Trade, and Regulation the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion · The views of the authors expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the TRAFFIC Network, ... The Chihuahuan

Collection,Trade, andRegulation

of Reptiles andAmphibians of

the ChihuahuanDesert

Ecoregion

Lee A. Fitzgerald, Charles W. Painter,Adrian Reuter, and Craig Hoover

COLLECTION, TRADE, AND REGULATION OF

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANSOF THE CHIHUAHUAN DESERT ECOREGION

By Lee A. Fitzgerald,

Charles W. Painter,Adrian Reuter, and

Craig Hoover

August 2004

TRAFFIC North AmericaWorld Wildlife Fund

1250 24th Street NWWashington DC 20037

© 2004 WWF. All rights reserved by World Wildlife Fund, Inc.

ISBN 0-89164-170-X

All material appearing in this publication is copyrighted and may be reproducedwith permission. Any reproduction, in full or in part, of this publication must creditTRAFFIC North America.

The views of the authors expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflectthose of the TRAFFIC Network, World Wildlife Fund (WWF), or IUCN-The WorldConservation Union.

The designation of geographical entities in this publication and the presentation ofthe material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part ofTRAFFIC or its supporting organizations concerning the legal status of any country,territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiersor boundaries.

The TRAFFIC symbol copyright and Registered Trademark ownership are held byWWF. TRAFFIC is a joint program of WWF and IUCN.

Suggested citation:

Fitzgerald, L.A., et al. 2004. Collection, Trade, and Regulation of Reptiles andAmphibians of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion. TRAFFIC North America.Washington D.C.: World Wildlife Fund.

Front cover photos from the top, clockwise, are: ridge-nosed rattlesnake Crotaluswillardi, ring-necked snake Diadophis punctatus, collared lizard Crotaphytuscollaris, Berlandier’s tortoise Gopherus berlandieri, and imbricate alligator lizardBarisia imbricata. All photos are © Joseph E. Forks.

Back cover photo, courtesy of Adrian Reuter, shows rattlesnake skins for sale at aroadside market at Charco Cercado, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.

Visit www.traffic.org for an electronic edition of this report, and for moreinformation about TRAFFIC North America.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

EXTENDED EXECUTIVE SUMMARY IN SPANISH (SINTESIS EN ESPAGÑOL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

SPECIES IN THE CDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

CHAPTER 1: ASSESSMENT OF THE COLLECTION, TRADE, AND

REGULATION OF REPTILES FROM THE CDE IN MEXICO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

1. Legal Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

1.1 Federal Laws and Other Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

1.2 UMAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

1.3 State Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

2. Protected Areas in the CDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

3. Collecting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

4. Reptile Species Found in Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

5. Significant Domestic Trade Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

5.1 Plateros Magical-Religious Center, Zacatecas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

5.2 Charco Cercado, San Luis Potosi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

5.3 Mexico City Marketplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

6. International Trade from Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Assessment of the Impacts of Collection and Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

CHAPTER 2: ASSESSMENT OF THE COLLECTION, TRADE, AND REGULATION OF

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM THE CDE IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

1. State and Federal Laws Pertaining to Collection and Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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1.1 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

1.2 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

1.3 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

1.4 Federal Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

1.5 Protected Areas in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

2. Reptile and Amphibian Species Found in Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

3. Collecting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

4. Collecting Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

4.1 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

4.2 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

4.3 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

5. Domestic Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

6. International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

6.1 Availability and Usefulness of Trade Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

6.2 Export of Live Specimens from the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

6.3 Trade in Parts and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

7. Illegal Collection and Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Assessment of the Impacts of Collection and Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A1

Appendix 1: Norma Oficial Mexicana 059 (Official Norm 059) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A2

Appendix 2: Laws regarding collecting amphibians and reptiles in New Mexico . . . . . .A13

Appendix 3: Laws regarding collecting amphibians and reptiles in Texas . . . . . . . . . . . .A17

Appendix 4: Laws regarding collecting amphibians and reptiles in Arizona . . . . . . . . . .A24

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Figure 2: Total Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion reptiles found in Mexico, and total number found in trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Figure 3: Common uses of species subject to trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Figure 4: Distribution of 14 354 amphibians and reptiles collected in 27 Texas counties within the CDE during 1998-99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Native amphibians and reptiles of the CDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Table 2: CDE reptile species subject to trade in and/or from Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Table 3: Live reptile seizures from 1995 to 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Table 4: CDE reptile species offered in Mexico City markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Table 5: Legal and illegal imports to the United States of CDE reptile species from Mexico . . . . .45

Table 6: Amphibians and reptiles native to the CDE listed as threatened or endangered or otherwise fully protected by New Mexico State Game Commission Statute . . . . . . . . .51

Table 7: Native amphibians and reptiles of the CDE that are known or expected to be taken for sale or personal use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Table 8: Number, percent of total, and cumulative percent of amphibians and reptiles collected by nongame permit holders operating in the CDE in Texas in 1999 . . . . . . . . . .62

Table 9: Number of snakes, lizards, and turtles reported as collected by nongame permit holders in Texas in 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Table 10: Number of specimens collected by 53 nongame permit holders operating in the CDE in Texas in 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Table 11: U.S. exports of live reptile species found in the CDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

Table 12: U.S. exports of reptile parts and products derived from species found in the CDE . . . . .69

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Gracia González Porter forinformation and insights on Mexicanherpetofauna, and all of the interviewees whoshared their knowledge of the commercialtrade in amphibians and reptiles in theChihuahuan Desert Ecoregion (CDE). Specialthanks are owed to R. Roegner for providingthe Texas Parks and Wildlife Department(TPWD) database of nongame collectors anddealers for our use. Nongame regulations from

Arizona were provided by Michael Demlong,from New Mexico by Jon Klingel, and fromTexas by R. Roegner. We are also grateful forthe input of Jim Dixon, Bruce D. Taubert,Andy Price, and Teresa Mulliken, who kindlyreviewed drafts of this report. We would alsolike to thank the Walt Disney CompanyFoundation and World Wildlife Fund for theirgenerous financial support for this project.

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TRAFFIC North America sought to obtain andcompile information on the collection of andtrade in reptiles inhabiting the CDE. Thisproject was designed to provide baselineinformation on the species involved in legaland illegal trade, levels of trade, and status oflegislation and enforcement, and to identifypriorities for conservation of commerciallyexploited herpetofauna from the CDE.Although investigation of amphibian collection

and trade was outside the scope of this project,because of their similarity to reptile collectionand trade, some information on amphibians isalso included.

The Mexico portion of this report was preparedby Adrian Reuter. The United States portionwas prepared by Lee A. Fitzgerald and CharlesW. Painter. Both sections receivedcontributions from Craig Hoover.

BACKGROUND

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The Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion (CDE),located in the central and northern regions ofMexico, and in southern Arizona and NewMexico and west Texas in the United States,comprises desert and semi-desert regionsamong the most biologically diverse in theworld. CDE reptile and amphibian bio-diversity alone consists of approximately 217 species. Many factors (e.g., habitatdestruction) affect amphibian and reptilepopulations in the CDE. Though collection forthe commercial trade may impact thesepopulations, the magnitude of this impact hasnot been thoroughly investigated and is poorlyunderstood.

The objectives of this report are to: presentinformation gathered on collection, trade, andregulation of the amphibians and reptiles of the CDE; assess the current and potentialimpacts of collection and trade; evaluate theeffectiveness of existing regulations; and makerecommendations regarding the steps needed toensure that collection and trade are sustainableand do not pose a significant threat to CDEreptile and amphibian populations.

MexicoReptiles have long played an important role inthe lives of native Mexican people, as a sourceof food, clothing, arts and crafts manufacture,traditional medicine, and other uses. Thediversity of the Mexican CDE herpetofauna isamong the highest in all desert ecoregions,with more than 130 reptile species known toexist in the Chihuahuan Desert.

Mexico’s legal framework includes laws,regulations, norms, international agreements,national plans, and governmental dispositions,all of which are used to promote the protectionand sustainable use of Mexico’s naturalresources, including its native reptiles. Withlimited exceptions—primarily involvingnoncommercial, scientific use—Mexicoprohibits the export of native reptiles andamphibians, and all legal shipments must beaccompanied by a permit. In addition to thislegal regime, there are five protected areas inthe CDE in Mexico, including the CuatroCiénegas Area for the Protection of Flora and

Fauna, the Cañón de Santa Elena Area for theProtection of Flora and Fauna, the MapimíBiosphere Reserve, the Maderas del CarmenArea for the Protection of Flora and Fauna,and the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve.These protected areas cover in excess of 1 million hectares.

Though there is some targeted hunting ofreptiles, especially for more commerciallyvaluable species such as rattlesnakes andBolson tortoises, collecting is frequentlyopportunistic. Domestic demand for petreptiles has increased in the recent past, andthere is an established trade in markets andsome pet stores within Mexico. Some of thistrade is common in established markets, whereother pet animals such as aquarium fishes orsongbirds are offered; however, the numerousstreet markets in major urban centers as well asat some busy crossroads and stretches of roadalso act as selling points. Most of this trade istargeted at nationals seeking personal pets orfor resale in established businesses.

At least 82 species, or approximately 63% ofthe approximately 130 reptile species found inthe Mexico portion of the CDE, are subject tosome kind of trade. Most of this trade istargeted at demand for pets, followed bydemands for meat, skins, and traditionalmedicine. Of the 82 species identified indomestic or international trade, 6 are listed inAppendix I or II of the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 4 are classifiedas Threatened by IUCN—the WorldConservation Union (2002), and 51 in theNOM 059 ECOL 2001. Seventeen of the 82species are endemic to Mexico. Rattlesnakes,used for skins, rattles, meat, fat, venom, and aslive animals, are the most commonly tradedChihuahuan Desert reptiles. Several reptilespecies, including Bolson tortoises Gopherusflavomarginatus, Coahuilan box turtleTerrapene coahuila and black spiny softshellsApalone ater, may be particularly threateneddue to their population status.

Five main distribution and trade centers forCDE reptile species were identified in threemajor areas, including: Plateros

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Magical/Religious Center, Zacatecas; CharcoCercado, San Luis Potosí; three Mexico CityMarketplaces (the Mercado de Sonora, theMercado Nuevo San Lázaro, and the MercadoEmilio Carranza). Virtually all of the trade inreptiles and amphibians in these distributionand trade centers is illegal.

There is also an international, illegal trade inMexican reptiles and reptile products,primarily to the United States. BecauseMexican law generally prohibits the export ofnative reptiles, virtually all export of livereptiles, reptile parts, and products fromMexico is illegal. However, the offer for saleof numerous CDE reptile species endemic toMexico by reptile dealers outside of Mexico,especially in the United States, indicates thatillegal exports are taking place. Althoughmany of these species are now bred in captivitywithin the United States, the original founderstock was likely exported illegally fromMexico. Also, there are frequent seizures oflive reptiles, as well as parts and products, atthe U.S./Mexico border. However, neither ofthese information sources gives a clear pictureof the extent of exports from Mexico.

Demand for live rattlesnakes, skins, and partsfor use in traditional medicine appears to haveled to significant population reductions insome areas, such as Plateros, Zacatecas.However, basic biological information on most CDE reptile species is scarce, making itdifficult to evaluate the impact of collectionand trade on wild populations. This is com-pounded by the fact that these species faceother threats in many areas, such as habitatloss by deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing,exotic species introduction, pollution, andwatershed depletion.

To ensure that collection and trade are not athreat to CDE reptile species in Mexico,TRAFFIC recommends the following:

Enforcement:

1. Enforcement programs, which involvefrequent inspections of important tradecenters, should be enhanced to provide amore effective deterrent to illegal tradeactivities.

2. Wildlife inspector numbers should beincreased and specific training provided

(e.g., species identification, reptile handling,etc.) to ensure more effective regulation ofthe large-scale trade in reptiles and otherwildlife.

3. Long-term investigations of reptile trafficnetworks, from their natural collecting areas to their final sale, are needed to fully understand the extent and impacts ofthis trade.

4. Protocols for disposing of confiscatedwildlife, products, and byproducts,emphasizing the proper maintenance andhandling of live specimens, including thecreation of centers devoted to dealing withlive confiscated wildlife, should bedeveloped as a priority.

Management:

5. The UMA (Unidad para la Conservación,Manejo y Aprovechamiento Sustentable)system should be assessed to determinewhether sufficient controls and monitoringmechanisms are in place. If so, the systemshould be promoted, especially with regardto captive production of reptiles. Theseefforts should focus on threatened speciesthat are in significant demand for pets orother uses. Other UMA efforts mightinclude exhibits, ecotourism, andreintroduction programs.

6. Expanded knowledge of the biology andsize of the populations of these species isimperative, especially for threatened andheavily collected species.

7. Standardized gathering and reporting ofwildlife collection and trade information(investigations, seizures, repatriations,prosecutions, etc.) and greater facilitation ofinformation exchange and consultationamong government offices and other partiesare greatly needed.

8. Rehabilitation and release programs forseized animals, based on scientific data onthe biology and distribution of each species,taking into account the potential for disease,genetic pollution, and other risks to wildpopulations, should be developed.

Education:

9. Environmental education programs focusingon local communities should be developed,

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to increase awareness of Mexican laws andpromote the value of these communities’natural resources.

United States of AmericaThough dozens of reptile and amphibianspecies are exploited throughout the UnitedStates, little is known about the extent of theseactivities or their impacts on wild populations.This is particularly true for the large number ofsmall lizards and snakes such as those found inthe CDE.

The collection and sale of reptiles andamphibians in the United States is generallyregulated at the state level. For CDE species,the wildlife legislation and regulations of NewMexico, Arizona, and Texas are applicable toactivities involving reptiles and amphibians ineach of those jurisdictions. Federal legislationand regulations generally apply to federallyprotected species, activities on federal lands,and interstate and international commerce.

The domestic trade in amphibians and reptilesfrom the CDE is almost impossible to quantify,because take of most species is not regulated inNew Mexico, trade from Arizona is illegal, andTexas has only recently begun gathering datafrom collectors. There is no reason to believethat large numbers of animals from Arizona arecommercialized. Commercialization doesoccur in New Mexico, but there was no currentinformation available at the time of this study.Information on collection and sale of nongamespecies was available from Texas for 1999.

In Texas during 1999, 14 351 specimens ofreptiles and amphibians were reported to becollected by 53 Resident or Nonresidentnongame permit holders. Of these, 4861 wereamphibians and 9493 were reptiles. Thesenumbers do not include rattlesnakes collectedfor rattlesnake roundups, and thus the overallfigure is likely to be much higher. Ninetypercent of all specimens collected in the CDEin Texas in 1999 originated in only fivecounties, with the top eight collectorsaccounting for 90.3% of the total harvest.

Available data indicate that the number ofsnakes removed from the wild is notextraordinary. In 1999, the Texas Parks andWildlife Department (TPWD) nongamedatabase showed that 985 snakes were

collected in the CDE. Of these, 325 weregarter snakes Thamnophis spp. and 307 wererattlesnakes Crotalus spp. Seventy-threekingsnakes were collected (all species ofLampropeltis); 42 were gray-bandedkingsnakes. Thirty-two ratsnakes Elaphe spp.and 48 Trans-Pecos ratsnakes Bogertophissubocularis were reported collected bynongame permit holders. Several other specieswere collected in smaller numbers.

International trade in reptiles from the CDE inthe United States is difficult to assess, due to anumber of factors. Though some data areavailable from the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService (USFWS), these data raise as manyquestions as they provide answers, largelybecause the data collected by the USFWS areoften not species-specific, do not include anylocality information, and frequently don’tindicate the origin (wild-caught or captive-bred) of the animals. Despite these limitations,USFWS data are of some value in an analysisof CDE species trade. A thorough review ofU.S. export data showed that there areapproximately 50 reptile species found at leastin part in the CDE that appear to be involvedin international trade.

The export of turtle species found in the CDElikely involves few, if any, turtles actuallycollected from the CDE. For example, theexport of red-eared sliders almost exclusivelyinvolves turtles produced on farms inLouisiana and elsewhere in the southeasternUnited States. The same is true for the exportof most other turtle species found in trade.

The export of live CDE snake and lizardspecies does not appear to be a significantconcern. Most species are apparently beingexported in small numbers, and at least someof these species are being produced incaptivity, with little indication of increasingtrade throughout the time period examined.

A review of USFWS data showed that at leastseven species found in the CDE are traded asparts or products. Though the export of nativeCDE species as parts or products involves farfewer species than are involved in the live trade,this practice may be having a far greater impacton individual species because the trade in partsand products is more likely to involve wild-caught adult animals. Of some concern is theexploitation of several venomous reptile species

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for meat, skins, and leather products. This isespecially true of the Western diamond-backedrattlesnake, which is exported in a large array offorms. The most significant trade in this speciesappears to be meat, with well over 2000kilograms of meat exported over the six-yearperiod examined. A significant volume of skinsand skin products was also exported during thisperiod, including 1616 skins, 712 shoes/boots,1407 small leather products/skin pieces/leathertrim, 34 handbags, 79 garments, 939 pieces ofjewelry, and 753 unspecified items.

Based on the lack of field studies andmonitoring data on the trade in reptiles andamphibians, it is not possible to draw definiteconclusions about the threats posed bycollection and trade. However, based on lifehistory pattern, geographic extent of range, anddetectability, it is likely that the vast majorityof reptile and amphibian species found in theCDE are widely enough distributed thatcollecting will not lead to regional or globalspecies extinction. Almost all amphibian andreptile collecting is done from roads or inaccessible canyons. Enormous areas are onprivate land or so remote that collecting fortrade is inefficient, and there are extensiveareas of suitable and occupied habitat that arenever collected.

Collecting and trade in the CDE probablyshould not be considered a threat to speciesthat are relatively widely and continuouslydistributed, are small in size, and that possess a life history characterized by relatively shortlife span and high reproductive rate. The seven most collected species from the CDE inTexas in 1998-99 accounted for 79% of allspecies collected. It is impossible to evaluatequantitatively the impact of collecting on thepopulations that were exploited withoutdetailed information on collecting effort,geographic extent of collecting, and demo-graphic information on the exploited popula-tions. However, the three amphibians—tigersalamander Ambystoma tigrinum, Couch’sspadefoot Scaphiopus couchii, and green toadBufo debilis—are common and widelydistributed. The two lizards—common side-blotched lizard Uta stansburiana and marbledwhiptail Cnemidophorus tigris—are alsowidespread and continuous in their distri-butions throughout much of the CDE.

Gila monsters Heloderma suspectum, turtles ingeneral, and the prairie rattlesnake Crotalusviridis are species that, based on naturalhistory, may be locally vulnerable to over-collecting. Species with fragmented ranges,such as the massasauga Sistrurus catenatus orWestern hog-nosed snake Heterodon nasicus,even if the geographical extent of the range islarge, may also be susceptible to localpopulation extirpation.

Because of their vulnerability and the lifehistory characteristics of long-lived organisms,turtle populations may be eliminated fromspecific sites from over-collecting. The yellowmud turtle Kinosternon flavescens and desertbox turtle Terrapene ornata luteola werecollected in large numbers in Texas. Thoughboth species are common and widespread,yellow mud turtles are generally found whenlocally concentrated in ponds, stock tanks, andplayas, and desert box turtles have a lowreproductive rate. It is reasonable that theseand similar species could be significantlyimpacted by intenstive collecting.

The pattern of collecting in Texas indicatessome generalities that are relevant to reptileand amphibian collecting throughout theregion. First, few collectors account for thegreat majority of specimens collected. Second,few species were collected in large numbers.The species that were collected in largenumbers are widespread, small bodied, and,except for amphibians and turtles, arerelatively short lived. A third generalizationwas that collecting was very patchy, with asmall number of areas being intensivelycollected. In Texas, the same stretches ofroads that have been popular with collectorsfor decades continue to produce specimens,and remain the principal areas used bycollectors. There are enormous expanses ofhabitat throughout the entire ecoregion that arenot visited by collectors. Thus, given availableinformation, collection and trade do not appearto be a significant threat for the vast majorityof CDE reptile and amphibian species in theUnited States. However, for a select number ofspecies with particular vulnerabilities and/orlife history characteristics, over-collecting mayat least be impacting local populations andbear further attention.

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Based on this information, TRAFFICrecommends the following:

Collection and Trade Monitoring:

1. To ensure that collection and trade of CDEamphibians and reptiles is sustainable,implementation of a legally bindingmonitoring system of take and trade in these groups is needed. Such a monitoringsystem must be based on the legal status of amphibians and reptiles and rulesregulating their take. Such systems havebeen implemented in Texas and NewMexico and have provided valuableinformation on the trade of amphibians and reptiles in the state.

Field Research:

2. It is not often feasible to census amphibianand reptile species directly because of thelarge geographic areas involved, the timeand expense required to measure these

populations, and the inherent difficulties in measuring amphibian and reptilepopulations with confidence. Instead,targeted research should be aimed atproducing sufficient information aboutcollecting amphibians and reptiles to guide management decisions.

3. Information is needed on the amount ofsuitable habitat available for species withrelatively small distributions and that requirevery specific habitat types in relation to theamount of area where they are collected.

4. Research on source-sink phenomena inexploited amphibians and reptiles would beuseful, and has yet to be conducted for anyexploited amphibian or reptile. Informationon source-sink dynamics of selected speciesmay clarify whether populations are self-sustaining, or to what extent habitatcorridors and large uncollected areas areneeded to sustain populations of exploitedpopulations on a regional basis.

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INTRODUCCIÓNLa Ecoregión del Desierto Chihuahuense(EDC) está ubicada en las regiones centrales ydel norte de México, y en la parte sur de losEstados Unidos. En los Estados Unidos, laEDC se extiende del sureste de Arizona al surde Nuevo México, y al oeste de Texas hasta laMeseta de Edwards. Se internasignificativamente en México, abarcandopartes de Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila,Durango y otros estados, y cubreaproximadamente 630 000km2 (243 000 millascuadradas), incluyendo las regiones desérticasy semi desérticas más diversas del mundo,desde el punto de vista biológico. Estaecoregión se encuentra rodeada por montañasde la Sierra Madre Occidental al oeste y de laSierra Madre Oriental al este, extendiéndose alsur hasta San Luis Potosí incluyendo islasseparadas de vegetación chihuahuense en losestados de Querétaro e Hidalgo.

Todos los años, se recolectan de la EDC unnúmero indeterminado de reptiles y anfibios,principalmente culebras, lagartijas, tortugas ysapos, para suplir la demanda de estas especiescomo mascotas, tanto dentro del país como enel extranjero. Los taxones frecuentementerecolectados para el comercio incluyen loslagartos cornudos Phrynosoma spp., las falsascorales Lampropeltis triangulum, y otrasculebras. Los monstruos de gila Helodermasuspectum aparecen en el comercio a pesar delas prohibiciones de recolección de toda sugama y de las listas en que aparecen en elApéndice II de la Convención sobre elComercio Internacional de EspeciesAmenazadas de Flora y Fauna Silvestres(Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora -CITES). Algunas especies, principalmente lasserpientes de cascabel, se recolectan por supiel, carne y otras partes.

Muchos factores (p. ej., la reducción delhábitat) afectan a las poblaciones de anfibios yreptiles de la EDC. La recolección para elintercambio comercial puede causar un impactoen estas poblaciones, a pesar de que lamagnitud de este impacto no ha sidoinvestigada a fondo y no se comprende bien.

Hay inconsistencias en las regulaciones derecolección y comercio tanto en los EstadosUnidos como en México. Por lo tanto, senecesita más información sobre la recolección yel comercio de anfibios y reptiles silvestres, conel fin de tomar decisiones informadas sobre lasprioridades de conservación para la EDC.

Los objetivos de este informe son: presentar lainformación reunida sobre la recolección, elcomercio y la regulación de los anfibios yreptiles de la EDC; evaluar los impactosactuales y potenciales de la recolección y elcomercio; evaluar la efectividad de lasregulaciones existentes; y hacer reco-mendaciones con respecto a los pasos que senecesitan para asegurar que la recolección y elcomercio sean sostenibles y no representen unaamenaza significativa para las poblacionesreptiles y anfibias de la EDC.

ESPECIES DE LA EDCNuestra lista enumera 217 especies de anfibiosy reptiles nativos a la EDC (Tabla 1). Morafka(1977) proporcionó una lista de 170 especiesque habitan dentro la definición geográfica delDesierto Chihuahense más 25km a sualrededor. Nosotros hemos incluido especiesadicionales que no habitan en la región definidaestrictamente como el Desierto Chihuahuense,pero que se conocen por la definición másamplia de la EDC (Flores Villela, 1993;Degenhardt et al., 1996; Dixon, 2000). A pesarde que no existen datos más exactos, por lomenos 130 de estas especies se sabe o esperaque sean parte del intercambio comercial.

