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CHAPTER - 9
THE FINDINGS
General
Certain postulates or inferences are
derived/arrived at the end of each chapter. Such
inferences or postulates are incorporated and
abridged to arrive at the ndings. The chapter wise
ndings are given in subsequent paragraphs.
9.1 Findings from te Re!ie" of #iterat$re
%Ca&ter'().
(a) The wide range of the knowledge pertaining
to v¡stuvidya are spread over vedas, upavedas,
ved¡ngas, samhitas, s£tras, ¿¡stras, itih¡sas,
pur¡nas, specic v¡stu texts b various authors!
translated works! co""entaries! co"pilations!interpretations! research works.
(b) V¡stu¿¡stra considers the planning! design!
technological aspects and "ethodolog of
constructions. #t integrates the aspects!
orientations! aesthetics and artifacts. V¡stu
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constructions are done as per proper di"ensions
and proportions with the intrinsic rhth"!
gra""ar and aesthetics.
(c) There are well$established procedures for
the identication of the need! ¡c¡rya-vara¸a!
selection of location and site! considerations of
various alternatives in the decision$"aking!
design! planning and execution.
(d) The te"ples are classied in several was
b various authors based on the plan shapes!
si%es! nu"ber of stores! built for"s! interiors!
decorations! "aterials of construction!
"agnitude and artifacts. The shapes of &erala
te"ples are li"ited to the regular shapes of
square! rectangle! circular! octagonal! elliptical
and apsidal. The nu"bers of stores are
restricted to three though there are descriptions
in text upto ' stores.
(e) There are wide ranges of exibilit in$built inv¡stuvidya in the concepts! canons and
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principles in the planning! design and execution
a*ording uniqueness to te"ple ¿rikovils. The
forward and rearward integration of the
ele"ents is evident in te"ple constructions.
(f)The concepts and cannons on the designs of
various ele"ents are variant in di*erent
textbooks! requiring further references. The
facts given ele"ent wise! in tabular for" provide
easier co"prehension in a co"prehensive wa!
helping students and teachers.
9.(. Findings from te Ca&ter-* %Te Hind$
Tem&les - a glan+e).
(a) The +indu Te"ples are buildings built for
installing the presiding deit for worshipping
according to the ¿¡stras b application of various
proportionate "easure"ents and standards.
The ¿rikovil also known as pr¡s¡da has unique
exteriors and interiors! which please the ees
and souls of both gods and "en. #t utilisesgainfull the energ! talent! skill and leisure of
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the "e"bers of the co""unit. Pr¡s¡da is of
,ran origin and Vim¡na of -rvidian origin.
Pr¡s¡da indicates the ¿rikovil around the
garbhag¤ha. Vim¡na indicates palatial building!
"a be "ain ¿rikovil, pr¡k¡ras or gopuras.
(b) The te"ples served as places of worships and
also helped in developing the knowledge! skill
and sets of concepts and cannons for planning!
design! construction and "aintenance.
(c) &erala te"ples di*er fro" the te"ples of
other parts of #ndia in few was. The nu"ber of
stores is li"ited to three. gamic and tantric
cannons and culture dictate the te"ple designs.
The plan shapes are restricted to few regular
shapes. The decorations are si"ple and few.
nl one ¿ikhara with sloping roof is provided.
The interiors are scantl decorated. The locall
available and durable "aterials are used.
#nvariabl nales are provided over the roof. Thegarbhag¤ha is s"all! mukhamandapa is optional!
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¿ripita a "ust! upap!ta is optional and adhis"¡na
a "ust. Pran¡la and sop¡na are invariabl
provided.
9.*. Findings from Ca&ter- , %Te Str$+t$ral
S&a+es and $ilt Forms of Tem&le árikovils
of erala).
(a) E!ol$tion of str$+t$ral s&a+es and
forms. Te"ples were built and were existing in
&erala "uch before Christian era. #n the earl
phase (011 $ '111 ,-) the te"ples were built on
square! rectangle! circular and apsidal ground
plans. 2oth nirandhara and sandhara tpes were
in vogue. #arvatobhadra tpe existed. #n square
te"ples mukhamandapas were pro3ecting out.
