transport-oriented approach The demand management approach Transport packaging References
Chapter 7 Developing the parking plan CA. O'Flaherty
7.1 Parking policy - a brief overview 7.2 Planning for town centre parking- the map approach
72 74 76
80
81 82 84 89 93 94 95 95 98 99
100 101
103
103 104 105 106 108 110 128 131
132
133 138 140 141 147 151 153
154
154 155
Contents vii
7.3 Park-and-ride 166 7.4 References 169
Chapter 8 Planning for pedestrians, cyclists and disabled people G.R. Leake
170
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
Introduction 170 Identifying the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and disabled people 171 Identifying priorities of need 173 Pedestrian and cyclist characteristics and requirements influencing design 174 Special needs of elderly and disabled people 177 References 179
Chapter 9 Technologies for urban, inter-urban and rural passenger
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6
transport systems G.R. Leake
Introduction Role of passenger transport systems in urban and non-urban areas Desired characteristics of public transport systems Urban, inter-urban and rural technologies Final comment References
181
181 182 186 187 199 199
Chapter 10 Planning for public transport CA. Nash
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9
Appropriate public transport modes Commercial services Subsidised services Socially optimal pricing and service levels in public transport Public transport provision in practice Ownership and regulation Conclusions References Appendix: Alternative objectives for public transport
201
201 202 205 207 209 210 212 212 213
Chapter 11 Freight transport planning- an introduction C.A. Nash
11.1 Trends in freight transport 11.2 Roads and economic growth 11.3 Policy issues 11.4 Potential for rail and water 11.5 Conclusions 11.6 References
214
214 215 216 218 219 220
viii Contents
Part I1: Traffic surveys and accident investigations Chapter 12 Issues in survey planning and design
P. W. Bonsall
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9
Defining the data requirements Secondary sources Choice of survey insmmaent Design of sampling strategy The survey plan Cross-sectional and time series surveys Training and motivation of staff Administration References
Chapter 13 Observational traffic surveys P. W. Bonsall and CA. O'Flaherty
13~1 Inventory and condition surveys 13.2 Vehicle flow surveys 13.3 Vehicle weight surveys 13.4 Spot speed surveys 13.5 Journey speed, travel time and delay surveys 13.6 Origin-destination cordon and screenline surveys 13.7 Parking use surveys 13.8 Surveys of pedestrians, cyclists and public transport use 13.9 Environmental impact surveys 13.10 References
Chapter 14 Participatory transport surveys P. W. Bonsall and CA. O'Flaherty
14.1 Group discussion 14.2 Household interview surveys 14.3 Trip end surveys 14.4 En-route surveys 14.5 Public transport user surveys 14.6 Attitudinal surveys 14.7 References
Chapter 15 Accident prevention, investigation and reduction C.A. O'Flaherty
15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4
Traffic accident terminology Accident prevention Accident investigation and reduction References
222
223 223 225 225 228 230 230 231 231
232
232 234 238 239 241 244 245 247 248 250
252
252 252 255 255 257 257 259
261
261 261 262 269
Part II1: Design for capacity and safety Chapter 16 Introduction to traffic flow theory
A.D. May 16.1 Introduction 16.2 The principal parameters 16.3 The fundamental relationship 16.4 References
Chapter 17 Road capacity and design-standard approaches to road design C.A. O'Flaherty
17.1 Capacity definitions 17.2 The Highway Capacity Manual approach 17.3 The British design-standard approach 17.4 References
Chapter 18 Road accidents CA. OTlaherty
18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5
International comparisons Accident trends in Great Britain Accident costs Reducing the accident toll References
Chapter 19 Geometric design of streets and highways C.A. O'Flaherty
19.1 Design speed 19.2 Sight distance requirements 19.3 Horizontal alignment design 19.4 Vertical alignment design 19.5 Cross-section elements 19.6 Safety audits 19.7 References
Chapter 20 Intersection design and capacity CoA. O'Flaherty
20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7
Types of intersection Overview of the design process Priority intersections Roundabout intersections Traffic signal-controlled intersections Intersections with grade-separations References
Contents ix
272
272 272 275 280
281
281 282 290 298
299
299 301 307 308 318
320
320 324 327 333 339 353 354
356
356 357 364 369 377 381 399
x Contents
Chapter 21 Introduction to computer-aided design of junctions and highways G.R. Leake