EVALUACIÓN DE LARECOLECCIÓN, EL COMERCIOY LAS REGULACIONESCONCERNIENTES A LOSREPTILES DE LA EDC EN LOSESTADOS UNIDOSMEXICANOS (MÉXICO)

INTRODUCCIÓN

Históricamente, los reptiles han jugado unpapel importante en las vidas de las personasnativas de México. Los reptiles fueron

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SINTESIS EN ESPAÑOL

adorados como representaciones de dioses, yusados como comida diaria (p. ej., los huevos yla carne de tortugas e iguanas, las piernas ycolas de los cocodrilos), en las artes y lafabricación de artesanías (p. ej., cinturones,zapatos, botas), ropa, medicina tradicional (p.ej., carne, veneno y grasa de la serpiente decascabel), por vendedores ambulantes (se usaniguanas y otros reptiles para llamar la atencióna otras mercancías), e incluso en ceremoniasmágico-religiosas por muchos sectores de lapoblación (SEMARNAP- PROFEPA, 1998).

La diversidad de la herpetofauna está entre lasmás altas de todas las ecoregiones desérticas.De acuerdo a Levin (Cotera et al., 2001), sesabe que existen más de 130 especies dereptiles en el Desierto Chihuahuense, y variaslagartijas son endémicas, incluyendo lalagartija cornuda de montaña Phrynosomaorbiculare, el lagarto escorpión de LugoGerrhonotus lugoi, el eslizón encineroEumeces lynxe, la encinela de Taylor Scincellasilvícola y la lagartija escofina de MapimíXantusia bolsonae (NOM 059-ECOL 2001,Tabla 2). Varios lagartos, incluyendo el huicode Nuevo México Cnemidophorusneomexicanus y el huico de cuadros C.tesselatus, surgen como clonespartenogenéticos totalmente femeninos enhábitats selectos alterados (Wright y Lowe,1968). Entre las muchas otras especies que sesuman a la diversidad de reptiles de la EDCestán la culebra real potosina Lampropeltismexicana, la culebra sorda Pituophis deppei, laculebra de panza negra Thamnophismelanogaster, la serpiente de cascabelCrotalus aquilus, la tortuga de CuatroCiénegas Terrapene coahuila, la tortugacasquito Kinosternon hirtipes, la tortugacasquito de Sonora Kinosternon sonorense, lagalápago de Mapimí Gopherusflavomarginatus, y la tortuga de casco suave deCuatro Ciénegas Apalone ater (NOM 059-ECOL 2001, Tabla 2; Dinerstein et al., 2000).

RESULTADOS

Marco legalEl marco legal de México incluye leyes,regulaciones, normas, acuerdosinternacionales, planes nacionales ydisposiciones gubernamentales. Todas estasherramientas legales se usan para fomentar la

protección y el uso sostenible de los recursosnaturales de México, incluyendo sus reptilesnativos. A nivel internacional, México se afilióa la CITES en 1991. Con excepcioneslimitadas —principalmente en lo concernienteal uso científico, no comercial— Méxicoprohíbe la exportación de reptiles y anfibiosnativos, y todos los envíos lícitos deben estaracompañados por un permiso.

En el texto completo del informe se puedenhallar descripciones breves de las herramientasjurídicas que más directamente afectan larecolección, el comercio y el manejo dereptiles y anfibios de la EDC de México.

Áreas protegidas de la EDCHay cinco áreas protegidas en la EDC enMéxico: el Área de Protección de Flora yFauna de Cuatro Ciénegas, el Área deProtección de Flora y Fauna del Cañón deSanta Elena, la Reserva de la Biosfera deMapimí, el Área de Protección de Flora yFauna de Maderas del Carmen, y la Reserva dela Biosfera Sierra Gorda (Cuadro 2).

Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila (Área deProtección de Flora y Fauna)

El Valle de Cuatro Ciénegas ha sido estudiadodesde los años treinta, y el 7 de noviembre de1994 fue establecido como Área de Protección(INE/SEMARNAT, 1999). Esta área deprotección varía de 740 a 3000 metros deelevación en la Sierra de la Menchaca, SanVicente, La Purísima, San Marcos, Pinas y LaFragua, dentro de la Sierra Madre Oriental(INE, 2001).

En el área existen 58 especies de reptiles,incluyendo varias tortugas como la tortuga deconcha blanda Apalone spinifer, y la tortugade Cuatro Ciénegas Terrapene coahuila, todaslas cuales han sido recolectadas para elcomercio internacional de mascotas. Otrasamenazas a la herpetofauna del área incluyenla extracción de agua de las pozas para laagricultura, la contaminación del agua y de latierra, los incendios, la matanza de serpientesde cascabel por los ganaderos, y laintroducción en los estanques de tortugas deotros lugares (p. ej., la tortuga de orejas rojasde Florida Trachemys scripta).

En la actualidad, algunas organizaciones einstituciones nacionales e internacionales están

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trabajando en el área de proyectos relacionadosa la educación ambiental, documentando laimportancia de la biodiversidad de CuatroCienágas, la introducción nuevamente de laTerrapene coahuila, y el comercio ilegal devida silvestre (INE, 2001; González Porter,comunicación personal con Adrián Reuter,Mayo 2001).

Cañón de Santa Elena (Área de Protección deFlora y Fauna)

Ubicada en la región noreste del Estado deChihuahua y con un total de 277 209hectáreas, esta reserva de la biosfera seestableció el 7 de noviembre de 1994 (Dirzo yGómez Pompa, 1995).

Con herpetofauna característa a la EDC, unacantidad de amenazas pueden tener impacto enestas poblaciones, incluyendo el sobrepastoreo,la deforestación, la minería, la recolecciónilegal de vida silvestre y el turismodescontrolado (INE, 2001).

Reserva de la Biosfera de Mapimí

Esta reserva de 29 000 hectáreas de superficiese estableció en 1977, y está ubicada al norte dela Meseta Central de México, dentro del Bolsónde Mapimí, al norte de Durango en el límiteentre Chihuahua y Coahuila (INE, 2001).

En el área de protección existen 36 especies dereptiles (Aguirre y Maury, 1989), incluyendo elgalápago de Mapimí Gopherusflavomarginatus, clasificada como Vulnerablepor la Unión Mundial para la Conservación(IUCN, 2002), y En Peligro bajo la NOM 059y CITES, Apéndice I. En la reserva tambiénhay una estación biológica donde se ha llevadoa cabo un programa de conservación para estaespecie. (Dirzo y Gómez Pompa, 1995).

Las mayores amenazas a los reptiles del áreason la recolección ilegal de especímenes(especialmente el galápago de Mapimí) paracolecciones personales, el comercio demascotas y la matanza intencional de tortugaspor parte de los ganaderos debido a que lastortugas hacen madrigueras, consideradascomo amenazas al ganado (Morafka, 1982;González Porter, comunicación personal conAdrián Reuter, Mayo 2001).

Maderas del Carmen (Área de Protección deFlora y Fauna)

Esta área de protección, con una superficietotal de 208 281 hectáreas, se estableció el 7de noviembre de 1994, y está ubicada en laregión noreste de Coahuila.

La herpetofauna es característica de la EDC, eincluye a la culebra corredora constrictorColuber constrictor, enumerada en la lista deespecies amenazadas de la NOM 059 deMéxico. Las mayores amenazas a los reptilesdel área son la deforestación, el sobrepastoreo,las actividades mineras y la introducción deespecies exóticas (INE/SEMARNAT, 1999).

Sierra Gorda (Reserva de la Biosfera)

La Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda seestableció el 19 de mayo de 1997 y abarca untotal de 383 567 hectáreas. En esta área deprotección existen 71 especies de reptiles.Entre las amenazas, a los reptiles y a otrasespecies en esta reserva, están la tala ilegal, lacontaminación del agua, la merma de lascuencas, el crecimiento de la poblaciónhumana, la caza furtiva y el turismodescontrolado (INE/SEMARNAT, 1999).

Métodos de recolección

Los métodos que se usan para cazar reptilesvarían grandemente dentro de la EDC.Dependiendo del tamaño del animal, lastortugas generalmente se capturan a mano, ousando atarrayas y trampas en forma deembudos. Generalmente se buscan y sacan alas tortugas de sus madrigueras.

Por lo general se matan a las serpientes encuanto se las encuentran, probablemente comoresultado del temor causado por la falta deconocimientos para identificar a las especiesno venenosas de las venenosas. Usualmente, alas serpientes muertas se las desuella y se secala carne. Las serpientes vivas son por logeneral capturadas usando un palo de maderapara alzarlas o guiarlas hacia una bolsa.Frecuentemente se guardan juntas variasserpientes en una sola bolsa.

A las lagartijas se las atrapa con la mano. Semete la mano en los huecos donde se puedanencontrar lagartijas o se les captura mientras seestán asoleando, generalmente temprano en lamañana, cuando están menos activas. Losniños del lugar también capturan lagartijasgolpeándolas con ligas elásticas y sujetándolasmientras que las lagartijas están aturdidas.

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A pesar de que existen algunos reptiles que sonblancos de captura, en especial las especiescomercialmente más valiosas como lasserpientes de cascabel y las tortugas galápagode Mapimí, la recolección es frecuentementeoportunista.

Especies de reptiles halladas en elcomercioRecientemente se ha visto incrementada lademanda de reptiles domésticos, y existe uncomercio establecido en los mercados yalgunas tiendas de mascotas en México. Partede este comercio es común en los mercadosestablecidos, donde se ponen a la venta otrasmascotas, como peces para acuario o avescanoras; sin embargo, los numerosos mercadosen las calles de centros urbanos importantes asícomo en algunas intersecciones de caminoscon mucho movimiento y tramos de carreterastambién funcionan como puntos de venta.También hay un comercio internacional ilegalde reptiles mexicanos, como los génerosAbronia, Xenosaurus, y Crotaphytus, que sevenden en tiendas de mascotas y “shows” enlos Estados Unidos (González Porter,comunicación personal con Adrián Reuter,Mayo 2001).

Basándose en información histórica,entrevistas, excursiones de campo, encuestasde mercado y datos de aseguramientos,TRAFFIC realizó una evaluación del númerode especies de la EDC sujetas a recolección ycomercio en y de México. Por lo menos 82especies, o aproximadamente el 63% de las131 especies de reptiles calculadas que sehallaron en la parte mexicana de la EDC(Cotera et al., 2001), están sujetos a algún tipode comercio (Cuadro 3).

De las 82 especies identificadas en el comerciodoméstico o internacional, se enumeran seis enel Apéndice I ó II de la CITES, cuatro seclasifican como Amenazadas (vulnerables, enpeligro, críticamente en peligro o de bajoriesgo) por la UICN (IUCN, 2002), y 51 en laNOM 059 ECOL 2001. De las 82 especies,diecisiete son endémicas de México (Tabla 2).

Basándose en encuestas de mercado realizadasen México por González Porter durante losúltimos 10 años, las serpientes de cascabel quese usan para pieles, cascabeles, carne, grasa,veneno, y como animales vivos usados por

merolicos y otros vendedores ambulantes, ovendidos como mascotas, son los reptiles máscomúnmente comerciados en el DesiertoChihuahuense (González Porter, comunicaciónpersonal con Adrián Reuter, Mayo 2001).

Debido a que mucho del comercio es ilegal, yno se han reportado cifras de recolección ycomercio, es difícil calcular el volumen de lasserpientes de cascabel recolectadas ycomerciadas. Sin embargo, existe un poco deinformación anecdótica. Después de unoperativo que se llevó a cabo en la región dePlateros, Zacatecas por PROFEPA enseptiembre de 1997, se calculó que el númerode serpientes capturadas (principalmente de losgéneros Crotalus y Sistrurus de la regiónpodría llegar hasta a 400 por mes. Estainvestigación reveló que el comercio ilegal esextenso y diversificado, y que la demandaprincipal es por pieles de reptil. Cargamentosde cientos o hasta de miles de pieles deserpiente de cascabel, así como de otrosreptiles, son transportados por via terrestre aLeón, Guanajuato o Nautla, Veracruz. Allí seusa la piel para hacer botas y otros productosque se distribuyen a los mercados dentro yfuera de México (González Porter,comunicación personal con Adrián Reuter,Mayo 2001).

Las serpientes de cascabel también se usanfrecuentemente como remedio para variasenfermedades. Por ejemplo, el texto de unabotella de píldoras de serpiente de cascabelindicaba que eran útiles para curar una ampliavariedad de dolencias, incluyendo: manchasde la piel, cáncer, úlceras, erupcionescutáneas, granos, verdugones, picazones,reumatismo, venas varicosas, lunares de lacara, acné, espinillas, estrés, enfermedades delcorazón, diabetes, hemorroides e impotenciasexual. Estas píldoras “mágicas” están hechasde carne seca de serpiente de cascabel, que semuele y pone en cápsulas de goma. A pesarde que no se han realizado estudios científicosque apoyen estas afirmaciones sobre sueficacia, se ha demostrado que la carne, que seseca al aire libre, puede ser portadora deSalmonella; como consecuencia, las píldoraspueden ser un vector relativamente común deesta enfermedad (Rubio, 1998). Loscascabeles y la cabeza se usan como adornos(SEMARNAP-PROFEPA, 1998).

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Otro género de reptil comúnmente recolectadoconsiste en la lagartija cornuda Phrynosomaspp., a la que también se conoce como tapaxino camaleón. Algunas personas creen que estosreptiles son útiles para atraer dinero si secolocan en un cofre lleno de limaduras dehierro. Estas lagartijas, así como las lagartijasde collar Crotaphytus spp., son tambiénutilizadas ampliamente como mascotas enMéxico. Se ponen a la venta no sólo enmercados mexicanos, sino tambiéninternacionalmente en tiendas de mascotas y“shows” de reptiles (González Porter,comunicación personal con Adrián Reuter,Mayo 2001).

La mayor parte de las especies son explotadascomo mascotas, seguidos por usos de su carne,de su piel, en medicina tradicional y porvendedores ambulantes (merolicos) (Cuadro 4).

A pesar de que en el comercio hay por lomenos 82 especies para satisfacer unadiversidad de demandas, varias especiespueden estar especialmente amenazadas debidoa su estatus poblacional. De las 67 especiesque se pueden hallar en el comercio demascotas, las tortugas galápago de MapimíGopherus flavomarginatus (CITES Apéndice I;NOM 059 En peligro de extinción; UICN(IUCN, 2002) Vulnerable) y las tortugas decasco suave de Cuatro Ciénegas Apalone ater(CITES Apéndice I, NOM 059 Sujeto aprotección especial; UICN (IUCN, 2002)Críticamente en peligro) son de preocupaciónespecial debido a sus estatus precarios deconservación. Las tortugas de concha blandaApalone spp. también se usan por su carne,como las serpientes de cascabel Crotalus spp.y Sistrurus spp., todas las cuales están dentrode alguna categoría de protección en la NOM059. Las serpientes de cascabel están tambiénamenazadas por su uso para productos decuero, en la medicina tradicional y paraactividades mágico-religiosas.

A pesar de ser posible comerciar legalmentecon cierta vida silvestre en México, en especiala través del sistema UMA, hay poca evidenciadel comercio legal de especies de reptiles en laEDC durante los últimos años. Sin embargo,están disponibles algunos datos sobre elcomercio ilegal y podrían ser útiles paraevaluar el alcance de la recolección general yel comercio de reptiles de la EDC. Las cifras

oficiales de aseguramientos de reptiles vivosentre 1995 y 2000 por PROFEPA, sonbastantes bajas (Tabla 3), y no incluyen todoslos aseguramientos gubernamentales, como losespecimenes producto de operativosespecíficos. Por lo tanto, estos datos no debenser interpretados como una indicación de laextensión del comercio ilegal, sinosimplemente como una indicación de lasespecies recolectadas y/o comerciadasilegalmente dentro de México.

Centros de comercio nacionalimportantes En tres áreas importantes se identificaron cincocentros principales de distribución y comerciode especies de reptiles de la EDC:

1. Centro mágico-religioso de Plateros,Zacatecas

El mercado de Plateros está ubicado frente alSantuario para el Milagroso Niño de Atocha,donde se venden objetos religiosos, imágenes,velas y altares, entre otras cosas. Los remediosnaturales y tradicionales derivados de reptiles,como las serpientes de cascabel secas, laspíldoras de serpientes de cascabel, y loscascabeles, están a la venta. También están ala venta ranas y tortugas disecadas, así comobotas fabricadas con piel de reptiles.

A partir de 1995, las autoridades de PROFEPAen Zacatecas establecieron programas deverificación e inspección periódica,identificando los sitios de venta ilegal y elnúmero de especies que se ofrecen. Sinembargo, el comercio de vida silvestre viva,sus productos y los subproductos de la regióncontinúa, sin tomar en consideración lalegislación existente y los esfuerzos para suaplicación.

En septiembre de 1997, PROFEPA llevó a caboun operativo en este mercado, en el que aseguróla piel de 100 serpientes de cascabelpertenecientes a cinco especies diferentes(Crotalus molossus, C. scutulatus, C. atrox, C.lepidus, C. viridis), así como otrossubproductos (aceite de serpiente y un“bálsamo dental” hecho de una serpiente) paralos que la posesión u origen legal no se pudodemostrar. Es probable que las serpienteshayan sido capturadas en la EDC, pero no haymanera de confirmar tal presunción.

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Con el propósito de informar a las personas dellugar sobre la conservación de los reptiles y lasregulaciones, PROFEPA, junto con otrasentidades de SEMARNAP (Secretaría deMedio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca),las municipalidades de Fresnillo, Zacatecas,Minera Peñoles, y algunas organizaciones nogubernamentales del Estado de Zacatecas yAguascalientes, organizaron el primer “Tallerde manejo y explotación de la herpetofauna enzonas áridas: las serpientes de cascabel deZacatecas” en la ciudad de Fresnillo,Zacatecas, Julio 15-17, 1999. Los asistentesincluyeron a vendedores de vida silvestre,miembros del Colegio de Veterinarios deAguascalientes, y a otras personas interesadas.

En noviembre de 1999, en el estado deZacatecas, PROFEPA llevó a cabo un operativoen el mercado de Plateros, descubriendo quemuchos de los vendedores de vida silvestrehabían sido previamente sometidos ainspecciones, y tenían también procesosadministrativos iniciados por PROFEPA contraellos. Algunas de estas personas habíanincluso asistido al taller mencionadopreviamente (González Porter, comunicaciónpersonal con A. Reuter, Mayo 2001).

Durante esta operación, dos puestos deproductos de vida silvestre fueroninspeccionados; tenían, entre otras cosas:

• 89 serpientes de cascabel secas abiertas encanal de cabeza a cola

• 2000 cápsulas de serpientes de cascabel

• 6 cascabeles de serpiente

• 14 pares de botas vaqueras hechas con pielde serpiente de cascabel

• 800 gramos de polvo de serpiente decascabel

• 3 Pituophis deppei (culebras sordas) secasabiertas en canal de cabeza a cola

• 14 paquetes de píldoras de serpientes decascabel

• 5 bolsas de carne molida de serpiente decascabel

• 1 tortuga de orejas rojas de FloridaTrachemys scripta.

(González Porter, comunicación personal;Amador Sánchez, 1999).

La delegación de Zacatecas de PROFEPAimpuso más de 134 multas representando untotal de 1 720 000 pesos (aproximadamenteUSD180 000), a los vendedores involucradosen estas actividades ilícitas (Amador Sánchez,1999).

2. Charco Cercado, San Luis Potosí

Charco Cercado está ubicado en lamunicipalidad de Guadalcazar (población totalde 25 359), al noreste de la ciudad de San LuisPotosí, S.L.P. La población consta deaproximadamente 1100 residentes, de loscuales se cree que alrededor de 90 participanen el comercio ilícito de vida silvestre(Charqueño Puente, 2002; Reuter, 2001observación personal). Se considera queCharco Cercado es el mayor centro deconcentración y comercio de vida silvestre enel área rural de México, teniendo importancianacional e internacional (Zarate, 1997).

Un número grande de especies de mamíferos y aves están a la venta, tanto animales vivoscomo productos. También se ofrecen reptiles, en especial serpientes de cascabel(principalmente C. molossus, C. atrox y C.sctutulatus como animales vivos y comoproductos) y lagartijas cornudas(principalmente P. orbiculare y P. modestumque se ofrecen como animales vivos) (Reuter,2001, observación personal).

Entre las especies sujetas a comercio enCharco Cercado, existen algunas que sonnativas de la región mientras que otras han sidotransportadas ilegalmente de Tamaulipas,Nuevo León, Zacatecas y otros estados para servendidas en este lugar. Éste es generalmenteel caso de las especies de aves que requierenpermisos específicos para ser transportadas deestado a estado, debido a los riesgos deenfermedades avícolas, como la tuberculosisaviar o la enfermedad de Newcastle.Generalmente, personas no residentesrecolectan a los animales y los confían apersonas del lugar hasta ser vendidos (Reuter,2001, observación personal).

En 1997, se realizaron investigaciones delcomercio ilegal de reptiles, sus productos ysubproductos. Entre los bienes identificadosestaban serpientes secas, desolladas (carne yhueso), aceite de serpientes de cascabel yserpientes de cascabel vivas. El comercio se

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llevaba a cabo en 30 puestos al aire libre ysiete puestos dentro de establecimientos,ubicados a un lado de la carretera de San LuisPotosí a Matehuala (“El Sol de México”, “ElHeraldo de México”, “El Nacional”,“Novedades”, “Uno más Uno”, 22 de marzo de1997). Se observó también que hay uncomercio recurrente con la participación deintermediarios que viajan en automóvil de la Ciudad de México y León, y que sehospedan en el ejido (tierra común, expropiaday reasignada por el gobierno a una colectividadde trabajadores) por un día o dos, hasta queterminan sus transacciones (“El Heraldo deMéxico”, 22 de marzo de 1997).

El 21 de marzo de 1997, se realizó un operativoa nivel de interagencias (Procuraduría Federalde Protección al Ambiente (PROFEPA),Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes(SCT), Policía Federal de Caminos (PFC),Procuraduría General de la República (PGR),Protección Social de la Municipalidad,Coordinación Ecológica del Gobierno Estatal yun Abogado Público), en el cual 180 oficialesde la policía desplazaron a vendedores de vidasilvestre (“Novedades”, “Uno más Uno”, “ElSol de México”, 22 de marzo de 1997; “ElUniversal”, 23 de marzo de 1997). Comoresultado de esta operación, se aseguraron 450especimenes y productos, incluyendo pieles deanimales, aves canoras, loros, aves rapaces,serpientes de cascabel y otros reptiles vivos, ymamíferos vivos (“Novedades”, “El Sol deMéxico”, “El Heraldo de México”, “ElNacional”, 22 de marzo de 1997; “ElUniversal”, “Reforma”, 23 de marzo de 1997).Durante este operativo, se aseguraron lossiguientes productos y subproductos de reptiles:

• 44 pieles de serpiente de cascabel

• 87 frascos de aceite de serpiente decascabel

• 2 pieles de boa

• 20 frascos de polvo de serpiente decascabel

• 332 serpientes de cascabel secas, sin piel

• 20 frascos de grasa de serpiente decascabel

• 49 bolsas de cápsulas de serpientes decascabel

(González Porter, comunicación personal conA. Reuter, May 2001)

Una visita, en diciembre de 2000, a CharcoCercado confirmó que el comercio continúa,observándose un número mayor que en añosanteriores de serpientes vivas (serpientes decascabel y otras) ofrecidas comercialmente(Reuter, 2000, observación personal). Lasserpientes vivas (culebra sorda mexicanaPituophis deppei, cascabel serrana o cola negraCrotalus molossus, y la serpiente de cascabelC. scutulatus) eran ofrecidas a precios quevariaban entre los 50 y 150 pesos mexicanos(aproximadamente USD4.50 a USD15), lasserpientes de cascabel eran ofrecidas por 60 a160 pesos mexicanos (aproximadamenteUSD5.50 a USD16), y las botellas conteniendocarne seca de serpiente o grasa de serpienteeran ofrecidas por aproximadamente 60 pesosmexicanos (alrededor de USD6). Lasserpientes vivas se mantenían a 120 pies delpuesto al borde de la carretera en un barril deaceite enterrado y cubierto con tablas demadera. Los cascabeles se vendían todavíaunidos a la carne seca y/o a la piel, o porseparado. En uno de los puestos, un hombreestaba también salando pieles de serpientes decascabel. Al investigador se le ofrecieronpieles a la venta, probablemente debido a quela visita fue hecha justo después de que lasserpientes fueran desolladas y colgadas parasecar. Los clientes habituales llegan al lugar ycompran pieles periódicamente para ser usadasen botas y cinturones que se fabrican en otroslugares (Reuter, 2000, observación personal).