#n circular and apsidal ¿rikovils the space in front
of garbhag¤ha served as mukhamandapa. The
decorations were with recesses! niches and
pro3ections. -uring the "iddle phase ('11' to
'411 ,-) the interior arrange"ents likeantar¡bhitti, garbhag¤ha as "iniature vim¡na,
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garbhag¤has having square shapes! except in
apsidal ¿rikovils! and instalation of consorts of
"ain idol in the sa"e ¿rikovil. The construction
of mata ¿rikovils gained i"portance. 5an
te"ples of this period revealed the $r¡vida
traditions and fusion with &erala traditions. The
elliptical plan shape was provided to ¿rikovils
during this phase. -uring the late phase ('41'
to '011 ,-) the e"phasis got shifted to outside
the ¿rikovil to gopuras, d%va&as, balikkal puras
and ancillar constructions. Copper sheeting
over ti"ber roofs gained popularl. #n the
"odern phase ('01' to 6111) large nu"ber of
renovations and new constructions took place.
7se of ce"ent concrete! reinforced ce"ent
concrete! plaster of paris and other "odern
"aterials ca"e into existence. ,rchitecture of
prast¡ra ca"e into existence.
(b) Anti/$ities of tem&le¿rikovils
. Theantiquities of 849: ¿rikovils spread over seven
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districts (&asargod! &annur! &o%hikode! ;aanad!
5alappura"!
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square garbhag¤has are also observed. The
for"ulae for various ground plans are veried
with "odern geo"etr and the percentages of
errors are found to be negligibl s"all
("axi"u" upto 1.:=).
(d) erti+al s&a+es. The e*ects of vertical spaces
co"e fro" the develop"ents in ? axis over
hori%ontal spaces in @ axis and A axis. The
ele"ents considered for the vertical
develop"ents are foundation! (ad¡dh¡ra, upap
!ta, padmap¡duka, adhis"¡na, height of wall of
¿rikovil and their divisions! roof! nale! ceiling!
prastara and so on. 5ost of the cannons are
based on the am¿akrama derived fro" the
pr¡s¡da dandu! height fro" p¡duka to nale (both
inclusive)! uttaradandu and wall height. )oni
concepts are also prescribed in certain texts. ut
of 94: ¿rikovils which account for nearl 98= of
total nu"bers of te"ples in &erala built as perte"ple v¡stu, the "axi"u" percentages are
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single storeed (00.4=)! double storeed co"ing
next (''.9 =) and three storeed onl 1.4=.
The levels at which ¿ripitas installed are "ostl
at the oor level. ;ariations are there with the
¿ripita at higher levels! lower levels or even at an
elevated store! creating variet and
uniqueness.
(e) Str$+t$ral forms. The "ouldings! the
pro3ections! niches! openings! decorations of
various categories and the elevations constitute
the ele"ents considered under structural for"s
which give the looks! aesthetics! expressions of
the te"ple architecture! uniqueness to the
¿rikovils! the exquisiteness and grandeur. 5an
of the ele"ents constituting the structural for"s
serve as secondar structural "e"bers
contributing towards stabilit! strength and
sustainabilit of the ¿rikovils. The cannons given
in tabular for" in ver brief reveal the exibilit!varieties created in hori%ontal and vertical
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spaces and for"s. *m¿akrama is used for
proportioning of ele"ents. ,esthetics!
conveniences and beaut have their roles in the
develop"ent of structural for" apart fro"
am¿akrama. Ball decorations are progressive in
nature. S"all ¿rikovils have si"ple and few Ball
decorations like bhittikal! gha¸advara and
vedikas. ,s the ¿rikovil si%es increase "ore
decorations are added progressivel with out
clustering. The &erala te"ple architecture is
adopted for the decorations. #t is si"ple! elegant
and expressive.
9.,. Findings from +a&ter- 2 % A&sidal forms of
erala árikovils )
+a The knowledge about the apsidal for" was
existent fro" 6nd centur ,- as observed fro"
archeological evidences. The basic ground plan
shape prescribed in "ost of the texts is a square
with se"icircle at the back. 5aa"ata onlindicates elongated square with elongation in
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the length. +owever! the apsidal ¿rikovils in
&erala are basicall square with se"icircle at the
back. The detailed descriptions are ver few in
textural works on the apsidal for"s.
+b The percentage of apsidal ¿rikovils in &erala
is about 1.:. The total nu"ber of such ¿rikovils
is around 41 out of which 60 are listed. Two
¿rikovils "entioned in published works on
verication at site were found to be of square
plan shape.