21.1 Role of computer-aided design 21.2 What is CAD? 21.3 Data input requirements 21.4 Outputs from CAD programs 21.5 References
Chapter 22 Design of off-street parking facilities C.A. OTlaherty
22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9
Car parking standards Locating off-street car parking facilities The design-car concept Surface car parks Off-street commercial vehicle parking Types of multi-storey car park Self-parking multi-storey car parks: some design considerations Fee-collection control and audit References
Chapter 23 Road lighting CA. O'Flaherty
23.1 Objectives 23.2 Lighting terminology 23.3 Basic means of discernment 23.4 Glare 23.5 Lamps 23.6 Luminaires 23.7 Mounting height 23.8 Luminaire arrangements 23.9 Overhang, bracket projection and setback 23,10 Spacing and siting 23.11 References
400
400 401 402 404 408
409
409 412 413 415 423 425 430 432 434
435
435 436 440 443 444 444 445 445 446 447 447
Part IV: Traffic management Chapter 24 Regulatory measures for traffic management
C.A. O'Flaherty
24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5
Speed limits Restriction of turning movements One-way streets Tidal-flow operation Priority for high-occupancy vehicles
450
450 451 452 454 456
24.6 24.7
Waiting restrictions and parking control References
25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4
Chapter 25 Physical methods of traffic control CA. O'Flaherty
Traffic calming Pedestrian priority Cyclist priority References
Chapter 26 Signal control at intersections M. G.H. Bell
26.1 Hardware 26.2 Intersection design 26.3 Safety and fairness 26.4 Control variables 26.5 Capacity 26.6 Performance 26.7 Off-line signal plan generation 26.8 On-line microcontrol 26.9 On-line proprietary systems 26.10 References
Chapter 27 Signal control in networks M. G.H. Bell
27.1 Off-line control 27.2 On-line control 27.3 References
Chapter 28 Driver information systems M.G.H. Bell P W. Bonsall and C.A. 0 'Flaherty
28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7
Conventional traffic signs Variable message signs Road markings Guide posts In-vehicle information systems Issues in the provision of in-vehicle information and guidance References
Contents xi
458 464
465
465 473 480 482
484
484 486 490 493 494 498 500 501 504 505
506
506 512 515
517
517 521 522 525 526 529 531
Index 532
About the contributors
Michael G.H. Bell Michael G. H. Bell has a BA in Economics from the University of Cambridge, and MSc and PhD degrees from the University of Leeds. He joined the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1984 where he is currently Professor of Transport Operations and Director of Transport Operations Research Group. He is author of over one hundred papers in fields related to transportation engineering, and is an Associate Editor of Transportation Research B.
Peter W. Bonsall Peter W. Bonsall has a Geography BA with Honours from Oxford University and a Diploma in Town and Regional Planning. His first employment was as a Systems Analyst with Software Sciences Ltd. He joined the staff of Leeds University as a Research Assistant in 1974 and was seconded to work with West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council from 1979 to 1984. He has headed the Institute for Transport Studies' MSc (Eng.) Programme in Transport Planning and Engineering since 1992 and became Professor of Transport Planning in 1996. He has been author of four books, over one hundred other publications and several items of commercially available software as well as being a contributor to two television documentaries.
Gerald R. Leake Gerald R. Leake graduated from the University of Birmingham with degrees in civil engineering and traffic engineering. He worked with Freeman Fox and Partners (con- suiting civil engineers) and Liverpool Planning Department before joining the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, where he is Senior Lecturer. He is a chartered Civil Engineer, a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers and of the Institution of Highways and Transportation.
Anthony D. May
Anthony D. May graduated with first class honours in Mechanical Sciences from Pembroke College, Cambridge, and subsequently studied at the Bureau of Highway Traffic at Yale University. He spent ten years with the Greater London Council, with responsibilities for policy on roads, traffic and land use, before joining the University of Leeds in 1977 as Professor of Transport Engineering. While at Leeds he has been
xiv About the contributors
awarded over fifty research grants and contracts, and has served as Director of the Institute for Transport Studies, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering and Dean of the Faculty of Engineering. He is currently Pro Vice Chancellor for Research.