3. Mercados de la Ciudad de México

La Ciudad de México es un centro muyimportante de distribución de vida silvestre.Mucho de este comercio se realiza en o através de mercados establecidos dentro de unatienda; los más importantes son: el Mercado deSonora, el Mercado Nuevo San Lázaro y elMercado Emilio Carranza, donde se ofrecen enventa especies exóticas y nativas, incluyendo avarias que se hallan en la EDC (Tabla 4). LaTabla 4 muestra la información recolectada alo largo de diez años de visitas a estosmercados por la bióloga Gracia GonzálezPorter y no se debe considerar concluyente.Los usos de las especies que se ofrecen en laCiudad de México se pueden ver en la Tabla 2.Todo este comercio es probablemente ilícito,considerando que estas especies de reptiles nose ofrecen abiertamente y el cliente tiene quepreguntar en forma muy específica acerca de

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las especies particulares que le interesan antesde que el comerciante decida si le muestra o nolo que tiene disponible. En México, la capturacon fines comerciales y el comercio deespecies silvestres tanto de fauna como deflora están reglamentadas, y se requierenlicencias para estas actividades.

Comercio internacional de MéxicoDebido a que la ley mexicana generalmenteprohíbe la exportación de reptiles nativos,prácticamente toda la exportación de México dereptiles vivos, partes y productos de reptiles esilegal. No hay un proceso sistemático parareunir datos acerca de la incautación ilícita devida silvestre antes de su exportación deMéxico. Los datos de la CITES están limitadosa las seis especies de reptiles enumeradas en laCITES (tres galápagos, dos tortugas de agua, yuna tortuga de concha blanda).

La oferta de venta de numerosas especies dereptiles de la EDC endémicas a México porcomerciantes de reptiles fuera de México,especialmente en los Estados Unidos, indicaque las exportaciones ilícitas se están llevandoa cabo. A pesar de que muchas de estasespecies se reproducen hoy en día encautividad, el pie de cría originalprobablemente fue exportado ilegalmente deMéxico. También hay frecuentesaseguramientos de reptiles vivos, así como desus partes y productos en la frontera entre losEstados Unidos y México. Sin embargo,ninguna de estas fuentes de información dauna ilustración clara de la extensión de lasexportaciones de México.

El Sistema de Información del Manejo de laAplicación de la Ley (Law EnforcementManagement Information System - LEMIS)del Servicio de Pesca y Vida Silvestre de losEstados Unidos. (U.S. Fish and WildlifeService - USFWS) contiene registros de todaslas importaciones declaradas de vida silvestrede los Estados Unidos, así como de todas lasimportaciones y exportaciones ilegalesinterceptadas. Dada la proximidad de losEstados Unidos a México, así como la grandemanda de reptiles exóticos dentro de losEstados Unidos, es probable que este país seael consumidor más grande de reptilesexportados de México. Hay muy pocaexportación legal de reptiles de la EDC deMéxico; muy pocos envíos han sido declarados

USFWS. Sin embargo, los aseguramientos deexportaciones ilegales de México sonfrecuentes en los puertos fronterizos de losEstados Unidos, y esas exportaciones ingresana LEMIS. Dada la dificultad de detectar elcomercio ilegal de vida silvestre y laprobabilidad de que la mayor parte decomercio legal no sea detectado por losfuncionarios oficiales dedicados a la aplicaciónde la ley, las cifras de comercio disponiblesdeben ser consideradas como númerosmínimos en el mercado.

La Tabla 5 muestra las exportaciones dereptiles de la EDC de México a los EstadosUnidos, incluyendo tanto animales vivos comopartes y productos que se registraron a nivel deespecies de 1996 hasta 2002. Dado que muchodel comercio de serpientes de cascabel seregistra sólo a nivel de género, todas lasentradas Crotalus spp. se incluyeron tambiénen la Tabla 5. Generalmente estas entradasconsisten en importaciones legales deespecímenes científicos, importaciones ilegalesde curiosidades turísticas e importacionesilegales de animales vivos como mascotas.

Debe observarse que hay numerosas entradasregistradas a nivel de género que podríaninvolucrar a especies de la EDC. Debido a queno se pudo llegar a resoluciones concluyentescon respecto a las especies involucradas o susposibles orígenes, no se incluyeron en la tabla,con la notable excepción de las serpientes decascabel. Entre el comercio másfrecuentemente registrado a nivel de géneroestuvo la importación ilícita de productos deserpiente de cascabel del género Crotalus. Apesar de que mucho de este comercioprobablemente involucró a especímenesalejados de las áreas de la EDC, dados losimportantes volúmenes de comercio, estosdatos se incluyeron en el análisis.

EVALUACIÓN DEL IMPACTODE LA RECOLECCIÓN Y ELCOMERCIO A pesar de que la información disponible eslimitada, ésta indica que un número grande deespecies de reptiles de la EDC se explota en elcomercio doméstico e internacional, y que estaexplotación puede ser una gran amenaza, porlo menos para algunas especies de reptiles.Por lo menos el 63% de las especies de reptiles

de la EDC de México se encuentran en elcomercio, y más del 60% de esas especiesestán bajo alguna categoría de riesgo.

Las poblaciones de algunas especiesendémicas, como la tortuga de casco suave deCuatro Ciénegas Apalone ater, la galápago deMapimí Gopherus flavomarginatus y la tortugade Cuatro Ciénegas Terrapene coahuila, hansido impactadas gravemente por una cantidadde amenazas, incluyendo la recolección y elcomercio. Como otros reptiles del área (p. ej.,Lampropeltis mexicana), su estatus endémicolos convierte en una mercadería muy lucrativapara los coleccionistas y “herpetoculturistas”de los mercados internacionales.

La demanda de serpientes de cascabel vivas, desu piel y sus partes para uso en la medicinatradicional parece haber causado importantesreducciones en las poblaciones de algunasáreas, como Plateros, Zacatecas. Por ejemplo,durante un taller sobre serpientes de cascabelorganizado por PROFEPA, más de 20 personasbuscaron estas serpientes usando una técnicaconsistente en seccionar transversalmente portres días un área con hábitat apropiado sinéxito (González Porter, comunicación personalcon A. Reuter, May 2001).

La información biológica básica sobre la mayorparte de estas especies de reptiles es escasa,haciendo difícil la evaluación del impacto de larecolección y comercio de poblacionessilvestres. Esto se ve complicado por el hechoque estas especies enfrentan otras amenazas enmuchas áreas, como la reducción del hábitat porla deforestación, la agricultura, el sobrepastoreo,la introducción de especies exóticas, lacontaminación y la merma de las cuencas.

RECOMENDACIONESSe dan las siguientes recomendaciones paraasegurar que la recolección y el comercio nosean una amenaza a las especies de reptiles dela EDC en México:

Aplicación:1. Los programas de aplicación, que requieren

inspecciones frecuentes de centrosimportantes de comercio, deben mejorarsepara proporcionar una medida disuasiva más efectiva para las actividades decomercio ilícitas.

2. Se debe incrementar el número deinspectores de vida silvestre y se les debeproporcionar entrenamiento específico (p.ej., identificación de especies, manejo dereptiles, etc.) para asegurar una regulaciónmás efectiva del comercio a gran escala dereptiles y otra vida silvestre.

3. Se necesita realizar más investigación alargo plazo de las redes de tráfico dereptiles, desde sus áreas naturales derecolección a su venta final, para entender laextensión y el impacto de este comercio.

4. Se deben desarrollar, como prioridad, losprotocolos para disponer de la vida silvestreconfiscada, los productos y subproductos,poniendo énfasis en el mantenimiento ymanejo apropiados de especímenes vivos,incluyendo la creación de centros dedicadosa lidiar con especímemes silvestresasegurados vivos.

Manejo:5. Se debe evaluar el sistema de UMA para

determinar si hay suficientes mecanismos decontrol y monitoreo. De ser así, se debefomentar el sistema, especialmente conrespecto a la producción de reptiles encautiverio. Estos esfuerzos debenconcentrarse en las especies amenazadas,cuya demanda es significativa ya quepueden ser utilizados como mascotas y otrosfines. Otros esfuerzos de UMA puedenincluir exhibiciones, ecoturismo yprogramas de reintroducción.

6. Es imperativo el conocimiento ampliado dela biología y tamaño de las poblaciones deestas especies, especialmente tratándose deespecies amenazadas y sujetas a bastanterecolección.

7. Hay mucha necesidad de una recopilaciónde información y preparación de reportesestandarizados sobre la recolección de vidasilvestre y el comercio (investigaciones,aseguramientos, repatriaciones, procesoslegales, etc.) y una mayor facilitación parael intercambio de información y consultasentre las oficinas gubernamentales y otrossectores.

8. Se deben desarrollar programas derehabilitación y liberación de animalesasegurados, basándose en datos científicos

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de biología y distribución para cada especie,tomando en consideración el potencial parala enfermedad, contaminación genética yotros riesgos a poblaciones silvestres.

Educación:9. Se deben desarrollar programas de

educación ambiental que se centren encomunidades locales para aumentar elconocimiento de las leyes mexicanas ypromover el valor de los recursos naturalesde estas comunidades.

EVALUACIÓN DE LARECOLECCIÓN, COMERCIO YREGULACIONES APLICABLESA LOS REPTILES Y ANFIBIOSDE LA EDC EN LOS ESTADOSUNIDOS AMERICANOS

INTRODUCCIÓNExisten muchos ejemplos de explotación dereptiles y anfibios nativos a los Estados Unidospara satisfacer la demanda de alimentos,mascotas, cuero, curiosidades y otros artículos.Muchas de estas actividades y especies hansido bien documentadas, como el aligator deAmérica Alligator mississippiensis, las tortugasmarinas Cheloniidae, las tortugas caimánMacroclemys temminckii, las tortugas terrestresTerrapene spp., y serpientes de cascabel delbosque Crotalus horridus (ver, por ejemplo,Fleming, 2001; Hoover, 1998; Fitzgerald yPainter, 2000; Pritchard, 1989). A pesar deque docenas de otras especies de reptiles yanfibios son explotadas en los Estados Unidos,se sabe muy poco sobre la extensión de estasactividades o su impacto en las poblacionessilvestres. Esto es especialmente cierto conrespecto a la gran cantidad de pequeñaslagartijas y serpientes halladas en la EDC.

RESULTADOS

Leyes estatales y federalesconcernientes a la recolección y alcomercio

Por lo general, la recolección y venta dereptiles y anfibios en los Estados Unidos seregula a nivel estatal. Para las especies de laEDC, la legislación y las regulaciones deNuevo México, Arizona y Texas se aplican a

las actividades relacionadas con reptiles yanfibios en cada una de esas jurisdicciones. Lalegislación federal y las regulaciones se aplicangeneralmente a las especies enlistadasfederalmente, actividades en tierras federales yal comercio interestatal e internacional. En eltexto completo del informe se puedenencontrar exámenes completos de las leyesestatales y federales y de las regulacionesconcernientes a la recolección y comercio delas especies de la EDC.

Especies de reptiles y anfibios halladosen el comercio

La Tabla 7 enlista especies de la EDC en losEstados Unidos que se hallan en el comercio, oque probablemente son comercializadas, con eluso comercial correspondiente a cada especie,incluyendo las 62 especies de la EDC en Texasque se recolectaron y reportaron porposeedores de licencias para especies nocinegéticas en 1999.

Los monstruos de gila Heloderma suspectumaparecen en el comercio tanto doméstico comointernacional, especialmente en Europa yJapón. Los herpetoculturistas, profesionales yaficionados que se especializaron en estaslagartijas, tuvieron éxito en reproducirlas, entrelas décadas del ochenta y del noventa. Larecolección de helodermatidae es ilegal en todasu gama en los Estados Unidos y México, ysólo hay informes anecdóticos de caza furtivade monstruos de gila.

Métodos de recolección

A pesar de no existir datos cuantitativos, esprobable que las técnicas herpetológicas derecolección sean comúnmente usadas en laEDC. Probablemente la mayor parte deserpientes se capturan durante recorridosnocturnos en caminos, a pesar de que un grannúmero de culebras rayadas puede serrecolectado en invernáculos o durante el día enhábitats acuáticos apropiados. Las lagartijascornudas son vulnerables a la recolección a lolargo de las carreteras y pueden tambiéncapturarse durante la mañana o en recorridosnocturnos por caminos. Otras lagartijas serecolectan a mano o con lazo mientras secamina en un hábitat apropiado, o usando unaserie de trampas. Se desconoce la ubicaciónde las series de trampas usadas por los

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coleccionistas, pero dos aficionadosentrevistados nos remitieron a un coleccionistaprofesional cerca de El Paso que opera unaserie de trampas.

Las tortugas terrestres se recolectan a mano,usando perros adiestrados, manejando enautomóvil durante el día por las carreteras ytrampeándolas. Las tortugas morrocoyamarillo a veces viven en la alta densidad deun conjunto de troncos o solas en los arroyos,y se pueden recolectar en grandes cantidades amano, con una jábega o con trampas en formade embudo. Generalmente las tortugas de aguay las tortugas mordedoras se capturan con aroscon mallas, en mallas en forma de embudo, ousando trampas de mallas de alambre concarnada consistente en sardinas, alimentoenlatado para perros, col o cáscara de sandías.Los sapos y ranas son vulnerables en sus sitiosde crianza durante y después de las lluvias, ypueden ser recolectados a mano durante lanoche en grandes cantidades.

Comercio doméstico

El comercio doméstico de anfibios y reptilesde la EDC es casi imposible de cuantificardebido a que la captura de la mayor parte deespecies no está regulada en Nuevo México, elcomercio de Arizona es ilegal, y el comerciode vida silvestre de México es ilícito y no estámonitoreado extensamente. No hay razón paracreer que se hayan comercializado un grannúmero de animales de Arizona. Lacomercialización ocurre en Nuevo México,pero cuando se realizó este estudio no habíainformación actualizada disponible. Lainformación sobre la recolección y la venta deespecies no cinegéticas está disponible enTexas desde 1999. También ha sido revisadacuidadosamente la comercialización deserpientes de cascabel en Texas y en NuevoMéxico (Fitzgerald y Painter 2000).

Durante 1999, en Texas se reportaron 14 351especimenes de reptiles y anfibios recolectadospor 53 residentes y no residentes poseedoresde licencias para animales no cinegéticos. Deestos, 4861 fueron anfibios y 9493 fueronreptiles (Tabla 8). Debe observarse que elnúmero de serpientes de cascabel no incluyena aquellas recolectadas en acorralamientos(roundups), y de este modo la cifra general esprobablemente más alta.

El noventa por ciento (12 947/14 354) de todoslos especímenes recolectados en 1999 en laEDC de Texas se originaron en sólo cincocondados. Se reportaron especímenesrecolectados en 27 de los 43 condados deTexas que consideramos están dentro de laEDC (Cuadro 5, Tabla 7). En 1999 sólo unpequeño número de recolectores contribuyerona la mayor cantidad total de especimenes. Elrecolector principal contribuyó con el 27.1%del total de especímenes. Los tres recolectoressiguientes fueron responsables del 66.6% deltotal, y los siguientes ocho fueron responsablesdel 90.3% (Tabla 9). No es sorprendenteentonces, que los recolectores principalesoperaran en los cinco condados que produjeronel 90% de los especimenes.

Los coleccionistas y el personal encargado deaplicar las normas entrevistados en Texas notenían conocimiento del gran comercio delagartijas y ranas. Estas personas entrevistadasindicaron que generalmente sólo unas pocasespecies de serpientes eran consideradas meta,especialmente la culebra real de bandas grisesLampropeltis alterna y la serpiente ratoneraojona Bogertophis subocularis.Interesantemente, varios coleccionistasentrevistados explicaron que las ratonerasadultas de Trans-Pecos capturadas en suhábitat natural tienen poco valor comparadas alas serpientes jóvenes nacidas en cautiverio.Algunas variedades en el color de las culebrasreales de bandas grises tienen poco valor(aproximadamente USD50) debido a que lasespecies criadas en cautividad son comunes enel mercado. Sin embargo, otras variantes y“especímenes de la localidad”, como aquellosque se hallan en el sureste de Nuevo México,podrían representar hasta USD500 en elmercado comercial.

A pesar de que el comercio de serpientes comoanimales domésticos recibe mucha atención,los informes indican que el número deserpientes sacadas de su hábitat natural no esextraordinario (Tabla 7). En 1999, la base dedatos de animales no cinegéticos de TPWDmostró que 985 serpientes fueron recolectadasen la EDC (Tabla 10). De éstas, 325 fueronculebras rayadas Thamnophis spp. y 307fueron serpientes de cascabel Crotalus spp.Setenta y tres culebras reales fueronrecolectadas (todas especies de Lampropeltis);42 fueron serpientes reales de bandas grises.

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Treinta y dos ratoneras comunes Elaphe spp. y48 ratoneras ojonas Bogertophis subocularis sereportaron como recolectadas por losportadores de licencias para animales nocinegéticos. Varias otras especies serecolectaron en números más pequeños.

Comercio internacional

1. Disponibilidad y utilidad de datos decomercio

Es difícil evaluar el comercio internacional dereptiles de la EDC en los Estados Unidosdebido a un número de factores. A pesar deque algunos datos están disponibles delUSFWS, estos datos suscitan tantas preguntascomo respuestas que puedan proporcionar.

Todas las importaciones y exportaciones devida silvestre deben ser declaradas al USFWS.Estas declaraciones son luego ingresadas a unsistema de datos computarizados que se llamaLEMIS. Estas entradas se registranfrecuentemente, pero no siempre, a nivel deespecie, a través del uso de códigos de cuatroletras asignadas. A pesar de que prácticamentetodo el comercio de las especies enlistadas enla CITES se registra a nivel de especie, muchasespecies no halladas en la CITES no recibencódigos específicos de especies. En estoscasos, el comercio internacional puede serregistrado a nivel de género o familia, osimplemente como “RNCT”, o reptiles no enCITES. Más aún, incluso para entradas que seregistran a nivel de especie no hay informaciónespecífica de ubicación disponible. Lasentradas indican el país de origen, y podríantambién indicar si la vida silvestre es de origensilvestre o de cautiverio.

A pesar de estas limitantes, los datos deLEMIS tienen valor en el análisis del comerciode especies de la EDC. Una revisión detalladade los datos de exportación de los EstadosUnidos mostró que hay aproximadamente 50especies de reptiles, que se hallan por lo menosen parte en la EDC, que parecen ser parte delcomercio internacional. Nuevamente, éstadebe considerarse como una cifra mínima,dado que muchas especies de la EDC no tienencódigo específico. Por ejemplo, a pesar de quehay sólo unas pocas entradas para especiesindividuales del género Sceloporus, hay unnúmero grande de entradas a nivel de género.Es por eso que es difícil evaluar exactamente a

las especies que están siendo comercializadas,y si son o no especies de la EDC.

Desafortunadamente, con frecuencia los datosno indican si los animales vienen de su hábitatnatural o han estado en cautiverio; y, si vienende su hábitat natural, si en realidad surgieronen la EDC. Por ejemplo, hayaproximadamente entre 7 y 12 millones detortugas de orejas rojas Trachemys scriptaelegans exportadas de los Estados Unidos cadaaño. Sin embargo, otras investigaciones handemostrado que todo, con excepción de unapequeña fracción de este comercio, se produceen granjas de tortugas en Louisiana y otrosestados vecinos. A pesar de que los datos decomercio no indican esto necesariamente, esmuy improbable que algo de este comercio seorigine en la EDC.

Los datos disponibles muestran tendencias enel comercio con respecto a volúmenes, fuentesde hábitat natural o en cautiverio, precios ycambios en los países principales deimportaciones. Algunas de estas tendencias setratan a continuación.

2. Exportación de especímenes vivos de losEstados Unidos

La Tabla 11 presenta un resumen de los datosdisponibles para las exportaciones deespecímenes vivos de las especies de reptileshalladas en la EDC.

La exportación de especies de tortugas halladasen la EDC probablemente involucra sólo aunas cuantas tortugas recolectadas en realidaden la EDC. Como se mencionó anteriormente,la exportación de tortugas de orejas rojasrepresenta, casi exclusivamente, a las tortugasproducidas en granjas de Louisiana y otroslugares en el sureste de los Estados Unidos.Lo mismo es cierto para la exportación de lamayoría de especies de otras tortugas de laTabla 11.

Basándose en estos datos, la exportación deespecies de lagartijas de la EDC de los EstadosUnidos no parece ser una gran preocupación.Aparentemente la mayor parte de especiesestán siendo exportadas en números pequeños,y por lo menos algunas de estas especies (p.ej., el gecko bandeado de Texas Coleonyxbrevis) se están produciendo en cautiverio. Sinembargo, observando las deficiencias de losdatos mencionados previamente, sería prudente

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monitorear las cifras de exportación paraidentificar cualquier tendencia en aumento.

Tampoco representa una preocupaciónsignificativa, en su mayor parte, la exportaciónde especies de serpientes de la EDC parasatisfacer la demanda extranjera de serpientesvivas. La mayoría de especies se comercian enmuy bajos números, con poca indicación de unaumento en el comercio durante el período detiempo examinado. Muchas de las especiesmás comercializadas tienen un alcance grandefuera de la EDC (p. ej., las culebras listonadascomunes Thamnophis sirtalis), o se producenprincipalmente en cautiverio (p. ej., la culebrareal Lampropeltis getula). Finalmente, muchasespecies parecen exhibir una tendencia endisminución con respecto a las exportaciones(p. ej., la serpiente de collar Diadophispunctatus, la culebra corredora constrictorColuber constrictor).

3. El comercio de partes y productos

Una revisión de los datos de LEMIS muestraque por lo menos siete especies encontradas enla EDC se comercian como partes o comoproductos (Tabla 12). A pesar de que laexportación de especies nativas de la EDCcomo partes o como productos involucra amucho menos especies de las que aparecen enel comercio vivo, esta práctica podría estarteniendo un impacto mucho mayor en lasespecies individuales debido a que mucho delcomercio vivo se deriva de los esfuerzos dereproducción en cautiverio, mientras que elcomercio de la mayoría de partes y productosprobablemente involucre animales adultoscapturados en su hábitat natural.

De nuevo, como se describió previamente, haypoca indicación de que la exportación deespecies de tortugas de la EDC, involucre enrealidad a animales individuales recolectadosde la EDC. La exportación de la carne detortuga mordedora común es probablemente elproducto de tortuga más importante, dado queeste comercio posiblemente implica tortugascapturadas en su hábitat natural. Sin embargo,esta especie tiene una distribución tremenda enlos Estados Unidos, y probablemente no sea unobjetivo específico en la EDC. Asimismo, laexportación de números significativos dehuevos de tortugas de orejas rojas no tieneningún impacto en las poblaciones de la EDC,dado que estos huevos son probablemente el

producto exclusivo de las granjas de tortugas alsureste de los Estados Unidos.

De mayor preocupación es la explotación devarias especies de reptiles venenosos por sucarne, piel y productos de cuero. Esto esespecialmente cierto para la serpiente cascabeldiamantada del oeste, que se exporta en unagran cantidad de formas. El comercio mássignificativo de esta especie parece ser lacarne, con más de 2000 kilogramos de carneexportada durante el período de seis años enque se examinó. Más aun, un númerosignificativo de volumen de pieles y productosde piel se exportaron durante este período,incluyendo 1616 pieles, 712 zapatos/botas,1407 productos pequeños de cuero/artículos depiel/recortes de cuero, 34 carteras, 79 prendasde vestir, 939 joyas y 753 artículos noespecificados.

Recolección y comercio ilegales

La recolección y el comercio ilegales suceden,pero parecen no estar extendidos en lasporciones de los Estados Unidos en la EDC.Consistentemente, las entrevistas con losguardabosques del Parque Nacional Big Bendindicaron de uno a tres casos de recolecciónilegal cada año. Un guardabosques reportóque alrededor de seis vehículos habían sidodetenidos entre octubre y enero de 1999, peroque nada se encontró. Otro guardabosquesespeculó que podrían haber uno o dosrecolectores ilegales en el parque, quizás unanoche a la semana, probablemente llegando alos 40 acontecimientos en el parque por año.Ésta fue una especulación basada en laexperiencia de ese guardabosques. Elguardabosques indicó que había habido unadisminución aparente de recolección ilegal dereptiles en el parque. Otro guardabosquesdeclaró que es fácil recolectar legalmente fueradel parque, lo que probablemente reduce larecolección ilegal dentro del mismo.