+c ut of 60 apsidal ¿rikovils! onl two of the"
are in the categor of mah¡pr¡s¡das and are
three storeed. Ten of the" are two soreed and
the rest ' of the" are single storeed. ut of
60 apsidal ¿rikovils! '4 of the" are Diva te"ples!
'1 of the" Dsta/,appa te"ples and others
like ;"ana! Sankaranrana! Subra"ania and
-evi te"ples put together account onl ve.
+d 5axi"u" nu"ber of apsidal ¿rikovils are in Trissur and 5alappura" districts (0 and E
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respectivel). &asargod! &annur! &o%hikode!
;nad districts have 4! 6! 6! 6 apsidal ¿rikovils
respectivel.
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+g The back portion being curved in plan the
bhittialank¡ras at rear corners and curved
portions need "odications.
+h The garbhag¤has are "ostl of the sa"e
shape as of the ¿rikovils. Aet! square shaped
garbhag¤ha in apsidal ¿rikovil also exist. >ew
s"all ¿rikovils do not have separate
garbhag¤has and the walls of the ¿rikovils "erge
with the garbhag¤has as ghanabhitti.
+i The mukhamandapas are provided except in
ver s"all ¿rikovils within the ¿rikovil itself. #n
ver few cases tirthamandapas are provided in
addition to mukhamandapas pro3ecting out side.
+&*ntar¡las are provided except in s"all ¿rikovils.
The walls of antar¡las support the top store in
"an cases. There are two k£tas and two st£pis
invariabl. #n few cases one "ore k£ta between
the two "ain k£tas is provided.
+k #n the absence of textural descriptions indetail on the designs and constructions of
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apsidal ¿rikovils! the rules applicable to square
and circular ¿rikovil (since apsidal is a
co"bination) "a be applied except in the plan
shapes and si%es with logical "odications
dee"ed necessar.
9.2. Ca&ter- 3. Findings from Case st$dies of
A&sidal árikovils.
ut of 60 apsidal ¿rikovils listed! brief case
studies are carried out on 66 ¿rikovils spread
over various regions of the state. Twent$one
¿rikovils are considered for co"parisons as one
is found to be a bit odd. The diagra"s of plans
are prepared and presented to high light the
variations. The "a be useful as
docu"entation on these ¿rikovils. 5ost of the
te"ples are photographed and presented.
-iscussions on over all observations are "ade.
Gach case stud has so"ething special. The
ndings "a be read in con3unction with the
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details given in the case studies. The ndings in
brief are given belowH
(a) Str$+t$ral s&a+es. The plan spaces for all
¿rikovils are apsidal with three sides straight
with se"icircle at the back of square. The
elongation of the square in A direction is absent.
The "a3orit of pr¡s¡da widths ranged fro" 4 kol
pari(a to ': kol pari(a (alpapr¡s¡da). nl two
¿rikovils are found belonging to mah¡pr¡s¡das.
,bout 81.:= of pr¡s¡das belong to 4 to 8 kol
pari(a and 64.: = belong to '6 to ': kol pari(a.
,bout 0'= of ¿rikovils have separate
garbhag¤has, others being s"all ¿rikovils do not
have separate garbhag¤has. ,bout E:= of the
garbhag¤has are of apsidal shape and := is of
square garbhag¤has. ,bout 8'= of the
garbhag¤has have either turavu or ceiling.
,bout 8= of ¿rikovils have mukhamandapas
and are inside the ¿rikovil. #n two casestirthamandapas pro3ecting out have been found.
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The presence of two antar¡las is indicative of
higher store. The "ere presence of one
antar¡las is not indicative of upper store. >or
s"all ¿rikovils! the antar¡la "a be considered
as "erged with the external wall. Two ¿rikovils!
are three storeed! '1 are two storeed (98=)
and the balance E (94=) are single stored. The
wall heights of single storeed ¿rikovils var
fro" '91 to '01 c". The wall heights of higher
stores appear to be 1.:th to 1.0th ti"es of the
lower stores indicating reductions in heights at
higher stores. The ¿ripitas are placed at the
sa"e level of the ¿rikovils in '6 ¿rikovils! 0 at
higher levels and one at lower level. Texts do
not "ention the levels and et! variations are
found to exist. Iineteen ¿rikovils! are having
sop¡nas. ne s"all ¿rikovil and another one
with the ¿ripita below the oor level do not have
sop¡nas. There are '9 sop¡nas with straightights! three fro" the sides and two having the
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co"bination of ights fro" the sides up in the
top of upap!ta and then straight going to the
¿rikovil. Texts refer to the straight ights and
fro" the sides onl. The co"bination is a ground
realit. The pran¡las are placed on the Iorthern
wall for all ¿rikovils whether facing Gast or Best.