Christopher A. Nash Christopher A. Nash has a BA in Economics with First Class Honours from the University of Reading and a PhD in Transport Economics from the University of Leeds. He joined the staff of Leeds University in 1974 and is currently Professor of Transport Economics in the Institute for Transport Studies. He is author or co-author of four books and more than eighty published papers in the fields of project appraisal and transport economics.
Coleman A. O'Flaherty Coleman A. O'Flaherty worked in Ireland, Canada and the USA before joining the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds in 1962. He was Foundation Professor of Transport Engineering and Foundation Director of the Institute for Transport Studies at Leeds University before being invited to Canberra, Australia as Chief Engineer of the National Capital Development Commission. Since retiring as Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Tasmania in 1993 he has been made a Professor Emeritus of the University and granted the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.
Preface
In 1967 I wrote a basic textbook entitled Highways that was aimed at undergraduate civil engineers who were interested in centring their careers on highway planning, design and construction. The book was well received and subsequently two further edi- tions were prepared. These later editions were each divided into two volumes, one dealing with those aspects of particular interest to the young traffic engineer, and the other with the physical location, structural design, and materials used in the construc- tion of highways.
When I was invited by the Publisher to prepare a fourth edition, I resolved instead to invite some of the top engineering educationalists in Britain to collaborate with me in the preparation of two new books. In this first volume Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering I am very fortunate that Mike Bell, Peter Bonsall, Gerry Leake, Tony May and Chris Nash agreed to participate in this endeavour. All are recognised experts in their fields and I am honoured to be associated with them in this book.
Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering is essentially divided into four parts. The first part (Chapters 1-11) deals with planning for transport, and concentrates on
the historical evolution of the transport task; transport administration and planning at the governmental level in Britain; principles underlying the economic and environmental assessment of transport improvement proposals, and of transport analysis and forecasting; contrasting traffic and travel demand-management strategies; a basic approach to the development of a town centre parking plan; planning for pedestrians, cyclists and disabled persons; roles and characteristics of the various transport systems in current use; and introductory approaches to the planning of public transport and freight transport systems.
Planning of any form is of limited value unless based on sound data. Thus the second part (Chapters 12-15) is concerned with issues in survey design; observational and par- ticipatory transport surveys; and studies relating to the prevention, investigation and reduction of road accidents.
The third part (Chapters 16-23) deals with practical road design for capacity and safety. It covers an introduction to traffic flow theory; the US highway capacity manual and British design-standard approaches to road design; road accident considerations; the geometric design of roads (including intersections) for both safety and capacity; an introduction to computer-aided design; road lighting; and the design of off-street park- ing facilities.
The final part (Chapters 24-28) is concerned with the management and control of traffic in, mainly, urban areas. As such it concentrates on regulatory methods of traffic management; in situ physical methods of traffic control; traffic signal control at inter- sections and in networks; and the role and types of driver information systems.
Whilst this book is primarily aimed at senior undergraduate and postgraduate uni- versity students studying transport and traffic engineering I believe that it will also be of value to practising engineers and urban planners.
Coleman O'Flaherty July 1996
Acknowledgements
My colleagues and I are indebted to the many organisations and journals which allowed us to reproduce diagrams and tables from their publications. The number in the title of each table and figure indicates the reference at the end of each chapter where the source is to be found. It should be noted that material quoted from British government publi- cations is Crown copyright and reproduced by permission of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
I am personally indebted to Ms Judy Jensen, Librarian-in-Charge at the State Offices Library, Hobart for her very considerable unassuming, professional help in obtaining reference material for me. I must also acknowledge the courteous, as well as profes- sional, help provided to me at all times by Ms Eliane Wigzell, Arnold's Civil and Environmental Engineering Publisher; it was and is a pleasure to work with her.
Last, but far from being least, I thank my wife, Nuala, whose patience and forbear- ante have helped me immeasurably in my writing enjoyment.
Coleman O'Flaherty