Varios entrevistados sentían que los jueces nodaban mucha prioridad al crimen de la cazafurtiva y que, en varias instancias, cuando sepresentaban casos en las cortes, las multas eranmínimas. Algunos miembros del personalentrevistados encargados de la aplicación delos reglamentos creían que aquella actitudpodría disminuir los esfuerzos de aplicación delos reglamentos. Un guardabosques señaló que

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era improbable que los jueces siguieran unproceso judicial a menos que el sospechosofuera capturado durante el acto de cazar a unanimal. Los guardabosques necesitanconsentimiento para registrar los vehículos delos sospechosos, a menos que tengan una causaprobable para creer que el sospechoso tiene aun animal. Otro guardabosques contó un casoocurrido a fines de la década de los noventas,en el que un sospechoso fue capturado en elparque recolectando a una serpiente cascabelde cola negra con una funda de almohada. Elsospechoso tenía a varios animales que sepiensa eran de Arizona y estaba buscandoserpientes. El juez absolvió al acusado.

Un guardabosques entrevistado señaló quemuchos herpetocultores entusiastas eran muycumplidores de la ley y tenían gran despreciopor los “malos herpetocultores”. Todos losguardabosques de los parques, biólogos deagencias y otros miembros del personalencargado de la ejecución de los reglamentosestaban conscientes de los problemas de larecolección de reptiles. A pesar de que elnúmero de personas detenidas por recolectar esbajo, la mayoría de guardabosques de parque ybiólogos entrevistados consideran la amenazade la caza furtiva de reptiles un tema serio queamerita una atención constante.

Todas las personas interesadas en el tema y losrecolectores entrevistados estaban totalmenteconscientes de las regulaciones y losrequerimientos de licencias. En Texas y enNuevo México, no es difícil encontrar áreasdonde la recolección es legal. La mayoría delas áreas examinadas en Nuevo México estánubicadas en tierras públicas (p. ej., la Oficinade Administración de Tierras, el ServicioForestal de los Estados Unidos o las tierrasestatales de Nuevo México) y por tanto, elacceso al público está permitido. A pesar deque algunos terratenientes prohíben recolectaren su propiedad, otros granjeros en tierrasprivadas y públicas en Nuevo México y Texasestán ansiosos de tener cazadores de serpientesen sus tierras para que capturen a las serpientesde cascabel, con la esperanza de eliminarlas.

EVALUACIÓN DEL IMPACTO DE LARECOLECCIÓN Y EL COMERCIONo es posible sacar conclusiones definitivassobre las amenazas que representan la

recolección y el comercio debido a la falta deestudios de campo y datos de monitoreo en elcomercio de reptiles y anfibios. Sin embargose pueden sacar conclusiones generalesbasándose en lo que se sabe sobre los patronesde recolección y la biología de los anfibios yreptiles de la EDC.

La gravedad del impacto de la recolección enlas poblaciones de anfibios y reptiles dependede la extensión geográfica de la recolección enrelación a la distribución de las especies (laescala geográfica); la habilidad de laspoblaciones locales para sostener larecolección (el historial de vida de lasespecies); y las interacciones complejas entrela geografía y la historia de vida, como elfenómeno de la destrucción de depósitos. Lasáreas donde se recolectan reptiles, p. ej., orillasde carreteras o hábitats acuáticos, pueden serdepósitos donde las poblaciones disminuyenconstantemente. Áreas donde no se realizanrecolecciones, contiguas a los depósitos,pueden actuar como reservas de poblacionesfuente, donde individuos que se dispersancontinuamente vuelven a poblar laspoblaciones explotadas.

Las especies con tasas altas de reproducciónque se desarrollan rápidamente camino a lamadurez serán probablemente más capaces deresistir la recolección que las especies con unareproducción tardía y tasas reproductivas bajas(Fitzgerald 1994). La distribución geográficade las especies en combinación con la escala yfrecuencia de la recolección puede tambiéninfluenciar las probabilidades de que laspoblaciones puedan resistir la recolección. Lasespecies extensamente distribuidas yrecolectadas en pequeñas secciones de todo surango tienen más probabilidades de resistir larecolección que las especies que estánrestringidas en su distribución y recolectadasextensamente en grandes áreas. Los patronesimpredecibles de actividad resultan en una bajadetección y vulnerabilidad de muchas especiesde serpientes. Basándose en el patrón dehistoria de vida, en la extensión geográfica yen la detección, es probable que la granmayoría de especies de reptiles y anfibioshallados en la EDC se distribuyan tanampliamente que la recolección no causará laextinción regional o global de las especies.Casi toda la recolección de anfibios y reptilesse realiza desde las carreteras o desde los

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cañones accesibles. Áreas enormes se hallanen tierra privada o tan remota que larecolección para el comercio es ineficiente, yhay áreas extensas de hábitat apropiado dondenunca se recolecta.

Probablemente la recolección y el comercio enla EDC no se debe considerar como unaamenaza para las especies que son distribuidasmás o menos amplia y continuamente, sonpequeñas en tamaño y poseen un historial devida caracterizado por un lapso corto de vida yuna tasa alta de reproducción. La lagartijacomún de lados manchados Uta stansburianase adapta a esta estrategia de historial de vida.Se reproduce anualmente, tiene una longitudde vida de uno a dos años, y son generalmentevisibles y abundantes cuando ocurren. A pesarde que la lagartija común de lados manchadosfue la especie más recolectada en Texas en1998-99, es dudoso que la recolección de estaespecie como alimento de mascotas o comomascotas causara un impacto significante enlas poblaciones. Aparentemente la serpientecascabel diamantada del oeste puede resistirlargos períodos de recolección (Fitzgerald yPainter 2000), y a pesar de ser recolectada parael intercambio comercial en Nuevo México,Texas y otros lugares, es extremadamenteimprobable que los varios cientos de serpientescascabel diamantadas del oeste capturadasanualmente en las porciones de Texas y NuevoMéxico de la EDC puedan causar peligro oextinción de esta tandifundida especie. Laespecie de culebra listonada que aparece en elcomercio en Texas en 1999 es también comúny extendida. Es también improbable que larecolección de culebras listonadas,probablemente para el comercio de mascotas,pueda causar el peligro o la extinción de estasespecies muy difundidas.

Tomando en consideración que la recolecciónprobablemente no causará la extinción global oregional de especies de anfibios y reptiles de laEDC, es probablemente más importanteevaluar el impacto de la recolección en laspoblaciones locales. La gran mayoría deguardabosques, vigilantes de animalescinegéticos y biólogos de los Parques y la VidaSilvestre de Texas que se entrevistaron paraeste informe, sentían que la recoleccióndesalentaba a la población local. Por otraparte, los aficionados se hallaban divididos eneste tema. La investigación de campo

requerirá responder esta preguntacuantitativamente. Además, los efectos de larecolección en las poblaciones son diferentespara las distintas especies.

Los monstruos de gila Heloderma suspectum,las tortugas en general y las serpientes cascabeldel oeste Crotalus viridis son especies que,basadas en la historia natural, pueden servulnerables a la recolección excesiva. En lasmadrigueras se pueden hallar grandescongregaciones de serpientes cascabel deloeste, y su eliminación sistemática en susmadrigueras todos los años puede causar lasextirpaciones locales. La caza en lasmadrigueras fue la causa de la extirpaciónlocal de la serpiente cascabel del bosque en laparte norte de esta extensión (Greene 1997).Las especies con extensiones fragmentadas,aun si la extensión geográfica es grande,pueden ser susceptibles a la extirpación de lapoblación local, especialmente si la especie esespecialista en su hábitat. La extensión de lavíbora de cascabel pigmea norteña Sistruruscatenatus, por ejemplo, es fragmentada y lapradera donde habita es degradada en muchade su extensión anterior (Greene 1997). Laspoblaciones de la serpiente cascabel pigmeanorteña están separadas y posiblemente sonmucho más pequeñas de lo que fueron en elpasado reciente. Las irregularidades de sudistribución geográfica han también causadodiferencias en tamaño de camadas, dieta, yafinidad del hábitat en diferentes partes de suextensión. De allí que, para la serpientecascabel pigmea norteña, la recolección porfragmentos aislados del hábitat puede tener ungran impacto, a pesar de la amplia gama delcomplejo entero de especies, debido a que elpotencial para la recolonización de laspoblaciones fuente es muy reducido. Otraespecie de la EDC que podría satisfacer elpatrón de Greene (1997) descrito para laserpiente cascabel pigmea norteña es la culebranariz de cerdo Heterodon nasicus.

Debido a su vulnerabilidad y suscaracterísticas de vida larga, las poblaciones detortugas podrían ser eliminadas de sitiosespecíficos debido a la recolección excesiva.Dado el hábitat acuático limitado, en particularen Nuevo México, desbordes específicos delrío (p. ej., el río Black y el río Delaware)frecuentemente dejan a las tortugas muyvulnerables a la recolección excesiva durante

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los períodos bajos de agua. Con la capturarepetida e intensa, los recolectores puedenfácilmente causar reducciones significativas dela población en áreas específicas. Dixon(2000) cita la desaparición de las tortugas deagua de Río Grande Pseudemys gorzugi, unaespecie endémica a la EDC, de un área de RíoGrande cerca a Del Río que se presume fue elresultado de recolección excesiva,posiblemente para satisfacer a los mercadosasiáticos de alimentos.

Las siete especies más recolectadas de la EDCen Texas, entre 1998 y 1999, representaron el79% de todas las especies recolectadas, yaparentemente se originaron en su mayor parteen los condados de El Paso, Hudspeth,Lubbock, Hockley y Garza Counties (Tabla 3,Tabla 4). Es imposible evaluarcuantitativamente el impacto de la recolecciónen las poblaciones explotadas sin lainformación detallada de los esfuerzos derecolección, la extensión geográfica de larecolección y la información demográfica delas poblaciones explotadas. Sin embargo, lostres anfibios: la salamandra atigradaAmbystoma tigrinum, el sapo cavadorScaphiopus couchii, y el sapo verde Bufodebilis, son comunes y ampliamentedistribuidos. Las dos lagartijas, la lagartija delados manchados Uta stansburiana y lalagartija jaspeada Cnemidophorus tigris, sontambién muy conocidas y de distribucióncontinua en toda la EDC. Generalmente estascinco especies comparten las característicasdescritas anteriormente, que deben ayudarlas aresistir la recolección a pesar de que no haysuficiente información para sacar conclusiones.La tortuga amarilla del fango Kinosternonflavescens y la tortuga adornada Terrapeneornata luteola se recolectan en grandescantidades. Las tortugas amarillas del fangoson comunes y están muy difundidas, perogeneralmente se encuentran concentradaslocalmente en charcas, depósitos y playas. Esrazonable considerar la posibilidad que laspoblaciones locales de tortugas amarillas delfango se puedan ver afectadas por la remociónde la mayor parte de individuos de las charcasde un área. Las tortugas adornadas soncomunes y están muy difundidas, pero tienenuna tasa baja de reproducción. Es razonableque las poblaciones de la tortuga adornada

puedan cambiar significativamente por laremoción sistemática de adultos.

A pesar de que hay datos de sólo un año, elpatrón de recolección en Texas indica algunasgeneralidades que son importantes para larecolección de reptiles y anfibios en toda laregión. Primero, pocos recolectores sonresponsables de la gran mayoría de losespecímenes recolectados. Conocemos a sólounos pocos recolectores de Nuevo México querecolectan activamente reptiles y anfibios conpropósitos comerciales. Segundo, unas cuantasespecies se recolectaron en grandes cantidades.Las especies recolectadas en grandescantidades son especies difundidas, pequeñasy, con la excepción de anfibios y tortugas,tienen una vida relativamente corta. Unatercera generalización fue que la recolecciónera muy poco uniforme, con la recolecciónrealizada en un número pequeño de áreas. EnTexas, las mismas extensiones de carreterasque han gozado de popularidad por décadasentre los recolectores, continúan produciendoespecímenes, y siguen siendo las áreasprincipales que los recolectores usan. Hayextensiones enormes de hábitat en toda laecoregión que estas personas no visitan.Finalmente, basándose en la base de datos deTexas, las tortugas han sido recolectadas encantidades lo suficientemente grandes comopara causar preocupación. Si la recolección detortugas continuara al mismo nivel y serestringiera a unos cuantos lugares, laspoblaciones locales podrían reducirse al puntode llegar a estar en peligro o extinguirselocalmente. Un argumento similar se podríahacer para las serpientes cascabel de laspraderas, debido a su vulnerabilidad en lasmadrigueras.

RECOMENDACIONESMonitoreo de la recolección y elcomercio:

5. Para asegurar que la recolección y elcomercio de anfibios y reptiles de la EDCsea sostenible, se necesita laimplementación de un sistema de monitoreode captura y comercio de obligatoriedadjurídica. Tal sistema de monitoreo debebasarse en el estatus legal de los anfibios yreptiles, y las normas que regulan sucaptura. Tales sistemas han sido

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implementados en Texas y en NuevoMéxico, y han proporcionado informaciónvaliosa sobre el comercio de anfibios yreptiles en el estado.

Investigación de campo:

6. No es posible censar directamente a lasespecies de anfibios y reptiles debido a lasextensas áreas geográficas comprometidas,el tiempo y gasto que se requeriría paramedir a estas poblaciones, y las dificultadesinherentes de medir a estas poblaciones conseguridad. En lugar de eso, se debe dirigirla investigación a producir informaciónsuficiente sobre la recolección de anfibios yreptiles para guiar las decisiones de manejo.

7. Se necesita información sobre la cantidad dehábitat apropiado disponible para especies

con distribuciones relativamente pequeñas, yque requieren de un hábitat muy específicoen relación a la cantidad de área donde serecolectan.

8. La investigación sobre el fenómeno defuentes y depósitos en anfibios y reptilesexplotados podría ser útil, y todavía no hasido realizado para ningún anfibio o reptilexplotado. La información con respeto a ladinámica de fuentes y depósitos de lasespecies seleccionadas podría clarificar silas poblaciones son autosostenibles, o hastaqué punto se necesitan corredores dehábitats y grandes áreas en las que no se hanrealizado recolecciones para sostener apoblaciones explotadas regionalmente.

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The CDE is located in the central and northernregions of Mexico, and in the southern part ofthe United States. In the United States, theCDE stretches from southeastern Arizonaacross southern New Mexico and west Texas tothe Edwards Plateau. It runs deep into Mexico,encompassing parts of Sonora, Chihuahua,Coahuila, Durango, and several other states,and covers approximately 630 000km2

(243 000 sq. miles), comprising desert andsemi-desert regions among the mostbiologically diverse in the world. It is borderedby mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidentalto the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental tothe east, extending as far south as San LuisPotosí and including disjunct islands ofChihuahuan vegetation in the states ofQuerétaro and Hidalgo.

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INTRODUCTION

Figure 1. Map of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion

The landscape of the CDE is a series of basinsand ranges with a central highland extendingfrom Socorro, New Mexico south intoZacatecas, Mexico. Because of its generallyhigher elevation, the CDE is cooler and hasmore rainfall than other warm desertecoregions, averaging 235 mm annually(Dinerstein et al., 2000). The prevailingclimates in this region are desert and semi-aridtypes, with most rainfall during the summer(Flores-Villela, 1993).

The altitude of the CDE ranges from 600 to2300 meters above sea level, which makes theChihuahuan Desert one of the highest in theworld. The areas of highest elevation arecovered with coniferous forests (WWFPrograma México, 1999). This ecoregion ishome to a great diversity of species, includinga high degree of endemism determined, to agreat extent, by interior watersheds.

An undetermined number of reptiles andamphibians, primarily snakes, lizards, turtles,and toads are collected from the CDE eachyear, primarily to supply the demand for thesespecies as pets, both domestically and fromabroad. Taxa frequently collected for the tradeinclude horned lizards Phrynosoma spp.,kingsnakes Lampropeltis spp., and milksnakesL. triangulum. Gila monsters Helodermasuspectum appear in trade despite prohibitions

on collection throughout their range and theirlisting on Appendix II of the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Some species,especially rattlesnakes, are also collected fortheir skins, meat, and other parts.

Many factors (e.g., habitat destruction) affectamphibian and reptile populations in the CDE. Collection for the commercial trademay impact these populations, although the magnitude of this impact has not beenthoroughly investigated and is poorly under-stood. There are inconsistencies in regulationof the collection and trade in the United Statesand Mexico. Better information on thecollection and trade of wild amphibians andreptiles is needed, therefore, in order to makeinformed decisions about conservationpriorities for the CDE.

The objectives of this report are to: presentinformation gathered on collection, trade, andregulation of the amphibians and reptiles of the CDE; assess the current and potentialimpacts of collection and trade; evaluate theeffectiveness of existing regulations; and makerecommendations regarding the steps needed toensure that collection and trade are sustainableand do not pose a significant threat to CDEreptile and amphibian populations.

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We list 217 species of amphibians and reptilesnative to the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion(CDE) (Table 1). Morafka (1977) provided achecklist of 170 species occurring within 25 kmof the geographical definition of the ChihuahuanDesert. We included additional species that do

not occur in the strictly defined ChihuahuanDesert, but are known from the more broadlydefined CDE (Flores-Villela, 1993; Degenhardtet al., 1996; Dixon, 2000). Although no rigorousdata exist, at least 130 of these species are knownor expected to enter commercial trade.

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SPECIES IN THE CDE

Table 1. Native amphibians and reptiles of the CDE

CAUDATA SALAMANDERS

Family AmbystomatidaeAmbystoma rosaceum Tarahumara salamanderAmbystoma tigrinum Tiger salamander

Family PlethodontidaeAneides hardii* Sacramento mountains salamanderChiropterotriton priscus* Primeval splayfoot salamanderEurycea neotenes* Texas salamanderPseudoeurycea galeanae* Galeana false brook salamander(Chippindale et al. (2000) presented a systematic revision of the central Texas hemidactyline plethodontidsalamanders. Eurycea neotenes was restricted to a small geographic area and consists of at least 4(likely more) taxa, including E. chisholmensis, E. naufragia, E. neotenes, and E. tonkawae.)

SALIENTIA FROGS AND TOADS

Family PelobatidaeScaphiopus couchii Couch’s spadefootSpea bombifrons Plains spadefootSpea multiplicata Mexican spadefoot

Family LeptodactylidaeEleutherodactylus augusti Barking frogEleutherodactylus cystignathoides* Rio Grande chirping frogEleutherodactylus longipes Long-footed chirping frogEleutherodactylus marnockii Cliff chirping frogEleutherodactylus nitidus Shiny peeping frogSyrrhophus dennisi* Dennis’ chirping frogSyrrhophus verrucipes* Bigear chirping frog(numerous authors place Syrrhophus in the genus Eleutherodactylus)

Family BufonidaeBufo alvarius* Colorado River toadBufo cognatus Great Plains toadBufo compactilis* Plateau toadBufo debilis Green toadBufo marinus Giant toadBufo occidentalis Pine toadBufo punctatus Red-spotted toadBufo speciosus Texas toadBufo valliceps Gulf Coast toadBufo woodhousii Woodhouse’s toad(Bufo valliceps has been further divided, with the CDE species believed to be B. nebulifer (Mulcahy andMendelson, 2000).)

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Table 1. Native amphibians and reptiles of the CDE (continued)

Family HylidaeAcris crepitans Northern cricket frogHyla arenicolor Canyon treefrogHyla eximia Mountain treefrogPseudacris triseriata Western chorus frogSmilisca baudinii Mexican treefrog

Family MicrohylidaeGastrophryne olivacea Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad

Family RanidaeRana berlandieri Rio Grande leopard frog Rana blairi Plains leopard frog Rana catesbeiana BullfrogRana chiricahuensis Chiricahua leopard frog Rana montezumae* Montezuma leopard frog Rana pipiens Northern leopard frog Rana pustulosa Cascade frogRana tarahumarae* Tarahumara frog Rana trilobata Bigfoot leopard frog Rana yavapaiensis Lowland leopard frog

TESTUDINES TURTLES

Family ChelydridaeChelydra serpentina Snapping turtle

Family EmydidaeChrysemys picta Painted turtlePseudemys concinna River cooterPseudemys gorzugi Rio Grande cooterTerrapene coahuila*(I) Coahuilan box turtleTerrapene ornata(II) Ornate box turtleTrachemys gaigeae Big Bend sliderTrachemys scripta Pond slider

Family KinosternonidaeKinosternon flavescens Yellow mud turtleKinosternon hirtipes Rough-footed mud turtleKinosternon integrum Mexican mud turtleKinosternon sonoriense Sonoran mud turtle

Family TestudinidaeGopherus agassizii*(II) Desert tortoiseGopherus berlandieri*(II) Berlandier’s tortoiseGopherus flavomarginatus(I) Bolson tortoise

Family TrionychidaeApalone ater(I) Black spiny softshellApalone spinifer Spiny softshell(numerous authors list A. ater as a subspecies of A. spinifer)


SAURIA LIZARDS

Family CrotaphytidaeCrotaphytus collaris Collared lizardCrotaphytus reticulatus* Reticulate collared lizardGambelia wislizenii Leopard lizard

Family PhrynosomatidaeCallisaurus draconoides* Zebra-tailed lizardCophosaurus texanus Greater earless lizardHolbrookia lacerata* Spot-tailed earless lizardHolbrookia maculata Common lesser earless lizardPhrynosoma cornutum Texas horned lizardPhrynosoma hernandesi Greater short-horned lizardPhrynosoma modestum Round-tailed horned lizardPhrynosoma orbiculare Mountain horned lizardPhrynosoma solare* Regal horned lizardSceloporus arenicolus Dunes sagebrush lizardSceloporus cautus Shy spiny lizardSceloporus clarkii* Clark’s spiny lizardSceloporus couchi* Couch’s spiny lizardSceloporus cyanogenys* Blue spiny lizardSceloporus exsul* Queretaran spiny lizardSceloporus goldmani Goldman’s bunch grass lizardSceloporus grammicus Graphic spiny lizardSceloporus horridus Horrible spiny lizardSceloporus jarrovi Mountain spiny lizardSceloporus maculosus Spotted spiny lizardSceloporus magister Desert spiny lizardSceloporus merriami Canyon lizardSceloporus nelsoni Nelson’s spiny lizardSceloporus olivaceus Texas spiny lizardSceloporus ornatus Ornate spiny lizardSceloporus parvus Bluebelly lizardSceloporus poinsetti Crevice spiny lizardSceloporus slevini* Slevin’s bunchgrass lizard (replaces S. sclaris)Sceloporus spinosus Spiny lizardSceloporus torquatus Crevice swiftSceloporus undulatus ssp. Fence/Prairie lizard(s)Sceloporus variabilis* Rose-bellied lizardSceloporus virgatus* Striped plateau lizardUma exsul Fringe-toed sand lizardUma paraphygas Chihuahuan fringe-toed lizardUrosaurus bicarinatus Tropical tree lizardUrosaurus ornatus Ornate tree lizardUta stansburiana Common side-blotched lizard

Family GekkonidaeColeonyx brevis Texas banded geckoColeonyx reticulatus Reticulate banded geckoColeonyx variegatus* Western banded gecko

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Family IguanaidaeCtenosaura hemilopha Cape spinytail iguanaCtenosaura pectinata Mexican spinytail iguana

Family TeiidaeCnemidophorus burti* Canyon spotted whiptailCnemidophorus costatus Western Mexico whiptailCnemidophorus dixoni Gray checkered whiptailCnemidophorus exsanguis Chihuahuan spotted whiptailCnemidophorus flagellicaudus* Gila spotted whiptailCnemidophorus gularis Eastern spotted whiptailCnemidophorus inornatus Little striped whiptailCnemidophorus laredoensis Laredo striped whiptailCnemidophorus neomexicanus New Mexico whiptailCnemidophorus septemvittatus Plateau spotted whiptailCnemidophorus sexlineatus Six-lined racerunnerCnemidophorus tesselatus Common checkered whiptailCnemidophorus tigris Tiger whiptailCnemidophorus uniparens Desert grassland whiptailCnemidophorus velox* Plateau striped whiptail(Taxonomy of the genus Cnemidophorus is unstable and there are some differences in taxonomicdesignations among the sources used to construct the tables.)