There is onl one ¿rikovil having doors in all
directions. There are three ¿rikovils which have
two doors and second door faces the extra deit.
hanadv¡ras are provided in the positions where
doors do not exist in the respective cardinal
direction. The door si%es var fro" : to '1 c"
in width and '6: to 6'6 c" in height. The widthH
height ratio is ver near to 'H6. The am¿¡krama
is not found existing in ver s"all ¿rikovils,
where the convenience "a be taken as the
logic. #n bigger ¿rikovils! the am¿akrama is
nearl valid.
(b) Str$+t$ral forms. Padmap¡duka is anoptional ele"ent. #t is found onl in one ¿rikovil.
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/pap!ta is also an optional ele"ent. nl ve
¿rikovils are having upap!tas. The pro3ections of
upap!ta are found to be around 91 c" in four
cases. #n one case the pro3ection is ': c" and
it serves as a covered verandah. 5ost of the
¿rikovils (E1=) have the adhis"¡nas of
pancavarga tpe ( p¡duka, &agati, kumuda, gala
and pati). nl one s"all ¿rikovil has trivarga
tpe and in one case! it has pancavarga plus
valaru and kapota over the top pati. The heights
of adhis"¡nas var fro" 4 to '91 c". The o*
sets var fro" to 91 c" approxi"atel. The
proportioning of the heights and pro3ection of the
sub parts of the adhis"¡nas also var. ,l"ost all
¿rikovils have vedikas around ¿rikovil! "ostl
with six divisions. >ew big te"ples have
separate vedikas for the pro3ecting
bhittialank¡ras. The bhittialank¡ras are si"ple!
progressive and as per texts. The pro3ectionsvar fro" '/0th to the full width of the exterior
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walls. The bhittialank¡ras apart fro" aesthetics
strengthen the walls. #n 90= of the ¿rikovils gr
!vas and 90= of the ¿rikovils valaru and kapota
are provided. r!vas help in attaining height
and valaru, kapota apart fro" aesthetics provide
additional space for acco""odating the
"e"bers of the ceilings. The roofs are of ti"ber
with tiles or copper sheet coverings in "ost of
the cases. Co"bination of tiles and copper
sheeting are also found. JCC roofs are found in
'E= of ¿rikovils! which are found in renovated
¿rikovils. #t appears that V¡stu experts and
tantris are a"enable to the use of "odern
"aterials. ut of 6' ¿rikovils three have no
st£pis. The nu"ber of nales varies. There are
one st£pi each (69=)! two st£pis (:=) and three
st£pis (:8=) found on ¿rikovils. ,l"ost all
¿rikovil roofs have elegant n¡sikas except the
n¡sikas provided in JCC roof. ,bout 90= of te"ples have vi(k%ambhas with level plates and
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b¡lak£tas. ,part fro" architectural beaut these
"e"bers provide supports to the overhangs of
the rafters. #n 9 ¿rikovils wooden trellise works
out side the outer walls were found which
function as protection to the "urals and serve as
d!pam¡la and alank¡ra. The trellise works also
support the overhangs of rafters as secondar
function.
(c) Constr$+tion materials. 5ost of the
te"ples (E:=) have granite adhis"¡nas and
parts below. The walls are of laterite in "ost of
the ¿rikovils and few are of brick constructions.
,bout 69= of "ain doors are also found to be of
granite. 0hittialank¡ras are provided with the
sa"e "aterials used for walls. #op¡nas and
pr¡nalas are found to be of granite. Joong
"aterials are of copper plates (=)! or tiles
(':=). JCC ('E=) roofs were found in renovated
ones. Ceilings are provided with ti"ber. 1uravusare provided b corbelling of stones/bricks. nl
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ti"e tested! strong and durable "aterials are
used in the constructions of ¿rikovils. JCC has
been a new trend. 7se of ti"e tested! strong
and durable "aterials "a be one of the reasons
for the long life of ¿rikovils.