Family ScincidaeEumeces brevirostris Shortnose skinkEumeces callicephalus* Mountain skinkEumeces lynxe Oak forest skinkEumeces multivirgatus Many-lined skinkEumeces obsoletus Great Plains skinkEumeces tetragrammus* Four-lined skinkScincella lateralis Little ground skinkScincella silvicola* Taylor’s ground skink

Family AnguidaeBarisia imbricata* Imbricate alligator lizardElgaria kingii* Madrean alligator lizardGerrhonotus liocephalus Texas alligator lizardGerrhonotus lugoi Lugo’s alligator lizard

Family XantusidaeLepidophyma sylvaticum Madrean tropical night lizardXantusia bolsonae Bolson night lizardXantusia vigilis Desert night lizard

Family HelodermatidaeHeloderma suspectum*(II) Gila monster

SERPENTES SNAKES

Family LeptotyphlopidaeLeptotyphlops dulcis Plains threadsnakeLeptotyphlops humilis Western threadsnake

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Family ColubridaeArizona elegans Glossy snakeBogertophis subocularis Trans-Pecos ratsnakeChilomeniscus cinctus* Banded sandsnakeColuber constrictor Eastern racerConopsis nasus Largenose earth snakeDiadophis punctatus Ring-necked snakeDrymarchon corais* Western indigo snakeDrymobius margaritiferus* Speckled racerElaphe bairdi Baird’s ratsnakeElaphe guttata CornsnakeElaphe obsoleta Eastern ratsnakeFicimia streckeri* Tamaulipan hook-nosed snakeGyalopion canum Chihuahuan hook-nosed snakeHeterodon nasicus Western hog-nosed snakeHypsiglena tanzeri* Tanzer’s night snakeHypsiglena torquata NightsnakeLampropeltis alterna Gray-banded kingsnakeLampropeltis getula Common kingsnakeLampropeltis mexicana San Luis Potosi kingsnakeLampropeltis pyromelana* Sonoran Mountain kingsnakeLampropeltis triangulum MilksnakeLeptodeira punctata Western cat-eyed snakeLeptodeira septentrionalis Cat-eyed snakeLeptodeira splendida Splendid cat-eyed snakeMasticophis bilineatus* Sonoran whipsnakeMasticophis flagellum CoachwhipMasticophis mentovarius Neotropical whipsnakeMasticophis taeniatus Striped whipsnakeNerodia erythrogaster Plain-bellied watersnakeNerodia rhombifer Diamond-backed watersnakeOpheodrys aestivus Rough greensnakeOpheodrys vernalis* Smooth greensnakePituophis catenifer Gopher snakePituophis deppei Mexican bullsnakeRhadinaea gaigeae* Gaige’s pine forest snake(listed as Rhadinaea crassa by Morafka, 1977)

Rhadinaea laureata* Crowned graceful brown snakeRhadinaea montana* Nuevo León graceful brown snakeRhinocheilus lecontei Long-nosed snakeSalvadora deserticola Big Bend patch-nosed snakeSalvadora grahamiae Eastern patch-nosed snakeSalvadora hexalepis Western patch-nosed snakeSenticolis triaspis* Green ratsnakeSonora semiannulata Ground snakeStoreria hidalgoensis* Mexican yellowbelly brown snakeStoreria storerioides Mexican brown snakeTantilla atriceps Mexican black-headed snakeTantilla bocourti Bocourt’s black-headed snakeTantilla cucullata Trans-Pecos black-headed snake


Tantilla gracilis* Flat-headed snakeTantilla hobartsmithi Smith’s black-headed snakeTantilla nigriceps Plains black-headed snakeTantilla wilcoxi Chihuahuan black-headed snakeTantilla yaquia Yaqui black-headed snakeThamnophis cyrtopsis Black-necked gartersnakeThamnophis elegans Wandering gartersnakeThamnophis eques Mexican gartersnakeThamnophis errans Mexican wandering gartersnakeThamnophis exsul* Montane gartersnakeThamnophis marcianus Checkered gartersnakeThamnophis melanogaster Mexican black-bellied gartersnakeThamnophis proximus Western ribbon snakeThamnophis pulchrilatus Yellow-throated gartersnakeThamnophis rufipunctatus Narrow-headed gartersnakeThamnophis sirtalis Common gartersnakeTrimorphodon biscutatus Western lyresnakeTropidoclonion lineatum* Lined snake

Family ElapidaeMicruroides euryxanthus* Sonoran coral snakeMicrurus distans West Mexican coral snakeMicrurus fulvius Texas coral snake

Family ViperidaeAgkistrodon contortrix CopperheadCrotalus aquilus Queretaran dusky rattlesnakeCrotalus atrox Western diamond-backed rattlesnakeCrotalus lepidus Rock rattlesnakeCrotalus molossus Black-tailed rattlesnakeCrotalus pricei* Twin-spotted rattlesnakeCrotalus scutulatus Mojave rattlesnakeCrotalus viridis Prairie rattlesnakeCrotalus willardi* Ridge-nosed rattlesnakeSistrurus catenatus Massasauga

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Source: Modified from Morafka (1977), Flores-Villela (1993), Degenhardt et al. (1996), and Dixon (2000). Common names follow Crother et al.(2000) and Liner (1994). Those species marked with “*” are peripheral species recorded from localities immediately adjacent to the CDE(Morafka 1977). Those species marked with a “(I)” are listed in Appendix I of CITES, and those species marked with a “(II)” are listed inAppendix II of CITES.

Assessment of theCollection, Trade, andRegulation of Reptiles fromthe CDE in Mexico

INTRODUCTIONMexico is considered one of the world’s mostbiologically diverse countries, due largely tothe confluence of two biogeographic regions(the nearctic and neotropical), as well as itsgreat orographic complexity, climatic diversity,and vegetation types. With 717 species, Mexicoranks second in reptile diversity worldwide,surpassed only by Australia, which has 755species (CONABIO, 2000). In relation to thisvast abundance of herpetofauna, the geographicdistribution and biology of these species areonly known in the most general terms. Thereare few studies of Mexican reptiles generally,and studies of the species inhabiting the desertregions are especially lacking, with theexception of those in Baja California’sPeninsula (Flores-Villela, 1993; Ordoñez andFlores-Villela, 1995; Grismer, 2002).

Since ancient history, reptiles have played animportant role in the lives of native Mexicanpeople. Reptiles have been adored asrepresentations of gods, and used daily as food(e.g., eggs and flesh of turtles and iguanas,crocodile legs and tails), for arts and craftsmanufacture (e.g., belts, shoes, boots), clothes,in traditional medicine (e.g., rattlesnake meat,venom, and fat), by street peddlers (iguanasand other reptiles are used to draw attention toother wares), and even in magical-religiousceremonies by many sectors of the population(SEMARNAP- PROFEPA, 1998).

The diversity of the Mexican CDE herpeto-fauna is among the highest in all desertecoregions. According to Levin (Cotera et al.,2001), there are more than 130 reptile speciesknown to exist in the Chihuahuan Desert, andseveral lizards are endemic, including themountain horned lizard Phrynosomaorbiculare, Lugo's alligator lizard Gerrhonotuslugoi, oak forest skink Eumeces lynxe, Taylor'sground skink Scincella silvicola, and Bolsonnight lizard Xantusia bolsonae (NOM 059-

ECOL 2001; Table 2). Several whiptails,including the New Mexico whiptailCnemidophorus neomexicanus and commoncheckered whiptail C. tesselatus, occur as all-female parthenogenic clones in select disturbedhabitats (Wright and Lowe, 1968). Among themany other species that add to the reptilediversity in the CDE are the San Luis Potosikingsnake Lampropeltis mexicana, Mexicanbullsnake Pituophis deppei, Mexican black-bellied garter snake Thamnophis melanogaster,Queretaran dusky rattlesnake Crotalus aquilus,Coahuilan box turtle Terrapene coahuila,Mexican roughfoot mud turtle Kinosternonhirtipes, Mexican mud turtle Kinosternonsonorense, Bolson tortoise Gopherusflavomarginatus, and black spiny softshellApalone ater (NOM 059-ECOL 2001, Table 2;Dinerstein et al., 2000).

METHODSTo assess collection of and trade in CDEreptile species in Mexico, research wasundertaken from September to December2000. Information on Mexican federal andstate laws was gathered from a bibliographicsurvey. Information about the differentgeographic areas of importance in CDE reptiletrade was obtained through field trips, fromdata provided by the Mexico FederalAttorney’s Office for Environmental Protection(PROFEPA), from interviews of personnel invarious government agencies and in differentlocalities, and from newspapers and unpub-lished reports.

Marketplaces in Mexico City were surveyedand data were collected from pet shops,catalogues, and the Internet. Products andbyproducts found in the markets and includedin official or government information (and insome newspaper articles) were identified byPROFEPA and Special Attorney ofEnvironmental Crime (PGR) personnel.

RESULTS

1. Legal Framework

Mexico’s legal framework includes laws,regulations, norms, international agreements,national plans, and governmental dispositions.

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CHAPTER 1

All of these legal tools are used to promote theprotection and sustainable use of Mexico’snatural resources, including its native reptiles.On an international level, Mexico joinedCITES in 1991. With limited exceptions—primarily involving noncommercial, scientificuse—Mexico prohibits the export of nativereptiles and amphibians, and all legalshipments must be accompanied by a permit.

Brief descriptions of the legal tools that mostdirectly affect the collection, trade, andmanagement of reptiles and amphibians fromthe CDE in Mexico are presented below.

1.1 Federal Laws and Other Instruments

Constitución Federal de los Estados UnidosMexicanos (Federal Constitution of the UnitedStates of Mexico), Article 27, states thatnatural resources are the property of the nation.

Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico yProtección al Ambiente (General Law ofEcological Balance and EnvironmentalProtection) calls for the rational use andprotection of natural resources. Chapter Threeis dedicated to wild flora and fauna.

Ley General de Vida Silvestre (General Lawon Wildlife), enacted on July 3, 2000, refers tothe sustainable conservation and use of wildlifeand its habitat in Mexico. It also stipulates thelaws that are to be applied on a federal level,and the ones to be applied on a state or locallevel. The regulations implementing this laware still being reviewed and should bepublished in the near future.

Ley Federal de Derechos (Federal Law ofRights) lists the tariffs for permits for use inmanagement units and for hunting activities.

Ley Aduanal (Customs Law) identifies therequirements for import and export of wildflora and fauna and refers to the Ley delImpuesto General de Importación (Law on theGeneral Imports Tax) and the Ley delImpuesto General de Exportación (Law on theGeneral Exports Tax), laws that regulate allkinds of products and merchandise, includingthe imports and exports of wild flora andfauna. These laws list all species of flora andfauna they cover in a catalog that specifies thewildlife specimens, products, or byproductssubject to tariffs.

Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM) 059 ECOL2001 (Official Mexican Norm 059) (NOM-

059-ECOL-2001) lists certain species andsubspecies of wild terrestrial and aquatic faunabased on degree of threat to their survival,including: Extinct in the Wild (E); In Dangerof Extinction (P), Threatened (A), Subject toSpecial Protection (Pr); it also indicateswhether or not the species are endemic. NOM059 ECOL 2001 applies to all activitiesinvolving specimens, parts, products,byproducts, and derivatives of listed species(see Appendix 1 for full list of species).

Programa de Conservación de la VidaSilvestre y Diversificación Productiva en elSector Rural (Program for the Conservation ofWildlife and Productive Diversification of theRural Sector), has the general objective ofconserving Mexico’s biodiversity whilegenerating socio-economic diversificationopportunities for the rural sector.

Of particular relevance in this program is theSistema de Unidades para la Conservación,Manejo y Aprovechamiento Sustentable de laVida Silvestre (SUMA) (System ofConservation, Management, and SustainableUse of Wildlife Units), which requires thatparticipants register with the DirecciónGeneral de Vida Silvestre (DGVS), the sectionin the Ministry of Environment (SEMARNAT)dedicated to administrative aspects of wildlifemanagement; provision of a managementplan, certified by scientific authorities, to beverified by SEMARNAT’s authorities; andsubmission of periodic reports of activities tothe DGVS (see Section 1.2).

Código Penal (Criminal Code). In the sectionthat refers to federal crimes on wildlife, Article420, the following prohibitions and penaltiesare outlined:

From six months to six years of prison and afine equivalent to 1000 to 20 000 days’ wagesto anyone who:

I. Intentionally captures, harms, or killsany sea turtle or marine mammal, orcollects or trades any products orbyproducts in any way, without theproper authorization;

II. Intentionally captures, transforms,gathers, transports, destroys, or tradesaquatic species during the closed seasonwithout the proper authorization;

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III. Hunts, fishes, or captures wild species offauna using means forbidden by theapplicable norms or threatens thosespecies with extinction;

IV. Conducts any commercial activity withwild species of flora and fauna that areendemic, in danger of extinction,threatened, rare, or subject to specialprotection, including their products andbyproducts, without proper permit orauthorization or, if it applies, during theclosed season;

V. Intentionally harms species of wild faunaor flora mentioned in the precedingsection.

1.2 UMAs

The UMA (Unidad para la Conservación,Manejo y Aprovechamiento Sustentable)(Conservation, Management, and SustainableUse of Wildlife Unit) is the basic unit of theSUMA (Sistema de Unidades para laConservación, Manejo y AprovechamientoSustentable de la Vida Silvestre), the recentlyadopted administrative and managementscheme aimed at promoting productivealternatives compatible with biodiversity andenvironmental conservation through rational,ordered, and planned use of natural resources,particularly wildlife. This system createsopportunities for legal and viable sustainableuse of wild resources, to compete with orcomplement conventional practices likeagriculture, fisheries, or livestock raising. Theobjective of this system is to favor integralmanagement and conservation of wildlifethrough the creation of incentives at the local,regional, and national levels by promoting thedevelopment of alternative income sources forlegitimate landowners and rural communities.Any establishment, collection, business, orexhibit that includes the use of any kind ofwildlife should be registered under thisscheme.

At the time this report was written, there wereonly two registered UMAs in the ChihuahuanDesert that included reptiles from the region:

• The Sahuatoba Zoo in Durango with:

9 pond sliders Trachemys scripta

5 mud turtles Kinosternon spp.

4 Bolson tortoises Gopherusflavomarginatus

4 rattlesnakes Crotalus spp.

• The Friends of the Desert of Coahuila(Amigos del Desierto de Coahuila) inSaltillo, Coahuila with:

3 Western diamond-backed rattlesnakesCrotalus atrox.

1.3 State Laws

The following state laws address a number ofnatural resource-related issues, including:indicating the status of wild flora and fauna,describing the activities allowed in protectedand non-protected areas, and outliningguidelines and procedures for wildlifeinspections.

Coahuila

• Constitución Política del Estado deCoahuila de Zaragoza (PoliticalConstitution of the State of Coahuila deZaragoza)

• Ley del Equilirio Ecológico y Protecciónal Ambiente del Estado de Coahuila deZaragoza (Law for Ecological Balance andEnvironmental Protection of the State ofCoahuila de Zaragoza)

Chihuahua

• Consitución Política del Estado deChihuahua (Political Constitution of theState of Chihuahua)

• Ley Ecológica para el Estado deChihuahua (Ecological Law for the Stateof Chihuahua)

Durango

• Constitución Política del Estado deDurango (Political Constitution of theState of Durango)

• Ley Estatal del Equilibrio Ecológico yProtección al Ambiente (State Law ofEcological Balance and EnvironmentalProtection)

San Luis Potosí

• Constitución Política del Estado Libre ySoberano de San Luis Potosí (PoliticalConstitution of the Free and SovereignState of San Luis Potosí)

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• Ley Ambiental del Estado de San LuisPotosí, S.L.P. (Environmental ProtectionLaw of the State of San Luis Potosí)

Zacatecas

• Constitución Política del Estado deZacatecas (Political Constitution of theState of Zacatecas)


Guanajuato

• Constitución Política del Estado deGuanajuato (Political Constitution of theState of Guanajuato)

• Ley para la Preservación y Protección delAmbiente del Estado de Guanajuato(Guanajuato’s Law for the Preservationand Protection of the Environment)

Hidalgo

• Constitución Política del Estado deHidalgo (Political Constitution of the Stateof Hidalgo)

• Ley del Equilirio Ecológico y Protecciónal Ambiente para el Estado de Hidalgo(Law for Ecological Balance andEnvironmental Protection for the State ofHidalgo)

Querétaro

• Constitución Política del Estado Libre ySoberano de Querétaro Arteaga (PoliticalConstitution of the Free and SovereignState of Queretaro Arteaga)


2. Protected Areas in the CDE

There are five protected areas in the CDE inMexico: the Cuatro Ciénegas Area for theProtection of Flora and Fauna, the Cañón deSanta Elena Area for the Protection of Floraand Fauna, the Mapimí Biosphere Reserve, theMaderas del Carmen Area for the Protection ofFlora and Fauna, and the Sierra GordaBiosphere Reserve.

Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila (Area deProtección de Flora y Fauna)

The Cuatro Ciénegas Basin has been studiedsince the 1930s and was established as aProtected Area on November 7, 1994(INE/SEMARNAT, 1999). This protected arearanges from 740 to 3000 meters in elevation onthe Sierra de la Menchaca, San Vicente, LaPurísima, San Marcos, Pinas, and La Fragua,within the Sierra Madre Oriental (INE, 2001).

There are 58 reptile species in the area,including several turtles such as black spinysoftshell Apalone ater, spiny softshell Apalonespinifer, and Coahuilan box turtle Terrapenecoahuila, all of which have been collected forthe international pet trade. Other threats to theherpetofauna in the area include waterextraction from ponds for agriculture, waterand soil pollution, fires, killing of rattlesnakesby ranchers, and the introduction of alienturtles (i.e., pond slider Trachemys scripta)into ponds.

Some national and international organizationsand institutions are currently working in thearea on projects related to environmentaleducation, documenting the importance ofCuatro Ciénegas’ biodiversity, the reintroductionof Terrapene coahuila, and the illegal trade ofwildlife (INE, 2001; González Porter, pers.comm. to Adrián Reuter, May 2001).

Cañón de Santa Elena (Area de Protección deFlora y Fauna)

Located in the northeast section of the State ofChihuahua and having a total of 277 209 ha, thisbiosphere reserve was established on November7, 1994 (Dirzo y Gómez Pompa, 1995).

With herpetofauna characteristic to the CDE, anumber of threats may impact these popula-tions, including overgrazing, deforestation,mining, illegal collection of wildlife, anduncontrolled tourism (INE, 2001).

Mapimi Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de laBiósfera de Mapimí)

This 29 000-ha reserve was established in1977, and is located north of the MexicanCentral Plateau, within the Bolson of Mapimi,in northern Durango at the border ofChihuahua and Coahuila (INE, 2001).

There are 36 reptile species in the protectedarea (Aguirre y Maury, 1989), including theBolson Tortoise Gopherus flavomarginatus,classified as Vulnerable by IUCN (2002), and

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Endangered under NOM 059 and CITESAppendix I. There is also a biological stationin the reserve where a conservation programon this species has been implemented (Dirzo yGómez Pompa, 1995).

The biggest threats to reptiles in the area areillegal collection of specimens (especiallyBolson tortoise) for personal collections andthe pet trade, and intentional killing oftortoises by ranchers because the tortoises digburrows, which are viewed as a threat to cattle(Morafka, 1982; González Porter, pers. comm.to Adrián Reuter, May 2001).

Maderas del Carmen (Area de Protección deFlora y Fauna)

This protected area, with a total of 208 281 ha,was established on November 7, 1994, and islocated in northeastern Coahuila.

The herpetofauna are characteristic of theCDE, and include the Eastern racer Coluberconstrictor, a species listed as threatened byMexico’s NOM 059. The main threats to thereptiles of the area are deforestation, over-grazing, mining activities, and introduction ofexotic species (INE/SEMARNAT, 1999).

Sierra Gorda (Reserva de la Biósfera)

The Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve wasestablished on May 19, 1997, and covers atotal of 383 567 ha. There are 71 species ofreptiles in this protected area. Among thethreats to reptiles and other species in thisreserve are illegal logging, water pollution,watershed depletion, human populationgrowth, poaching, and uncontrolled tourism(INE/SEMARNAT, 1999).

3. Collecting MethodsThe methods used to catch reptiles vary widelyin the CDE. Depending on the size of theanimal, turtles are usually caught by hand, orby using casting nets and funnel traps.Tortoises are usually searched for within andremoved from their burrows.

Snakes are usually killed as soon as they arefound, most likely as a result of fear caused byignorance of venomous and non-venomousspecies. Dead snakes are usually skinned andthe flesh is dried. Live snakes are generallycaptured by using a wooden stick to lift orguide them into a bag. Several snakes are often

kept together in a single bag.

Lizards are caught by hand, either by reachinginto holes where lizards might be found, orcatching them while they are basking, usuallyearly in the morning, when they are less active.Local children also catch lizards by hittingthem with rubber bands and catching themwhile the lizards are stunned.

Though there is some targeted hunting ofreptiles, especially for more commerciallyvaluable species such as rattlesnakes andBolson tortoises, collecting is frequentlyopportunistic.

4. Reptile Species Found in TradeThe demand for pet reptiles has increased inthe recent past, and there is an establishedtrade in markets and some pet stores withinMexico. Some of this trade is common inestablished markets, where other pet animalssuch as aquarium fishes or songbirds areoffered; however, the numerous informal streetmarkets in major urban centers as well as atsome busy crossroads and stretches of roadalso act as selling points. Most of this trade istargeted at nationals seeking personal pets orfor resale in established businesses. There isalso an international, illegal trade in Mexicanreptiles, such as specimens from the generaAbronia, Xenosaurus, and Crotaphytus, whichare sold at pet stores and “shows” in theUnited States (González Porter, pers. comm. toAdrián Reuter, May 2001). For example, onOctober 19, 1999, a U.S. citizen was caught inpossession of more than 200 illegally collectedreptiles, likely destined for markets in theUnited States (Gonzalez Porter, pers. comm. toAdrián Reuter, May 2001).

Based on historical information, interviews,field trips, market surveys, and seizure data,TRAFFIC assessed the number of CDEspecies subject to collection and trade in andfrom Mexico. At least 82 species, orapproximately 63% of the 131 estimatedreptile species found in the Mexico portion ofthe CDE (Cotera et al., 2001), are subject tosome kind of trade (Figure 2).

Of the 82 species identified in domestic orinternational trade, 6 are listed in Appendix Ior II of CITES, 4 are classified as Threatened(vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered,or lower risk) by IUCN (2002), and 51 in the

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NOM 059 ECOL 2001. Seventeen of the 82species are endemic to Mexico (Table 2).

Based on market surveys conducted in Mexicoby González Porter over the past 10 years,rattlesnakes which are used for meat, fat,venom, and as live animals used by streetpeddlers and sold as pets, are the mostcommonly traded Chihuahuan Desert reptiles(González Porter, pers. comm. to AdrianReuter, May 2001).

Because much of the trade is illegal, andcollection and trade figures are not reported, anestimation of the number of rattlesnakescollected and traded is difficult. However,some anecdotal information exists. After asting operation conducted in the Plateros,Zacatecas region by PROFEPA in September1997, it was estimated that the number ofcaptured snakes (primarily rattlesnakesCrotalus spp. and Sistrurus spp.) from thatregion could be as high as 400 individuals per month. This investigation revealed thatillegal trade is extensive and diversified, andthat the primary demand is for reptile skins.Shipments of hundreds or even thousands ofrattlesnake skins, as well as skins from otherreptiles, travel via ground transportation toLeón, Guanajuato or Nautla, Veracruz. There

the skins are used to make boots and otherproducts that are distributed to markets withinand outside of Mexico (González Porter, pers.comm. to Adrián Reuter, May 2001).

Rattlesnakes have also frequently been used asa remedy for various diseases. For example,the text on a bottle of rattlesnake pillsindicated that they were useful for curing awide variety of ailments, including: skin stains,cancer, sores, rashes, pimples, welts, itching,rheumatism, varicose veins, face spots, acne,blackheads, stress, heart disease, diabetes,hemorrhoids, and sexual impotence. These“miracle” pills are made from dried rattlesnakeflesh, which is ground and placed in jelly caps.Though no scientific studies have beenconducted to support these claims of efficacy,it has been shown that the flesh, which is driedoutdoors, can carry Salmonella; therefore, thepills could be a vector of this disease (Rubio,1998). The rattles and the head are used asornaments (SEMARNAP-PROFEPA, 1998).

Another commonly collected reptile genuscomprises the horned lizards Phrynosoma spp.,which are also referred to as tapaxin orchameleons. These reptiles are believed bysome to be useful to attract money, if placed ina chest filled with iron filings. These lizards, as

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Figure 2. Total Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion reptiles found in Mexico,and total number found in trade

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Total Species Species Subject to Trade

131

82

37

Table 2. CDE reptile species subject to trade in and/or from Mexico

Chrysemys picta Painted turtle Pr Pet shops PetsPseudemys gorzugi Rio Grande cooter Pr Pet shops PetsTerrapene coahuila Coahuilan box turtle Pr* EN Pet shops PetsTerrapene ornata Ornate box turtle II Pr LR/nt Pet shops PetsTrachemys scripta Pond slider Pr Local markets and Pets; meat

pet shopsKinosternon flavescens Yellow mud turtle Local markets PetsKinosternon hirtipes Rough-footed mud turtle Pr Local markets PetsKinosternon integrum Mexican mud turtle Pr* Local markets PetsKinosternon sonoriense Sonoran mud turtle Local markets PetsGopherus berlandieri Berlandier’s tortoise II A Local markets and Pets

pet shopsGopherus Bolson tortoise I P* VU Local markets and Petsflavomarginatus pet shopsApalone ater Black spiny softshell I Pr* CR Local markets and Pets; meat

pet shopsApalone spinifera Spiny softshell Pr Local markets and Pets; meat

pet shopsGerrhonotus liocephalus Texas alligator lizard Pr Pet shops and shows PetsGerrhonotus lugoi Lugo’s alligator lizard A* Pet shops and shows PetsColeonyx brevis Texas banded gecko Pr Pet shops and shows PetsColeonyx reticulatus Reticulate banded gecko Pr Pet shops and shows PetsCrotaphytus collaris Collared lizard A Pet shops and shows PetsGambelia wislizenii Leopard lizard Pr Pet shops and shows PetsCophosaurus texanus Greater earless lizard A Pet shops and shows PetsCtenosaura hemilopha Cape spinytail iguana II Pr* Local markets MeatCtenosaura pectinata Mexican spinytail iguana II A* Local markets MeatPhrynosoma cornutum Texas horned lizard A Local and Mexico City Traditional

markets medicinePhrynosoma modestum Round-tailed Local markets, pet Traditional

horned lizard shops and shows medicine; PetsPhrynosoma orbiculare Mountain horned lizard A* Local and Mexico City Traditional

markets medicineSceloporus jarrovi Mountain spiny lizard Pet shops and shows PetsSceloporus torquatus Crevice swift Pet shops and shows PetsSceloporus undulatus Fence lizard Pet shops and shows PetsUta stansburiana Common side-blotched A* Pet shops and shows Pets

lizardEumeces brevirostris Shortnose skink Pet shops and shows PetsEumeces lynxe Oak forest skink R* Pet shops and shows PetsEumeces tetragrammus Four-lined skink Pet shops and shows PetsScincella silvicola Taylor’s ground skink Pr* Pet shops and shows PetsCnemidophorus Chihuahuan spotted Pet shops and shows Petsexsanguis whiptailCnemidophorus gularis Eastern spotted whiptail Pet shops and shows PetsCnemidophorus Little striped whiptail Pet shops and shows PetsinornatusCnemidophorus Laredo striped whiptail Pet shops and shows PetslaredoensisCnemidophorus New Mexico whiptail Pr Pet shops and shows PetsneomexicanusCnemidophorus Common checkered Pet shops and shows Petstesselatus whiptailCnemidophorus tigris Tiger whiptail Pet shops and shows Pets

SPECIES COMMON CITES NOM RED PLACE USENAME O59 LIST OF TRADE

*Species endemic to CDE.

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Table 2. CDE reptile species subject to trade in and/or from Mexico continued


Cnemidophorus Desert grassland Pet shops and shows Petsuniparens whiptailXantusia bolsonae Bolson night lizard A* Pet shops and shows PetsXantusia vigilis Desert night lizard Pet shops and shows PetsArizona elegans Glossy snake Pet shops and shows PetsColuber constrictor Eastern racer A Pet shops PetsConopsis nasus Largenose earth snake Pet shops Food for other

snakesDiadophis punctatus Ring-necked snake Pet shops PetsDrymarchon corais Western indigo snake Pet shops, shows and Pets; skin

shoe storesElaphe bairdi Baird’s ratsnake Pet shops and shows Pets; skinElaphe guttata Cornsnake Pet shops and shows PetsHeterodon nasicus Western hog-nosed Pr Pet shops and shows Pets

snakeLampropeltis alterna Gray-banded kingsnake A Pet shops and shows PetsLampropeltis getula Common kingsnake A Pet shops and shows PetsLampropeltis mexicana San Luis Potosi A* Pet shops and shows Pets

kingsnakeMasticophis bilineatus Sonoran whipsnake Pet shops and markets PetsMasticophis flagellum Coachwhip A Pet shops and markets PetsMasticophis mentovarius Neotropical whipsnake Pet shops and markets PetsMasticophis taeniatus Striped whipsnake Pet shops and markets PetsNerodia erythrogaster Plain-bellied watersnake A Local markets PetsNerodia rhombifer Diamond-backed Local markets Pets

watersnakePituophis deppei Mexican bullsnake A* Local markets and Pets; peddlers

pet shopsPituophis catenifer Gopher snake Local markets and Pets; peddlers

pet shopsRhinocheilus lecontei Longnose snake Pet shops and shows PetsThamnophis cyrtopsis Black-necked A Local markets and Pets

gartersnake pet shopsThamnophis eques Mexican gartersnake A Local markets and Pets

pet shopsThamnophis errans Mexican wandering Local markets and Pets

gartersnake pet shopsThamnophis exsul Montane gartersnake A* Local markets and Pets

pet shopsThamnophis marcianus Checkered gartersnake A Local markets and Pets

pet shopsThamnophis Mexican black-bellied Local markets Petsmelanogaster gartersnakeThamnophis proximus Western ribbon snake A Local markets and

pet shops PetsThamnophis sirtalis Common gartersnake Pr Local markets and

pet shops PetsMicrurus distans West Mexican Pr* Laboratories Venom

coral snakeMicrurus fulvius Texas coral snake Pr Laboratories and Venom; pets

pet shopsAgkistrodon contortrix Copperhead Pet shops and shows PetsCrotalus aquilus Queretaran dusky Pr* Local markets Meat; traditional

rattlesnake medicine


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Table 2. CDE reptile species subject to trade in and/or from Mexico continued


Crotalus atrox Western diamond- Pr Local markets and Skin; meat;backed rattlesnake pet shops traditional

medicineCrotalus lepidus Rock rattlesnake Pr Local markets Meat; traditional

medicineCrotalus molossus Black-tailed rattlesnake Pr local markets Skin; peddlers;

traditional medicine

Crotalus pricei Twin-spotted rattlesnake Pr Local markets Meat; traditional medicine

Crotalus scutulatus Mojave rattlesnake Pr Local markets and Skin; traditional pet shops medicine

Crotalus viridis Prairie rattlesnake Pr Local markets Meat; traditional medicine

Crotalus willardi Ridge-nosed rattlesnake Pr Local markets Meat; traditional medicine

well as collared lizards Crotaphytus spp., arealso widely used as pets in Mexico. They areoffered for sale not only in Mexican markets,but also internationally in pet shops and“reptile shows” (González Porter, pers. comm.to Adrián Reuter, May 2001).

Most species are exploited for use as pets,followed by use as meat, for the skin, intraditional medicine, and by peddlers(merolicos) (Figure 3).

Though there are at least 82 species found intrade to meet a variety of demands, severalspecies may be particularly threatened due totheir population status. Of the 67 species thatcan be found in the pet trade, Bolson tortoisesGopherus flavomarginatus (CITES AppendixI; NOM 059 In Danger of Extinction; IUCN(2002) Vulnerable) and black spiny softshellsApalone ater (CITES Appendix I, NOM 059Subject to Special Protection; IUCN (2002)Critically Endangered) are of particularconcern due to their precarious conservationstatus. Softshell turtles Apalone spp. are alsoused for meat, as are rattlesnakes Crotalus spp. and Sistrurus spp., all of which are insome protected category in the NOM 059.Rattlesnakes are also threatened by their usefor leather products, for traditional medicine,and magic-religious activities.

Though it is possible to trade legally in certainMexican wildlife, particularly via the UMAsystem, there is little evidence of legal trade in

CDE reptile species over the last few years.However, some data regarding the illegal tradeare available and may be useful in assessingthe scope of the overall collection and trade ofreptiles from the CDE. Official figures onseizures of live reptiles by PROFEPA between1995 and 2000 are quite low (Table 3), and donot include all government seizures, such asthe specimens seized in specific stingoperations. Therefore, these data should not beinterpreted as an indication of the extent ofillegal trade, but simply as an indication of thespecies collected and/or traded illegally withinMexico. There were no data showing anyseizures in Zacatecas or Hidalgo.

5. Significant Domestic Trade Centers

Five main distribution and trade centers forCDE reptile species were identified in threemajor areas:

1. Plateros Magical-Religious Center,Zacatecas

2. Charco Cercado (roadway), San Luis Potosí

3. Mexico City Marketplaces:

• Mercado de Sonora (Market of Sonora),Mexico City

• Nuevo Mercado San Lázaro (New Marketof San Lázaro), Mexico City

• Mercado Emilio Carranza (Emilio CarranzaMarket), Mexico City.


5.1 Plateros Magical/Religious Center,Zacatecas

The Plateros market is located in front of theSanctuary for the Miraculous Child of Atocha,where religious objects, images, candles, andaltars, among other things, are sold. Naturaland traditional remedies derived from reptiles,such as dried rattlesnakes, rattlesnake pills, andrattles, are offered for sale. Stuffed toads andturtles, and boots manufactured with reptileskins are also for sale.

Starting in 1995, the Zacatecas authorities ofPROFEPA have established verification andperiodic inspection programs, identifying theillegal points of sale and the number ofspecimens offered. However, the trade in livewildlife, products, and byproducts of thisregion continues, disregarding the existinglegislation and enforcement efforts.

In September 1997, PROFEPA carried out asting operation in this market, in which 100

rattlesnake skins belonging to five differentspecies (Crotalus molossus, C. scutulatus, C.atrox, C. lepidus, C. viridis) were confiscated,as well as other byproducts (snake oil and a“dental balm” made from a snake) for whichlegal possession or source could not be shown.It is likely that the snakes were captured in theCDE, but there is no way to confirm thatassumption.

For the purpose of informing local peopleabout reptile conservation and regulations,PROFEPA, together with other entities fromSEMARNAP (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente,Recursos Naturales y Pesca), the municipalitiesof Fresnillo, Zacatecas, Minera Peñoles, andsome non-governmental organizations of theStates of Zacatecas and Aguascalientes,organized the first “Workshop of Managementand Exploitation of Herpetofauna in AridZones: The Rattlesnakes from Zacatecas” inthe City of Fresnillo, Zacatecas, July 15-17,1999. Attendees included wildlife vendors,

40

Figure 3. Common uses of species subject to trade

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Pets Meat TraditionalMedicine

Skin Peddlers

41

members of the Veterinary College ofAguascalientes, and other interested people.

In November 1999, PROFEPA in the state ofZacatecas carried out a sting operation in thePlateros market, discovering that many of thewildlife vendors had previously been subjectedto inspections, and previously had administra-tive procedures brought against them byPROFEPA. Some of these people had attendedthe above-mentioned information workshop(González Porter, pers. comm. to A. Reuter,May 2001).

During this operation, two wildlife productsstands were inspected; they had, among otherthings:

• 89 dried rattlesnakes split open from headto tail

• 2000 rattlesnake capsules

• 6 rattlesnake rattles

• 14 pairs of rattlesnake-skin cowboy boots

• 800 grams of rattlesnake powder

• 3 dried Mexican bullsnakes Pituophisdeppei split open from head to tail

• 14 rattlesnake pill packages

• 5 bags of ground rattlesnake meat

• 1 stuffed pond slider Trachemys scripta.

(González Porter, pers. comm. to A. Reuter,May 2001; Amador Sanchez, 1999).

The Zacatecas delegation of PROFEPAimposed more than 134 fines totaling 1 720 000pesos (approximately USD 180 000), onvendors involved in these illegal activities(Amador Sanchez, 1999).

5.2 Charco Cercado, San Luis Potosí

Charco Cercado is located in the municipalityof Guadalcazar (total population of 25 359),

Table 3. Live reptile seizures from 1995 to 2000

Species Common name Quantity Year State whereseizure occured

Ctenosaura pectinata Mexican spinytail iguana 1 1995 San Luis PotosíTrachemys scripta Pond slider 1 1996 QuerétaroPituophis deppei Mexican bullsnake 1 1996 GuanajuatoKinosternon spp. Mud turtle 1 1997 GuanajuatoCrotalus spp. Rattlesnake 50 1997 San Luis PotosíCrotalus spp. Rattlesnake 2 1998 DurangoColuber constrictor Eastern racer 11 1998 GuanajuatoCrotalus atrox Western diamond-backed 3 1998 Guanajuato

rattlesnakeCtenosaura pectinata Mexican spinytail iguana 1 1998 GuanajuatoCrotalus atrox Western diamond-backed 1 1999 Guanajuato

rattlesnakeCrotalus spp. Rattlesnake 13 1999 GuanajuatoCtenosaura pectinata Mexican spinytail iguana 1 1999 GuanajuatoDrymarchon corais Western indigo snake 9 1999 GuanajuatoGopherus agassizi Desert tortoise 2 1999 GuanajuatoLampropeltis spp. Kingsnake 15 1999 GuanajuatoPituophis deppei Mexican bullsnake 12 1999 GuanajuatoThamnophis spp. Gartersnake 13 1999 GuanajuatoThamnophis spp. Gartersnake 1 1999 CoahuilaDrymarchon corais Western indigo snake 2 1999 CoahuilaMasticophis flagellum Coachwhip 3 1999 CoahuilaCrotalus spp. Rattlesnake 2 1999 CoahuilaGopherus spp. Tortoise 6 1999 CoahuilaLampropeltis spp. Kingsnake 1 1999 CoahuilaLampropeltis getula Common kingsnake 1 1999 CoahuilaPituophis deppei Mexican bullsnake 11 1999 Coahuila

Source: PROFEPA

situated northeast of the city of San LuisPotosí, S.L.P. The population comprisesapproximately 1100 residents, of which about90 are suspected of being engaged in illegalwildlife trade (Charqueño Puente, 2002).Charco Cercado is considered the biggestwildlife acquisition and trading center in ruralMexico, having national and internationalsignificance (Zarate, 1997).

Cattle production and seasonal agriculture arethe main economic activities throughout theregion. A few locals offer services like road-side auto-repair shops and small grocerystores. A large percentage of the population inthe area (mostly men) migrate north in searchof better opportunities. For the last 30 years,many of the local residents have been illegallytrading in wildlife. This wildlife is offered atimprovised stands along the roadway,although a great part of the trade is “speciallyordered” and the transactions are made in aless obvious manner.

A large number of mammal and bird speciesare offered for sale, both as live animals and asproducts. Some reptiles are also offered,particularly rattlesnakes (primarily Crotalusmolossus, C. atrox, and C. sctutulatus offeredboth as live animals and products) and hornedlizards (primarily Phrynosoma orbiculare andP. modestum offered as live animals) (Reuter,pers. observ. 2001).

Among the species subject to trade at CharcoCercado, some are native to the region, whileothers are illegally transported fromTamaulipas, Nuevo León, Zacatecas, and otherstates for sale at Charco Cercado. This isusually the case for bird species that requirespecific permits to be transported betweenstates, due to the risks of avian diseases suchas avian tuberculosis or Newcastle disease. Theanimals are generally collected by other peopleand entrusted to the locals until they’re sold(Reuter, pers. observ. 2001).

In 1997, investigations were conducted on theillegal trade of reptiles, their products, andbyproducts. Among the identified goods weredried, skinned snakes (flesh and bone), rattle-snake oil, and live rattlesnakes. The trade wascarried out in 30 outdoor stands and sevenindoor stands located on the side of thehighway, from San Luis Potosí to Matehuala(“El Sol de México,” “El Heraldo de México,”

“El Nacional,” “Novedades,” “Uno mas Uno,”22 March 1997). It was also observed thatthere is a recurrent trade involving dealers whotravel by vehicle from Mexico City and Leónand who stay in the ejido (common land,expropriated and reallocated by the govern-ment to a workers' collective) for a day or two,until they complete their transactions (“ElHeraldo de México,” 22 March 1997).

On March 21, 1997, an inter-agency (com-prising the Office of the Attorney General forthe Protection of the Environment (PROFEPA),Communications and Transports Ministry(SCT), Fedral Highway Police (PFC), Officeof the Attorney General (PGR), SocialProtection of Municipality, General EcologicalCoordination of the State Government, and aPublic Attorney) sting operation was carriedout in which 180 police officers displaced thewildlife vendors (“Novedades,” ”Uno másUno,” "El Sol de México,” 22 March 1997; “El Universal,” 23 March 1997). As a result of this operation, 450 specimens and productswere seized, including animal hides, song-birds, parrots, raptors, rattlesnake pills, livemammals, and live reptiles (“Novedades,”“El Sol de México,” “El Heraldo de México,”“El Nacional,” 22 March 1997; “El Universal,””Reforma,” 23 March 1997). The stategovernment tried to ensure that the operationwould be conducted without violence, butcommunity members threw rocks at the policeand their vehicles. During this sting operation,the following reptile products and byproductswere secured:

• 44 rattlesnake skins

• 87 flasks of rattlesnake oil

• 2 boa constrictor skins

• 20 flasks of rattlesnake powder

• 332 skinned, dried rattlesnakes

• 20 flasks of rattlesnake fat

• 49 bags of rattlesnake capsules

(Gonzalez Porter, pers. comm. to A. Reuter,May 2001)

The seized fauna were taken to confiscationcenters, and the products and by-productswere destroyed (“Novedades,” “Uno masUno,” “El Sol de México,” “El Nacional,” 22March 1997).

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Following the sting operation, a meeting withthe implicated parties was held at the GeneralMinistry of Government. At that meeting, theinhabitants of Charco Cercado voiced their needfor support from the government, includingassistance for electricity and water supply, andin development of poultry and pig farms.

A visit to Charco Cercado in December 2000confirmed that trade continues, with a largernumber of live snakes (rattlesnakes and others)observed being offered for trade than inprevious years (Reuter, pers. observ. 2000).Live snakes (Mexican bullsnake Pituophisdeppei, Black-tailed rattlesnake Crotalusmolossus, and Mojave rattlesnake C.scutulatus) were offered at prices ranging from50 to 150 MXP (approximately USD 4.50 to15), dried rattlesnakes were offered for 60 to160 MXP (approximately USD 5.50 to 16),and bottles containing either dried snake meator fat were offered for approximately 60 MXP(approximately USD 6). Live snakes were kept120 feet away from the roadside stand in aburied oil drum covered with wooden boards.Rattles were sold either still attached to thedried meat and skin or separately. In one ofthe stands, a man was also salting rattlesnakeskins. Skins were offered for sale to theresearcher, probably because the visit wasmade just after the snakes were skinned andhung to dry. Regular customers come to thearea and buy skins periodically for use in bootand belt making(Reuter, pers. observ. 2000).

5.3 Mexico City Marketplaces

Mexico City is an extremely important wildlifedistribution center. Much of this trade is donein or through established, indoor markets; themost important of these are the Mercado deSonora, the Mercado Nuevo San Lázaro, andthe Mercado Emilio Carranza, where exoticand native species, including several which arefound in the CDE, are offered for sale (Table4). Table 4 shows information gathered from10 years of visits to these markets by biologistGracia González Porter and should not beconsidered to be comprehensive. The uses ofthe species offered in Mexico City can be seenin Table 2. All of this trade is likely to beillegal, considering that these reptile speciesare not openly offered and the customer has toask very specifically about the particularspecies of interest before the dealer decideswhether to show what might be available.

6. International Trade from Mexico

Because Mexican law generally prohibits theexport of native reptiles, virtually all export oflive reptiles, reptile parts, and products fromMexico is illegal. There is no systematicprocess for compiling data on illegal wildlifeseized prior to export from Mexico. CITESdata are limited to the six CITES-listed reptilespecies (three tortoises, two box turtles, onesoftshell turtle).

The offer for sale of numerous CDE reptilespecies endemic to Mexico by reptile dealersoutside of Mexico, especially in the UnitedStates, indicates that illegal exports are takingplace. Although many of these species arenow bred in captivity within the United States,the original founder stock was likely exportedillegally from Mexico. Also, there arefrequent seizures of live reptiles, as well asparts and products, at the U.S./Mexico border.However, neither of these information sourcesgives a clear picture of the extent of exportsfrom Mexico.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s(USFWS’s) Law Enforcement ManagementInformation System (LEMIS) contains recordsof all declared wildlife imports to and exportsfrom the United States, as well as allintercepted illegal imports and exports. Giventhe United States’ proximity to Mexico, as wellas the enormous demand for exotic reptileswithin the United States, it is likely that theUnited States is the largest consumer ofreptiles exported from Mexico. As was statedabove, there is very little legal export of CDEreptiles from Mexico, so very few shipmentshave been declared to the USFWS. However,seizures of illegal exports from Mexico arefrequently made at U.S. border ports, and thoseexports are entered into LEMIS. Given thedifficulty of detecting illegal wildlife trade andthe likelihood that the majority of trade goesundetected by enforcement officials, availabletrade figures should be considered as minimumnumbers in trade.

However, not all LEMIS entries are recorded atthe species level. In many instances, the tradeis recorded at the genus or family level, orsimply as “non-CITES reptiles.” Table 5shows imports to the United States fromMexico of CDE reptiles, including live animalsas well as parts and products that wererecorded at the species level for 1996 through

43

2002. Given that much of the rattlesnake tradeis recorded only at the genus level, all Crotalusspp. entries were included in Table 5 as well.These entries generally consist of legal importsof scientific specimens, illegal imports oftourist curios, and illegal imports of liveanimals as pets.

It should be noted that there are numerousentries recorded at the genus level that mayinvolve CDE species. Because no conclusivedeterminations could be made regarding thespecies involved or their likely origins, theywere not included in the table, with the notableexception of rattlesnakes. Among the mostfrequently recorded trade at the genus levelwas illegal importation of rattlesnake productsof the genus Crotalus. Though much of thistrade likely involved specimens removed fromareas outside of the CDE, given the significantvolumes in trade, these data were included inthe analysis.

ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACTS OFCOLLECTION AND TRADE

Though available information is verylimited, some information indicates that a largenumber of CDE reptile species are exploitedfor domestic and international trade, and that

this exploitation may be a significant threat forat least some reptile species. At least 63% ofMexico’s CDE reptile species are found intrade, and more than 60% of those species areunder some category of risk.

Populations of some endemic species, such asthe black spiny softshell Apalone ater, Bolsontortoise Gopherus flavomarginatus, andCoahuilan box turtle Terrapene coahuila, havebeen severely impacted by a number of threats,including collection and trade. Like otherreptiles in the area (i.e., Lampropeltismexicana), their endemic status elevates them tovery profitable merchandise for collectors and“herpetoculturists” in international markets.

Demand for live rattlesnakes, skins, and partsfor use in traditional medicine appears to haveled to significant population reductions insome areas, such as Plateros, Zacatecas. Forexample, during a workshop on rattlesnakesorganized by PROFEPA, more than 20 peoplesought these snakes using a direct transecttechnique for three days in an area withsuitable habitat with no success (GonzálezPorter, pers. comm. to A. Reuter, May 2001).

Basic biological information on most of thesereptile species is scarce, making it difficult toevaluate the impact of collection and trade on

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Table 4. CDE reptile species offered in Mexico City markets

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME

1 Kinosternon hirtipes Rough-footed mud turtle2 K. integrum Mexican mud turtle3 Gopherus berlandieri Berlandier’s tortoise4 Trachemys scripta Pond slider5 Apalone spinifer Spiny softshell6 Thamnophis spp. Gartersnakes7 Nerodia spp. Watersnakes8 Sceloporus torquatus Crevice swift9 Phrynosoma orbiculare Mountain horned lizard10 Crotaphytus spp. Collared lizards11 Crotalus atrox Western diamond-backed rattlesnake12 C. scutulatus Mojave rattlesnake13 C. molossus Black-tailed rattlesnake14 Elaphe spp. Ratsnake15 Lampropeltis spp. Kingsnake16 Drymarchon corais Western indigo snake17 Masticophis flagellum Coachwhip

Source: (Gonzalez Porter, pers. comm. to A. Reuter, May 2001)

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Table 5. Legal and illegal imports to the United States of CDE reptilespecies from Mexico

Common Name Scientific Name 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Ornate box turtle Terrapene ornata 2 live 2 live 1 live 2 live

Pond slider Trachemys scripta 29 live 11 live 22 live 7 live 15 live 24 live 7 live

1 shell 5 shells 2 shells 1 stuffed 2 bodies 5 bodies

1 shell 1 shell 3 stuffed 1 bodyproduct product 1 unspec.