9.3 Findings from Ca&ter- 4 %Presentation of
Data5 Anal6sis and Inferen+es).
The ndings are grouped under the di*erent
headings.
9.3.1 Inter!ie"s "it tantries and v¡stu
e7&erts.
There are nu"ber of co""on infor"ation
fro" tantries and V¡stu experts. The ndings
are clubbed together to avoid over lapping
and repetitions. The weighted averages are
adopted in the ndings. The ndings areH
+a The percentages of ¿rikovils with ;iKLu! Diva
and Dakti prati(tas are ver nearl equal!
60=! 6= and 46=. thers account for '9=indicating existence of no separate cult.
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+owever! tantris expressed the views that the
circular ¿rikovils are do"inated b Diva and
apsidal ¿rikovils b Diva and Dasta.
+b The weighted averages of 849: ¿rikovils
(Table 9.') and 6048 ¿rikovils (Table 8.6)
indicates that '9= of ¿rikovils are "ore than
'111 ears old! 4= between :11 and '111
ears old! 4E= less than :11 ears old. The
antiquit of about ''= of te"ples is unknown.
The indication is that "a3orit of the te"ples
are ve or "ore centuries old.
+c The weighted averages of the plan shapes
of 866 ¿rikovils (Table 9.'6)! 6048 (Table
8.4.6) and 46:' (Table 8.9.') are found to be
(i) square 8.0=! (ii) rectangle ''.9=! (iii)
circle ''.'=! (iv) apsidal 1.:= and others
1.6=. 2¡gara tpe (square and rectangles)
do"inate with (about 00=). Vesara tpe
(circle) about ''=. ther tpes are hardl'=.
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+d The weighted average of 6048 ¿rikovils and
46:' ¿rikovils (infor"ation fro" tantris and
v¡stu experts) regarding the shape of
garbhag¤has are (i) square E0.4=! (ii) apsidal
1.:= and (iii) onl 1.6= are di*erent fro"
these.
+e The weighted averages of 94: ¿rikovils
(table 9.'6) and 6048 ¿rikovils (Table 8.6.9)
workout to be (i) single storeed 0.4=! (ii)
two storeed '4.9= and (iii) onl 1.4= three
storeed.
+ The bhittialank¡ras are progressive in nature
fro" si"ple bhithikkal to co"plex alank¡ras
according to the si%es of the ¿rikovils.
+g The "ain reasons found for the long life of
¿rikovil b the two groups in co""on areH
accurate designs! adherence to V¡stu
principles! peculiar plan shapes! gradual and
careful constructions! proper proportioning!use of strong "aterials! strong constructions
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and ti"el repairs. So"e "ore reasons given
which evoke thinking are ¿radha in ever
aspect! the stalamah¡tmya! belief of devotees!
routine worships! festivals and the protections
given b pr¡k¡ras.
+h The principles adopted in the planning!
design and construction are based on the
V¡stusastra! the tradition! local practices! guru
upad3sa and logic. +owever! the desire of the
owner! the capabilities of the ¿ilpins and the
culture of the societ also pla do"inant roles
in the te"ple architecture.
+i The inuences of other states in the structural
spaces and for"s of &erala ¿rikovils are
li"ited to borders of Ta"il Iadu and
&arnataka. The inuences are in the for" of
garbhag¤ha, ¿ikhara and alank¡ras. 5an
V¡stu experts are in favour of certain
adoptions with in principles of V¡stus¡stra and¡gamas.
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+& The general state of "aintenance of ¿rikovils
has been graded as! poor! fair! good and ver
good in the order of ranking! Te"ples with
poor inco"e are generall ignored.
+k The plan shapes and spaces provide the
base for the structural spaces and for"s. The
stles in pure and co"binations reect the
culture and for" of worship.
+l The peculiarities of apsidal ¿rikovils are
basicall the plan shape! the three
di"ensional aspects! alank¡ras, predo"inantl
sa"e shaped garbhag¤has! diFculties in
construction! lack of axial s""etries in the
vertical and lateral directions and do"inated
b Diva and Dasta prati(tas (case studies
conr" these peculiarities)
9.4 Findings from te Inter!ie"s "it
Engineers.