202 6 stuffedstuffed 1 carcass

Desert tortoise Gopherus agassizi 7 live 12 live 1 shell 4 live 4 live 2 liveproduct

1 shell 2 shell 1 carapace 1 carapaceproducts

Berlandier’s tortoise Gopherus berlandieri 2 live 2 live 1 live

Bolson tortoise Gopherus flavomarginatus 69 sci.spec.

Spiny softshell Apalone spinifer 2 sci. spec. 2 meat 1 live

Zebra-tailed lizard Callisaurus draconoides 3 sci. spec.

Texas banded gecko Coleonyx brevis 2 live

Western banded gecko Coleonyx variegatus 3 sci. spec.

Collared lizard Crotaphytus collaris 1 sci. spec.

Gila monster Heloderma suspectum 14 leather pieces

Texas horned lizard Phrynosoma cornutum 1 sci. spec. 1 live

Crevice spiny lizard Sceloporus poinsetti 8 sci. spec. 15 sci.spec.

Rose-bellied lizard Sceloporus variabilis 140 live 172 live

Common side-blotched lizard Uta stansburiana 18 sci. 2 bodies 23 sci.spec. spec.

Baird’s ratsnake Elaphe bairdi 6 live

Common kingsnake Lampropeltis getula 1 sci. spec.

Milksnake Lampropeltis triangulum 1 stuffed 1 sci. spec.

Coachwhip Masticophis flagellum 1 sci. spec.

Gopher snake Pituophis catenifer 1 sci. spec.

Mexican bullsnake Pituophis deppei 1 sci. spec.1 dead

Long-nosed snake Rhinocheilus lecontei 2 live

Ground snake Sonora semiannulata 2 sci. spec.

Western diamond-backed Crotalus atrox 2 skins 6 skins 1 skin 3 sci. spec. 3 skinrattlesnake 26 shoes 1 stuffed 1 skin pc.

1 meat 3 medicine

Rock rattlesnake Crotalus lepidus 10 live 2 live1 unsp.

Black-tailed rattlesnake Crotalus molossus 1 sci. spec. 2 sci. spec.

wild populations. This is compounded by thefact that these species face other threats in manyareas, such as habitat loss by deforestation,agriculture, overgrazing, exotic species intro-duction, pollution, and watershed depletion.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are made toensure that collection and trade are not a threatto CDE reptile species, as well as otherwildlife, in Mexico:

Enforcement:

1. Enforcement programs, which involvefrequent inspections of important tradecenters, should be enhanced to provide amore effective deterrent to illegal tradeactivities.

2. Wildlife inspector numbers should beincreased and specific training provided(e.g., species identification, reptile handling,etc.) to ensure more effective regulation ofthe large-scale trade in reptiles and otherwildlife.

3. Long-term investigations of reptile trafficnetworks, from their natural collecting areasto their final sale, are needed to fully

understand the extent and impacts of thistrade.

4. Protocols for disposing of confiscatedwildlife, products, and byproducts,emphasizing the proper maintenance andhandling of live specimens, including thecreation of centers devoted to dealing withlive confiscated wildlife, should bedeveloped as a priority.

Management:

5. The UMA system should be assessed todetermine whether sufficient controls andmonitoring mechanisms are in place. If so,the system should be promoted, especiallywith regard to captive production of reptiles.These efforts should focus on threatenedspecies that are in significant demand forpets or other uses. Other UMA effortsmight include exhibits, ecotourism, andreintroduction programs.

6. Expanded knowledge of the biology andsize of the populations of these species isimperative, especially for threatened andheavily collected species.

7. Standardized gathering and reporting ofwildlife collection and trade information

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Table 5: Legal and illegal imports to the United States of CDE reptilespecies from Mexico (continued)

Common Name Scientific Name 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Twin-spotted rattlesnake Crotalus pricei 3 live

Mojave rattlesnake Crotalus scutulatus 50 gm medicine

Prairie rattlesnake Crotalus viridis 1 sci. spec. 1 sci. spec. 1 sci. spec.

1 leather product

Ridge-nosed rattlesnake Crotalus willardi 8 live

Rattlesnakes Crotalus spp. 5 meat 5 carcass 8 skins 200 gm 1 carcass 1 meat 3 meatmedicine

2 carcass 4 skins 2 carcass 1 skin 1 meat 1 body 1 kg meat

7 stuffed 6 shoes 2 shoes 1 unsp. 1 skin 2 bodies

1 kg unsp. 7 unsp. 1 meat 5 live

10 skins 1 stuffed 1 unsp.

52 items 1 stuffedmedicine

50 gm medicine

Source: derived from USFWS LEMIS data.

(investigations, seizures, repatriations,prosecutions, etc.) and greater facilitation ofinformation exchange and consultationamong government offices and other partiesare greatly needed.

8. Rehabilitation and release programs forseized animals, based on scientific data onthe biology and distribution of each species,taking into account the potential for disease,

genetic pollution, and other risks to wildpopulations, should be developed.

Education:

9. Environmental education programs focusingon local communities should be developed,to increase awareness of Mexican laws andpromote the value of these communities’natural resources.

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48

Assessment of theCollection, Trade, andRegulation of Reptiles andAmphibians from the CDEin the United States

INTRODUCTIONThere are numerous examples of the exploita-tion of reptiles and amphibians native to theUnited States to supply the demand for food,pets, leather, curios, and other items. Many ofthese activities and species have been welldocumented, such as the American alligatorAlligator mississippiensis, sea turtlesCheloniidae, alligator snapping turtleMacroclemys temminckii, box turtles Terrapenespp., and timber rattlesnake Crotalus horridus(see, for example, Fleming, 2001; Hoover,1998; Fitzgerald and Painter, 2000; Pritchard,1989). Though dozens of other reptile andamphibian species are exploited throughout theUnited States, little is known about the extentof these activities or their impacts on wildpopulations. This is particularly true for thelarge number of small lizards and snakes suchas those found in the CDE.

METHODSInformation on state and federal laws pertainingto the collection and trade of amphibians andreptiles from the U.S. portion of the CDE wascompiled through a query of state wildlifemanagement agencies in Arizona, New Mexico,and Texas, and review of federal statutes andregulations.

To gather data on domestic U.S. trade levels,data from the Texas Parks and WildlifeDepartment county-based database of nongamecollectors and dealers for 1999 were analyzed.In this analysis, we broadly defined the CDE toinclude all counties that existed entirely or inpart in the CDE, as well as those adjacent toand containing habitat characteristic of theCDE. Counties west of the Pecos River and inthe CDE included: El Paso, Hudspeth,Culberson, Reeves, Jeff Davis, Pecos, Terrell,

Presidio, and Brewster. The following countieslie east of the Pecos River but contain habitatcharacteristic of the CDE: Crockett, Val Verde,Kinney, and Maverick. The following countiesnorth of the Pecos River extend to the city ofLubbock and were included in our analysisbecause species reported from that region alsooccur in parts of the CDE: Ward, Crane, Upton,Winkler, Ector, Midland, Andrews, Fisher,Jones, Yoakum, Lynn, Garza, Hockley, andLubbock. Only counties where collectingactivity was reported were listed (Figure 4).

To compile anecdotal information on tradelevels, use, and enforcement, we interviewedNational Park Rangers, game wardens, agencybiologists, academic biologists, hobbyists, andcollectors. Names and responses of individualsare not listed in the report in order to preservethe interviewees’ anonymity. We asked eachinterviewee the following questions:

• What are the amphibians and reptiles thatare traded? Are snakes, lizards, and frogstraded, and, if so, what species?

• How many animals do you think may beinvolved in the trade of amphibians andreptiles from CDE?

• How many collectors do you think areinvolved?

• What are the most important areas forcollecting?

• Do you think collecting is a problem?

We also asked enforcement personnel howmany incidents there had been in whichcollectors were caught, and what the outcomesof those incidents had been.

To compile information on international tradein CDE species, we obtained and analyzedwildlife import/export data compiled by theUSFWS’s Division of Law Enforcement.

Common names are used throughout the text ofthis report. However, to assure accuracy, thecurrent scientific name is also given the firsttime a common name is used.

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CHAPTER 2

RESULTS

1. State and Federal Laws Pertaining toCollection and Trade

1.1 New Mexico

All native, free-ranging amphibians and reptilesin New Mexico, except those collected inrattlesnake roundups, for fish bait, or for lizardraces, are classified as protected nongamewildlife for commercial taking purposes(Section 17-2-4.2 New Mexico StatutesAnnotated 1978). (“rattlesnake roundups”are defined as an organized public event wherethe purpose is to display, buy, sell, and traderattlesnakes of the genus Crotalus; “fish bait”is limited to the aquatic larval stage of the tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum; and“lizard races” are the organized, competitiveracing of any lizard not listed as threatened orendangered.) It is unlawful for any person totake native, free-ranging amphibians andreptiles in New Mexico for commercialpurposes without purchasing and having in theirpossession a valid commercial collecting permit.

In addition, nonresidents must purchase andhave in their possession a nonresident huntinglicense as called for under Section 17-3-13NMSA 1978 for the year in which the taking isdone. Exceptions include: 1) when there is anemergency situation involving an immediatethreat to human life or private property, rattle-snakes may be captured, removed, or destroyedwithout a permit; 2) no permit is necessary forthe take of free-ranging amphibians and reptilesfor the purposes of rattlesnake roundups, fishbait, or lizard races; 3) all other species ofsnake (other than rattlesnakes) collected anddisplayed for rattlesnake roundups shall not bebought, sold, or traded unless the personcollecting such snakes is in possession of acommercial take permit; and 4) amphibians andreptiles held in captivity prior to July 1, 2001and their progeny are not subject to theseregulations. A list of native, free-rangingamphibians and reptiles known to occur in thestate of New Mexico wherein take is allowed,with the annual bag limit for each, must beestablished and maintained by the Director ofthe New Mexico Department of Game and Fish(Director’s Amphibian and Reptile List). It isunlawful to exceed the annual bag limit of anyspecies of amphibian or reptile listed on theDirector’s Amphibian and Reptile List for the

current year of the license. Each person whopurchases a Commercial Collecting Permit isrequired to file a year-end report on astandardized form approved by the NewMexico Department of Game and Fish.

All species of amphibians and reptiles listed asthreatened or endangered by the New MexicoState Game Commission are protected fromtake. These species are listed in Table 6.

The only unit within the New MexicoDepartment of Game and Fish that is chargedwith the management of nongame amphibiansand reptiles is the Endangered Species Programin the Conservation Services Division, whichhas responsibility for research, conservation,and management of listed species.

During the 41st Legislature, Second Session1994, Senate Memorial 27 was passedrequesting the State Game Commission tocompile information on the extent of thecommercial trade in amphibians and reptiles andto recommend additional legislation to protectthese species. That memorial was completedduring December 1994 (Appendix 2). At least52 species or approximately 43% of the nativeamphibians and reptiles in New Mexico werereported to be commercially exploited.

1.2 Texas

Prior to implementation of a permit system inTexas, nongame wildlife (including reptiles and amphibians) could be collected and soldwith a valid hunting license. By the late 1990s, anecdotal and substantiated reports ofcommercial use of unregulated nongamewildlife were common, and purported numbersof animals taken from the wild seemedalarming in some cases. The trade in liveblack-tailed prairie dogs Cynomysludovicianus, and wild-caught amphibians and reptiles of all species was at the forefrontof discussions, but numbers were impossible to corroborate or interpret. Despite the statedmission of the Texas Parks and WildlifeDepartment (TPWD) — to manage the state'swildlife so that a viable and harvestablepopulation is maintained — it was unclearwhether collection of certain nongame specieswas great enough to affect the sustainability ofwild populations. The goal of TPWD was toobtain a baseline dataset of the levels ofcommercial use of nongame wildlife (all

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Table 6. Amphibians and reptiles native to the CDE listed as threatenedor endangered or otherwise fully protected by New Mexico StateGame Commission Statute

CAUDATA SALAMANDERS

Family PlethodontidaeAneides hardii Sacramento mountains salamander

SALIENTIA FROGS AND TOADS

Family BufonidaeBufo alvarius Colorado River toad

Family MicrohylidaeGastrophryne olivacea Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad

Family RanidaeRana chiricahuensisT Chiricahua leopard frog Rana yavapaiensis Lowland leopard frog

TESTUDINES TURTLES

Family EmydidaePseudemys gorzugi Rio Grande cooter

SAURIA LIZARDS

Family PhrynosomatidaePhrynosoma cornutum Texas horned lizardPhrynosoma hernandesi Greater short-horned lizardPhrynosoma modestum Round-tailed horned lizardPhrynosoma solare Regal horned lizardSceloporus arenicolus Dunes sagebrush lizardSceloporus slevini Slevin’s bunchgrass lizard

Family TeiidaeCnemidophorus burti Canyon spotted whiptailCnemidophorus dixoni Gray checkered whiptail

Family ScincidaeEumeces callicephalus Mountain skink

Family HelodermatidaeHeloderma suspectum Gila monster

SERPENTES SNAKES

Family ColubridaeLampropeltis alterna Gray-banded kingsnakeNerodia erythrogaster Plain-bellied watersnakeSenticolis triaspis Green ratsnakeThamnophis eques Mexican gartersnakeThamnophis proximus Western ribbon snakeThamnophis rufipunctatus Narrow-headed gartersnake

Family ViperidaeCrotalus lepidus lepidus Mottled rock rattlesnakeCrotalus willardi obscurusT New Mexico ridgenose rattlesnake

Note: Common names follow Crother et al. (2000). Those species marked with “T” are listed by the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service as Threatenedunder the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

species, not just amphibians and reptiles)through a permit/reporting system. The TPWD website (http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/news/news/faq/faqnongame.htm) explains theregulations and reasoning for this nongamepermit system as follows: “These regulationswere created by the department to gatherinformation on pressures exerted on nongamepopulations because of take by hobbyists andother collectors such as commercial dealers.Anecdotal evidence has indicated that in somecases, collection of certain nongame species isgreat enough to possibly affect the overallsustainability of wild populations. It isTPWD's mission to manage the state's wildlifeso that a viable and harvestable population ismaintained.”

Nongame regulations were put into place inTexas in 1998 after more than two years ofstudy, planning, and public hearings. Imple-mentation of the system was controversialamong amateur herpetologists, regionalherpetological societies, prairie dog collectorsand dealers, agency biologists, and managers.These regulations resulted in the creation of apermit system that requires commercial users ofnongame wildlife to register their activities andfile annual reports.

Regulations (Appendix 3) limit individuals topossession of 10 specimens of a species and 25total individuals without a commercialcollection or dealer permit. To sell or tradeanimals previously purchased requires aResident or Nonresident Nongame Dealer’sPermit. A Resident or Nonresident NongameCollection Permit is required to sell or tradeanimals that were collected in the wild or bredin captivity. Collection of nongame wildlifealso requires a Texas hunting license. Acommercial collection permit is required to sellor trade nongame species, even if a collectordid not exceed the possession limit.

The possession limit of 10 specimens/species,25 total specimens was created as an enforce-ment mechanism for the nongame regulations.If an individual possesses more than the limit, itis assumed that the individual is involved insome type of commercial activity. Thepossession limit was not designed to managepopulations or constrain current levels of use.

There are exceptions to the nongame reg-ulations that should be considered when

evaluating the collection and trade ofamphibians and reptiles. According to theTPWD website: “(f)inally processed productsmade from parts of wildlife are also exemptfrom permit requirements. These products aredefined in regulation as parts of nongamewildlife that do not require treatment to prevent decomposition (rattlesnake rattles, forexample) or which have been treated by meansother than refrigeration or freezing to preventdecomposition. Albinos or animals possessedunder a bait dealer's license are exempt fromnongame permit requirements. Persons aged 16and younger and grade school teachersprovided they are not engaged in commercialactivities [are exempt from permitrequirements], as are establishments sellingnongame for immediate consumption inindividual portions, not refrigerated or frozen”(TPWD, 2000, http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/news/news/faq/faqnongame.htm).

Under current regulations, establishmentsselling reptiles such as turtles, westerndiamond-backed rattlesnakes Crotalus atrox,and other snakes processed into curios andclothes are exempt from permit requirements,as are establishments selling meat or parts fromturtles, frogs, and snakes for immediateconsumption. However, removal of theseanimals from the wild for commercial purposesrequires a nongame collector permit, thusmaking it possible to monitor take of thespecies. Tiger salamanders Ambystomatigrinum are commercially traded as fishbaitand can be collected and sold under a baitdealer’s license. It is unclear whether thenumber of salamanders collected and sold bybait dealers is monitored and linked to thenongame reporting system.

The TPWD nongame permit system requirespermit holders to file reports by September 15th

of each year. The first reporting year for thenongame permit system was 1999. Thereporting information pertaining to the CDEwas analyzed and is included below in thesection on Domestic Trade (R. Roegner, pers.comm. to L.A. Fitzgerald, September 2000).

1.3 Arizona

Reptiles and amphibians have legal status inArizona (Appendix 4). A fishing license isrequired for collection of amphibians and spinysoftshell turtles Apalone spinifera; a hunting

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license is required for collection of all otherreptiles. Collection allows personal use only.With few exceptions, all commercial activitiesinvolving native reptiles and amphibians areprohibited. There is no open season onTarahumara frog Rana tarahumarae, plainsleopard frog R. blairi, Chiricahua leopard frogR. chiricahuensis, northern leopard frog R.pipiens, lowland leopard frog R. yavapaiensis,relict leopard frog R. onca, and RamseyCanyon leopard frog R. subaquavocalis.Several amphibians are legal to collect inArizona. Bag and possession limits of 10individuals per day, live or dead, apply to theGreat Plains toad Bufo cognatus, red-spottedtoad B. punctatus, Couch's spadefootScaphiopus couchii, and Mexican spadefootSpea multiplicata. Tiger salamanders may becollected without limit, live or dead, except inportions of Santa Cruz and Cochise counties inorder to protect the Threatened Sonoran tigersalamander Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi, anon-CDE subspecies (R. Murray, pers. comm.).Clawed frogs Xenopus spp. and giant toads B.marinus are exotics in the West, though onlythe former is known to be established in thewestern United States (McCoid and Kleberg,1995). These species may be collected andpossessed dead, without limit. Bullfrogs R.catesbeiana have a live possession limit of 12,although collecting them is restricted in a fewnational wildlife refuges.

The bag and possession limit for most reptilesin Arizona is four per year, live or dead. Thebag and possession limit for rosy boa Lichanuratrivirgata, green rat snake Senticolis triaspis,Sonoran Mountain kingsnake Lampropeltispyromelana, and milk snake L. triangulum istwo per year or four in possession, live or dead.A variety of small-bodied, widespread, lizardand snake species have bag and possessionlimits of 20 per day in the aggregate (Appendix4). Spiny softshell turtles may be possessedwithout limit, although there are 22 areas(reservoirs, stream reaches, river reaches)specified where collecting is not allowed(Appendix 4). Red-eared sliders Trachemysscripta, and members of the family Chelydridae(snapping turtles) may be possessed deadwithout limit. There is a closed season for rockrattlesnake Crotalus lepidus, twin-spottedrattlesnake C. pricei, ridgenose rattlesnake C.willardi, massasauga Sistrurus catenatus, flat-

tail horned lizard Phrynosoma mcallii, Gilamonster Heloderma suspectum, and deserttortoise Gopherus agassizii.

However, A.R.S. Sec. 17-371 indicates under“Transportation” that “Heads, horns, antlers,hides, feet or skin of wildlife lawfully taken,or the treated or mounted specimens thereof,may be possessed, sold and transported at anytime . . .” So, there is some opportunity forcommercialization of a limited number ofreptile species parts or products.

1.4 Federal Laws

Federal regulation of reptile harvest and trade is fairly limited, given that most activitiesinvolving non-migratory wildlife are left to thestates to regulate. However, federal laws andregulations do apply to several areas, includinginterstate and international movement ofreptiles and amphibians, and activitiesinvolving federally listed threatened andendangered species. The following text in thissection is excerpted from The U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Division of Law Enforcement:A Review of the Program PrimarilyResponsible for Enforcing CITES (Hoover andTarr, 1997). Two federal statutes provide thefoundation for federal regulation of reptiles andamphibians, as well as other wildlife species, inthe United States. In order of enactment, theyare the Lacey Act of 1900, and the EndangeredSpecies Act of 1973. CITES is specificallyimplemented by certain provisions of theEndangered Species Act, while the other lawsprovide related and complementary legalstandards. These and other relevant laws andregulations are summarized as follows:

Lacey Act. The Lacey Act, 16 U.S.C. §3371 etseq., prohibits:

(a) the import, export, transport, sale, receipt,acquisition or purchase of fish, wildlife, orplants taken, possessed or sold in violationof any wildlife law, treaty, or regulation ofthe U.S., or in violation of any Indian triballaw; it also prohibits attempts to committhese acts.

(b) the import, export, transport, acquisition,receipt, sale, or purchase in interstate orforeign commerce of any fish or wildlifetaken, possessed, transported, or sold inviolation of any wildlife law or regulation

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of any state, or in violation of any foreignwildlife law; it also prohibits attempts tocommit these acts.

In addition, the Lacey Act prohibits theattempted or actual falsification ofinformation, records, or accounts regardingspecies that have been imported, exported,transported, sold, purchased, or received ininterstate or foreign commerce. The LaceyAct makes it illegal to import, export, ortransport in interstate commerce, anycontainer or package containing fish orwildlife unless it has "previously been plainlymarked, labeled, or tagged" in accordancewith USFWS marking regulations; authorizesthe USFWS to detain any package orcontainer (and accompanying papers) beingimported into or exported from the UnitedStates; and places the USFWS in charge ofenforcing the law requiring the humaneshipment of live wildlife transported to theUnited States.

An individual convicted of violating the LaceyAct may be imprisoned for up to one year andfined up to USD 100 000 for a misdemeanoroffense, and up to five years and USD 250 000for a felony offense. Fines for organizationsthat violate the Lacey Act are USD 250 000 fora misdemeanor and USD 500 000 for a felony.

Endangered Species Act. The EndangeredSpecies Act, 16 U.S.C. §1531 et seq., makes itillegal for any person subject to U.S. juris-diction to import, export, deliver, receive,carry, transport, ship, sell, or offer for sale ininterstate commerce and in the course of acommercial activity, any species of plant oranimal that has been listed as threatened orendangered pursuant to the Act. The Act alsomakes it unlawful to take any listed specieswithin the United States or its territorial seas.Certain exceptions to these prohibitions may beauthorized by permit.

There are currently four reptile species, onereptile subspecies, and one amphibian speciesfound in the CDE that are listed as Threatened(T) or Endangered (E) under the U.S.Endangered Species Act. These are: Bolsontortoise Gopherus flavomarginatus (T), Deserttortoise Gopherus agassizi (T), Black spiny

softshell Apalone ater (E), Coahuilan box turtleTerrapene coahuila (E), New Mexicanridgenose rattlesnake Crotalus willardiobscurus (T), and Chiricahua leopard frogRana chiricahuensis (T).

Violators of the Endangered Species Act aresubject to imprisonment for up to one year, andfines of up to USD 100 000. Organizationsmay be fined up to USD 200 000.

The U.S. Endangered Species Act also serves asthe implementing legislation for CITES.Several provisions of the Act pertain specificallyto wildlife trade control and CITES.

CITES Violations. Section 9(c) of the U.S.Endangered Species Act makes it unlawful forany person to engage in the trade of anyspecimens of wildlife or plants contrary to theprovisions of CITES, or to possess anyspecimens "traded contrary to the provisions ofthe Convention."1 The USFWS Division ofLaw Enforcement has primary responsibilityfor controlling trade in wildlife.

Regulations. Section 11(f) of the U.S.Endangered Species Act authorizes theSecretaries of Interior, Treasury, andTransportation to promulgate any regulationsappropriate to enforce the Act. The USFWSpromulgated 50 CFR Part 17 to enforce theEndangered Species Act, and 50 CFR Part 23to enforce CITES.