(a) Gngineers expressed thoughtful andprag"atic views! et showed reverences to the
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concepts and principles of v¡stusastra, especiall
in the case of te"ple ¿rikovils.
(b) There are denite relations with the
hori%ontal shapes! structural spaces and for"s of
¿rikovils! which contribute to the durabilit of
te"ple ¿rikovils.
(c) The scientic designs based on the suitable
shapes and spacial structures! gradual and
strong construction! high qualit control! close
supervision! use of strong "aterials! use of ti"e
tested preservatives! periodic "aintenance and
repairs contribute towards the durabilit of
¿rikovils. The location and selection of site have
bearing on the durabilit. Pr¡karas provide
protection to ¿rikovils.
(d) The special geo"etr! reduction of plan
si%es and heights at higher stores bringing the
higher "ass at the base! axial s""etries and
strong foundation contribute towards thesustainabilit and stabilit of ¿rikovils.
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(e) -ivergent views were expressed b
engineers on the "odernilisation in the planning!
design! construction! pro3ect "anage"ent!
"ethodolog in construction and "aterial
selection. >ew felt that the ti"e$tested
procedures are to be continued. thers are in
favour of changing with the technological age
and "odernisation.
(f) The engineers pro3ected strong views on the
integration of v¡stu concepts! cannons! principles
and practices with "odern engineering and
technolog. The te"ple ¿rikovils are to be built
with the ai" of nearl %ero "aintenance. The
felt the need to train the traditional artisans in
the state of art of te"ple constructions/
"aintenance.
9.8 Findings from te Site isits and
Dis+$ssions.
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+a There is strong need to docu"ent the
te"ples including structural details.
+b ;arieties in the ¿rikovils are attained
through variations in the hori%ontal and vertical
spaces and for"s through the exibilit o*ered
in the designs and constructions.
+c a&ap¤sta ¿rikovils represent the
co"bination of 2¡gara and Vesara traditions and
co"bination of satva and ra&a gunas.
+d There is a need to unif and standardise the
"an tpes of kols! preferabl to the kisku ( 69
*ngulas! 86 c" in length).
+e The varieties brought uniqueness to each
te"ple ¿rikovil. Aet! a"ong the diversities the
unit in the concepts! principles and expressions
prevailed.
+ The points e"erged during site visits and
discussions "a read in connection with the
ndings to know the range of views and varietieson ground.
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9.9 Findings from te Engineering
Dis+$ssions.
The engineering discussions add new di"ensions
in the approach to the stud. The discussion
under the headings of structural spaces!
structural for"s! and "aterials of constructions!
factors contributing towards the sustainabilit!
strength! stabilit and durabilit of ¿rikovils!
structural characteristics of apsidal ¿rikovils and
strengthening "easures against seis"ic e*ects
bring out the engineering visions and foresights
of the ancient v¡stu experts. There are v¡stu
concepts and principles! which coincide with the
"odern engineering. #t appears that certain
concepts of v¡stu are deductive and inductive as
the are interrelated. ,ll discussions have their
own relevance. Certain co""on ndings are
given belowH
(a) The structural spaces! both hori%ontal andvertical through regular shapes! spaces!
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proportioning! sequential supports! axial
s""etries! strong base and foundations!
strengthening b lateral supports and secondar
ele"ents contribute substantiall towards the
strength! stabilit! sustainabilit and durabilit of
¿rikovils.
(b) Selection and use of ti"e tested strong and
durable "aterials! gradual constructions! high
qualit control! use of preservatives! ti"el
"aintenance and repairs! proper up keep!
constructional details avoiding irregularities and
pro3ections individuall and in co"binations help
in the long life of ¿rikovils.
(c) The ele"ents of the for" apart fro"
providing architectural and aesthetic beaut and
creating uniqueness in several cases serve as
secondar structural "e"bers providing
strength! stabilit and sustainabilit to ¿rikovils.
(d) The concepts and principles of designs andconstructions to resist wind load and seis"ic
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e*ects are inherent in the designs and
constructions of ¿rikovils.
(e) The apsidal ¿rikovils have all of the above
features except the s""etries of the axes
about the orthogonal directions.
(f)The sste" processes (sub sste" and sste")
and integration of the ele"ents into the whole
are evident in the design and construction of
¿rikovils.
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econo" and splendor. #t needs full appreciation
for what has been done in the past b our
ancestors.
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