Criminal Code. Several provisions of theCriminal Code (Title 18, United States Code)are routinely used by Federal prosecutors inconjunction with wildlife laws to prosecutewildlife trade violations. In major casesinvolving illegal commerce in wildlife, theDepartment of Justice may seek to obtain anindictment and criminal penalties for violationsof Title 18 in addition to penalties for violationsof wildlife laws.

The principal Title 18 provisions used toprosecute violations of CITES are as follows:

"Document" Smuggling. 18 U.S.C. 542 makesit illegal to import or otherwise enter merchan-dise into the United States by means of false orfraudulent declarations or documents, or bymeans of any false oral or written statement.Violation of the statute by an individual is

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1Mere possesion of an unlawfully imported specimen is illegal under the act (see 50 CFR Part 23); however, the USFWSmust prove that the specimen was illegally imported to obtain a conviction for possession.

punishable by up to three years imprisonmentand a fine of up to USD 250 000.

Clandestine Smuggling. Under 18 U.S.C. 545,it is illegal to knowingly and willfully import orclandestinely introduce into the United Statesany merchandise contrary to law. It is alsoillegal to buy, sell, receive, conceal, or facilitatethe transportation of merchandise that hasillegally entered the United States. Violation ofthis provision by an individual is punishable byup to six years imprisonment and a fine of upto USD 250 000.

False Statements. 18 U.S.C. 1001 makes itillegal to knowingly and willfully falsify amaterial fact, or make a false or fraudulentstatement or entry. This section is often filed inconjunction with 18 U.S.C. 542 above.Individual violators may be imprisoned for upto six years and fined up to USD 250 000.

Conspiracy. Under 18 U.S.C. 371, when twoor more persons conspire to commit anyoffense against the United States, or to defraudthe United States, and one of the conspiratorscommits any act to implement the conspiracy,each conspirator may be punished byimprisonment of up to six years and a fine ofup to USD 250 000.

1.5 Protected Areas in the United States(national parks, refuges, state parks,management areas)

There are numerous protected areas that areentirely within or overlap with the CDE in theUnited States. These areas include nationalwildlife refuges, parks, monuments, historicsites, and recreation areas, as well as state

parks, refuges, and monuments. The degree towhich wildlife is protected within these areasvaries, depending on the agencies that regulatethose areas and the activities permitted onthose lands. All collecting is illegal in allnational parks, state parks, and state andfederal refuges and other protected lands in theCDE without a specific permit from the stateor federal agency charged with management ofeach particular area.

2. Reptile and Amphibian SpeciesFound in Trade

Table 7 lists CDE species in the United Statesthat are found in trade, or likely to be traded,with the commercial use corresponding to eachspecies, including 62 species from the CDE inTexas that were collected and reported bynongame permit holders in 1999.

Gila monsters Heloderma suspectum appear inthe trade both domestically and abroad, andespecially in Europe and Japan. Professionaland amateur herpetoculturists who specialize inthese lizards became successful at breedingthem in the 1980s and 1990s. Gila monstersbred in captivity are sold on the internationalmarket. Collection of helodermatids is illegalthroughout their range in the United States andMexico, and there are only anecdotal reports ofpoaching of Gila monsters.

3. Collecting MethodsAlthough no quantitative data exist, it is likelythat widely accepted herpetological collectingtechniques are commonly used in the CDE.Nocturnal road cruising is probably how mostsnakes are collected, although large numbers

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Table 7. Native amphibians and reptiles of the CDE that are known orexpected to be taken for sale or personal use

SALAMANDERS

Family AmbystomatidaeAmbystoma tigrinum 1, 2 Tiger salamander fishbait as larvae; pets as adult

FROGS AND TOADS

Family PelobatidaeScaphiopus couchii 2 Couch’s spadefoot petsSpea bombifrons 2 Plains spadefoot pets

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Table 7. Native amphibians and reptiles of the CDE that are known orexpected to be taken for sale or personal use (continued)

Family LeptodactylidaeEleutherodactylus augusti Barking frog petsSyrrhophus marnocki Cliff chirping frog pets

Family BufonidaeBufo alvarius1 Colorado River toad pets; drug tradeBufo cognatus 2 Great Plains toad pets; garden pests controlBufo debilis 2 Green toad petsBufo punctatus 1, 2 Red-spotted toad petsBufo speciosus 2 Texas toad pets; garden pests controlBufo woodhousii 1, 2 Woodhouse’s toad pets; garden pests control

Family HylidaeHyla arenicolor 2 Canyon treefrog pets

Family RanidaeRana berlandieri Rio Grande leopard frog high sch. lab dissection Rana blairi Plains leopard frog high sch. lab dissection Rana catesbeiana Bullfrog larvae and adults to stock

fish ponds

TURTLES

Family ChelydridaeChelydra serpentina Snapping turtle food

Family EmydidaeChrysemys picta 1 Painted turtle pets, foodPseudemys concinna River cooter pets, foodPseudemys gorzugi 1, 3 Rio Grande cooter pets, foodTerrapene ornata 2 Ornate box turtle pets; races; pest controlTrachemys gaigeae Big Bend slider petsTrachemys scripta 1 Pond slider pets

Family KinosternonidaeKinosternon flavescens 2 Yellow mud turtle petsKinosternon hirtipes Rough-footed mud turtle petsKinosternon sonoriense Sonoran mud turtle pets

Family TestudinidaeGopherus agassizi Desert tortoise petsGopherus berlandieri Berlandier’s tortoise pets

Family TrionychidaeApalone spinifer Spiny softshell pets; food

LIZARDS

Family CrotaphytidaeCrotaphytus collaris 1, 2 Collared lizard petsCrotaphytus reticulatus Reticulate collared lizard petsGambelia wislizenii 1, 2 Leopard lizard pets

Family PhrynosomatidaeCallisaurus draconoides 1 Zebra-tailed lizard pets; snake foodCophosaurus texanus 1 Greater earless lizard pets; snake foodHolbrookia maculata Common lesser snake food

earless lizardPhrynosoma cornutum 1 Texas horned lizard petsPhrynosoma hernandesi Greater short-horned pets

lizardPhrynosoma modestum 1, 2 Round-tailed horned pets

lizardPhrynosoma solare Regal horned lizard petsSceloporus clarkii 1 Clark’s spiny lizard petsSceloporus cyanogenys Blue spiny lizard petsSceloporus jarrovii 1 Mountain spiny lizard petsSceloporus magister 2 Desert spiny lizard petsSceloporus merriami Canyon lizard petsSceloporus olivaceus Texas spiny lizard petsSceloporus poinsetti 1, 2 Crevice spiny lizard petsSceloporus undulatus ssp. 1, 2 Fence/Prairie lizard(s) pets; snake foodSceloporus variabilis Rose-bellied lizard petsSceloporus virgatus 1 Striped plateau lizard pets; snake foodUma exsul Fringe-toed sand lizard pets; snake foodUrosaurus ornatus 1, 2 Ornate tree lizard snake foodUta stansburiana 1, 2 Common side-blotched snake food

lizard

Family GekkonidaeColeonyx brevis 1, 2 Texas banded gecko petsColeonyx reticulatus Reticulate banded gecko petsColeonyx variegatus Western banded gecko pets

Family TeiidaeCnemidophorus exsanguis 2 Chihuahuan spotted pets; snake food

whiptailCnemidophorus gularis Eastern spotted whiptail pets; snake foodCnemidophorus inornatus 2 Little striped whiptail pets; snake foodCnemidophorus neomexicanus 2 New Mexico whiptail pets; snake foodCnemidophorus sexlineatus Six-lined racerunner pets; snake foodCnemidophorus tesselatus 1 Common checkered pets; snake food

whiptailCnemidophorus tigris 1, 2 Tiger whiptail pets; snake food

Family ScincidaeEumeces callicephalus Mountain skink petsEumeces multivirgatus Many-lined skink petsEumeces obsoletus 1, 2 Great Plains skink petsEumeces tetragrammus Four-lined skink petsScincella lateralis 2 Little ground skink pets

Family AnguidaeElgaria kingii 1 Madrean alligator lizard petsGerrhonotus liocephalus Texas alligator lizard pets

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Family XantusidaeXantusia vigilis Desert night lizard pets

Family HelodermatidaeHeloderma suspectum 1 Gila monster pets

SNAKES

Family LeptotyphlopidaeLeptotyphlops dulcis Plains threadsnake snake foodLeptotyphlops humilis Western threadsnake snake food

Family ColubridaeArizona elegans 1, 2 Glossy snake petsBogertophis subocularis 1, 2 Trans-Pecos ratsnake petsColuber constrictor Eastern Racer petsDiadophis punctatus 2 Ring-necked snake pets; snake foodDrymarchon corais Western indigo snake petsDrymobius margaritiferus Speckled racer petsElaphe bairdi 2 Baird’s ratsnake petsElaphe guttata 1, 2 Cornsnake petsElaphe obsoleta 2 Eastern ratsnake petsHeterodon nasicus 1, 2 Western hog-nosed pets

snakeHypsiglena torquata Nightsnake pets; snake foodLampropeltis alterna 1, 2 Gray-banded kingsnake petsLampropeltis getula 1, 2 Common kingsnake petsLampropeltis mexicana San Luis Potosi pets

kingsnakeLampropeltis pyromelana 1 Sonoran Mountain pets

kingsnakeLampropeltis triangulum 1, 2 Milksnake petsLeptodeira septentrionalis Cat-eyed snake petsMasticophis flagellum 1, 2 Coachwhip petsMasticophis taeniatus 1, 2 Striped whipsnake petsNerodia erythrogaster Plain-bellied watersnake petsNerodia rhombifer Diamond-backed pets

watersnakeOpheodrys aestivus Rough greensnake petsPituophis catenifer 1, 2 Gopher snake petsRhinocheilus lecontei 1, 2 Long-nosed snake petsSalvadora grahamiae 1, 2 Eastern patch-nosed pets

snakeSalvadora deserticola 2 Big Bend patch-nosed pets

snakeSenticolis triaspis 1 Green ratsnake petsSonora semiannulata Ground snake pets; snake foodTantilla hobartsmithi 1 Smith’s black-headed snake food

snakeTantilla nigriceps 1 Plains black-headed snake food

snakeTantilla cucullata Trans-Pecos snake food

black-headed snake

Thamnophis cyrtopsis 2 Black-necked petsgartersnake

Thamnophis elegans 1 Wandering gartersnake petsThamnophis eques Mexican gartersnake petsThamnophis marcianus 2 Checkered gartersnake petsThamnophis proximus 1, 2 Western ribbon snake petsThamnophis rufipunctatus Narrow-headed pets

gartersnakeThamnophis sirtalis Common gartersnake petsTrimorphodon biscutatus Western lyresnake pets

Family ElapidaeMicruroides euryxanthus Sonoran coral snake petsMicrurus fulvius 2 Texas coral snake pets; rattlesnake roundups

Family ViperidaeAgkistrodon contortrix 2 Copperhead petsCrotalus atrox 1, 2 Western diamond-backed pets; rattlesnake roundups; fashion

rattlesnake apparel; trinkets; gall bladders;venom research

Crotalus lepidus 1, 2 Rock rattlesnake pets; rattlesnake roundups; fashion apparel; trinkets; gall bladders

Crotalus molossus 1, 2 Black-tailed rattlesnake pets; rattlesnake roundups; fashion apparel; gall bladders

Crotalus pricei Twin-spotted rattlesnake petsCrotalus scutulatus Mojave rattlesnake pets; venom researchCrotalus viridis 1, 2 Prairie rattlesnake pets; rattlesnake roundups; fashion

apparel; trinkets; gall bladders;venom research

Crotalus willardi ssp. 1 Ridge-nosed rattlesnake petsSistrurus catenatus 1, 2 Massasauga pets; rattlesnake roundups; fashion

apparel; trinkets; gall bladders

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1 Species confirmed to enter the pet trade in New Mexico. Charles W. Painter collected these data during 1994 when compiling a list of NewMexico species for a legislative memorial to investigate the commercial amphibian and reptile trade in New Mexico. All are documentedthrough newspaper clippings, shipping invoices, communication with dealers, collectors, or Game Wardens, etc.

2 Species known to enter the trade in Texas; TPWD database (Table 8). 3 Not listed in the TPWD database for 1999, but mentioned in Dixon (2000). Other species in this list are included based on international trade

data, professional opinion or verification through communication with reliable sources since publication of the New Mexico legislativememorial. Regarding inclusion of similar species, if one species of Cnemidophorus was documented as entering the trade, it is likely that allwide-ranging species would also be exploited. We did not include geographically restricted species such as C. dixoni or C. laredoensis that,to our knowledge, are not considered prized by collectors.

of gartersnakes may be collected at hiber-nacula or during the day in suitable aquatichabitat. Horned lizards are vulnerable tocollection along roads and may also be pickedup during morning or late afternoon roadcruising. Other lizards are mostly collected byhand or noosing while walking throughsuitable habitat, or in trapping arrays.Locations of specific trapping arrays used bycollectors are unknown, but two hobbyistsinterviewed referred to a professional collector

near El Paso who operates pitfall arrays. Thisanecdote is supported by the fact that themajority of CDE herps collected in Texasoriginated in El Paso and Hudspeth Counties.

Common side-blotched lizards Utastansburiana, marbled whiptailsCnemidophorus tigris marmoratus, and greaterearless lizards Cophosaurus texanus werecollected in large numbers (Table 8, Table 9),and are vulnerable to pitfall trapping. Boxturtles are collected by hand, with trained dogs,

by diurnal road cruising, and in pitfall traps.Yellow mud turtles sometimes occur in highdensity in stock tanks or isolated pools inarroyos, and can be collected in large numbersby hand, with a seine, or in funnel traps.Cooters and sliders are usually trapped in hoopnets or other funnel-type net or wire meshtraps, baited with sardines, canned dog food,cabbage, or watermelon rinds. Frogs and toadsare vulnerable at their breeding sites during andafter rains and can be collected at night in largenumbers by hand.

4. Collecting Areas4.1 Arizona

Though commercial collecting is prohibited inArizona, recreational collecting is permittedwith a valid hunting license. Collecting oftenoccurs along roads, especially in CochiseCounty. Some target species, such as SonoranMountain kingsnakes Lampropeltis pyromelana,are also collected by hiking the “sky islands”within the CDE. Illegal collection of protectedspecies, such as ridge-nosed rattlesnakesCrotalus willardi, rock rattlesnakes C. lepidus,twin-spotted rattlesnakes C. pricei, andmassasaugas Sistrurus catenatus occurs usingthe same methods and areas (Averill-Murray,pers. comm.).

4.2 New Mexico

Roads that are not within protected areas (parksand wildlife management areas) are the primarycollecting sites for most collectors.

Although many species of amphibians andreptiles are collected opportunistically, mostcommercial collecting in New Mexico andTexas occurs in areas that are well known forthe desirable species likely to be encountered inthe area. Most of the isolated mountain rangesin southern New Mexico are believed to bevisited by commercial collectors. The primarycollecting areas in New Mexico include: DarkCanyon Road and Sitting Bull Falls Road in theGuadalupe Mountains near Carlsbad; the OrganMountains near Las Cruces; the FloridaMountains near Deming; higher elevations ofthe Black Range in the vicinity of Hillsboro;the Magdalena Mountains near Magdalena; thevicinity of the Gila Wilderness; and thePeloncillo Mountains, especially at the higherelevations and along NM Hwy 9 and NM Hwy

80. In central New Mexico, areas around Belenand Socorro are well known for desert king-snakes and massasauga. New Mexico milk-snakes are often collected in central NewMexico in the vicinity of Corona, Willard, andVaughan. One commercial collector whoobtains hundreds of lizards collects mostlyaround Artesia and in areas southeast ofRoswell. Most commercial exploitation ofaquatic turtles in New Mexico occurs at theElephant Butte, Caballo, Ft. Sumner, Brantley,and Conchas reservoirs and in the Pecos andBlack Rivers. Western river cooters, Big Bendsliders, red-eared sliders, and spiny softshellsare all documented in the trade. Box turtles arecollected from numerous sandy areas in south-east New Mexico and adjacent Texas for entryinto the Box Turtle races held annually at theCurry County Fair in the town of Clovis.

4.3 Texas

In Texas, most collecting for the commercialtrade of CDE herps occurs in the Trans-Pecosregion. It is illegal to collect wildlife from avehicle in Texas, therefore, while road cruising,collectors stop their vehicles, get out, collectthe animal on foot, and then resume roadcruising. Primary collecting areas in the regioninclude: the River Road (FM 170) from StudyButte to Presidio; the Christmas Mountainsnorth of Study Butte along TX Hwy 118; alongU.S. Hwy 277 in the vicinity of Loma Alta; inthe vicinity of Sanderson, especially along U.S.Hwys 90 and 285; in the vicinity of Langtry,especially along U.S. Hwy 90; in the vicinity ofComstock, especially Juno Road (FM 163),which runs north from Comstock toward theabandoned town of Juno; Davis Mountains andvicinity, including the area between Alpine andFt. Davis (Musquiz Canyon), the area aroundLympia Creek and the Boy Scout Road alongHwy 17, and Hwy 118 running northwestbetween Ft. Davis and Kent. Lesser-knownareas include: the vicinity of the McDonaldObservatory in the Davis Mountains; thevicinity of Ft. Landcaster; near Sheffield innorthern Pecos County; and the vicinity ofIraan. Most of these areas are well known bycommercial and private snake collectors whoare interested in obtaining gray-bandedkingsnakes Lampropeltis alterna. Other snakesin these areas that are often collected for resaleinclude: Trans-Pecos ratsnake, Baird's ratsnake,

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Great Plains ratsnake, hognose snake,milksnake, bullsnake, longnose snake, andlyresnake. The smaller, burrowing snakesknown from this region (e.g., threadsnakes,nightsnake, groundsnake, black-headed snakes)are mostly ignored by collectors, although theyare occasionally collected for resale as pets orpet food (probably as snake food), to helpdefray travel expenses. All of the above areashave been mapped in detail and photographs ofindividual specimens taken at these areas areshown at www.kingsnake.com/trans_pecos/. Inthe extreme southern tip of Texas, where indigosnakes, cat-eyed snakes, and spotted racersoccur, much of the collecting of these species issuspected to occur illegally within the stateparks. Collecting western diamond-backedrattlesnakes for commercial trade at rattlesnakeroundups occurs in a widespread area through-out the species’ range in New Mexico andTexas (Fitzgerald and Painter, 2000).

5. Domestic TradeThe domestic trade in amphibians and reptilesfrom the CDE is almost impossible toquantify, because take of most species is notregulated in New Mexico, trade from Arizonais illegal, and wildlife trade from Mexico isillegal and not extensively monitored. Thereis no reason to believe that large numbers ofanimals from Arizona are commercialized.Commercialization does occur in NewMexico, but there was no current informationavailable at the time of this study. Informationon collection and sale of nongame species isavailable from Texas for 1999. Also, thecommercialization of rattlesnakes in Texas andNew Mexico has been thoroughly reviewed(Fitzgerald and Painter, 2000).

In Texas during 1999, 14,351 specimens ofreptiles and amphibians were reported to becollected by 53 Resident or Nonresidentnongame permit holders. Of these, 4861 wereamphibians and 9493 were reptiles. The mostcommon reptiles collected were common side-blotched lizards (4855), yellow mud turtles(865), box turtles (528), whiptailsCnemidophorus spp. (701), collared lizards(573), rattlesnakes (307), earless lizards (370),gartersnakes (325), roundtail horned lizards(215), Texas banded gecko (166), spiny lizardsand fence lizards Sceloporus spp. (138),kingsnakes Lampropeltis spp. (73), ratsnakesElaphe spp. (32), and Trans-Pecos ratsnakes

(48). The most common amphibians werebarred tiger salamanders (2705), Couch'sspadefoots (1384), green toads (406), Texastoads (203), and red-spotted toads (82) (Table8). It should be noted that the numbers forrattlesnakes do not include those collected forrattlesnake roundups, and thus the overallfigure is likely to be much higher.

With the exception of National Park Servicerangers, who were concerned about thepoaching of geckos, enforcement personneland others interviewed were generally notaware that lizards were collected in largenumbers in Texas.

Ninety per cent (12 947/14 354) of allspecimens collected in the CDE in Texas in1999 originated in only five counties.Specimens were reported collected from 27 ofthe 43 Texas counties we considered to bewithin the CDE (Figure 4, Table 7). El PasoCounty accounted for 40.2% (5767/14 354) ofspecimens reported by nongame collectors in1999. Following in order of number ofspecimens per county were Hudspeth Co.(23.5%), Lubbock Co. (12.0%), Hockley Co.(9.8%), and Garza Co. (4.8%).

Only a small number of the collectors contri-buted most of the take in 1999. The top-rankedcollector contributed 27.1% of the total take.The top three collectors accounted for 66.6% ofthe total, and the top eight accounted for 90.3%(Table 9). Not surprisingly, the principalcollectors operated in the five counties thatproduced 90% of the specimens.

Hobbyists and enforcement personnel inter-viewed in Texas were not aware of the largetrade in lizards and toads. These intervieweesindicated that generally just a few species ofsnakes were targeted, especially the gray-banded kingsnake Lampropeltis alterna and theTrans-Pecos ratsnake Bogertophis subocularis.Interestingly, several hobbyists interviewedexplained that adult wild-caught Trans-Pecosratsnakes have little value compared to juvenilesborn in captivity. Some color variants of gray-banded kingsnakes have low value(approximately USD 50) because captive-rearedindividuals are common on the market.However, other variants and “localityspecimens,” such as those found in southeastNew Mexico, may bring up to USD 500 on thecommercial market.

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Table 8. Number, percent of total, and cumulative percent ofamphibians and reptiles collected by nongame permit holdersoperating in the CDE in Texas in 1999

Species common name (scientific name) Number Percent Cumulativecollected of total percentage

Common side-blotched lizard (Uta stansburiana) 4855 33.8% 33.8%Barred tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium) 2705 18.8% 52.7%Couch's spadefoot (Scaphiopus couchi) 1384 9.6% 62.3%Yellow mud turtle (Kinosternon flavescens flavescens) 865 6.0% 68.3%Marbled whiptail (Cnemidophorus tigris marmoratus) 686 4.8% 73.1%Green toad (Bufo debilis insidior) 406 2.8% 75.9%Desert box turtle (Terrapene ornata luteola) 374 2.6% 78.5%Speckled earless lizard (Holbrookia maculata aproximans) 370 2.6% 81.1%Western plains garter snake] sic1 (misidentified Thamnophis spp.) 305 2.1% 83.3%Collared lizard (Crotaphytus collaris) 305 2.1% 85.4%Chihuahuan collared lizard (Crotaphytus collaris fuscus) 268 1.9% 87.2%Western diamond-backed rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) 250 1.7% 89.0%Round-tailed horned lizard (Phrynosoma modestum) 215 1.5% 90.5%Texas toad (Bufo speciosus) 203 1.4% 91.9%Texas banded gecko (Coleonyx brevis) 166 1.2% 93.1%Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata ornata) 154 1.1% 94.1%Red-spotted toad (Bufo punctatus) 82 0.6% 94.7%Crevice spiny lizard (Sceloporus poinsetti poinsetti) 63 0.4% 95.1%Ornate tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus schmidti) 51 0.4% 95.5%Trans-Pecos ratsnake (Bogertophis subocularis) 48 0.3% 95.8%Gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer (= P. melanoleucus) ssp.) 48 0.3% 96.2%Western hog-nosed snake (Heterodon nasicus ssp.) 47 0.3% 96.5%Desert spiny lizard (Sceloporus magister bimaculosus) 43 0.3% 96.8%Gray-banded kingsnake (Lampropeltis alterna) 42 0.3% 97.1%Great Plains toad (Bufo cognatus) 41 0.3% 97.4%Glossy snake (Arizona elegans elegans) 38 0.3% 97.6%Great Plains skink (Eumeces obsoletus) 38 0.3% 97.9%Southern prairie lizard (Sceloporus undulatus consobrinus) 32 0.2% 98.1%Plains spadefoot (Spea bombifrons) 28 0.2% 98.3%Great Plains ratsnake (Elaphe guttata emoryi) 25 0.2% 98.5%Desert kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula splendida) 24 0.2% 98.7%Texas longnose snake (Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus) 23 0.2% 98.8%Rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus lepidus) 22 0.2% 99.0%Black-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus) 18 0.1% 99.1%Prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) 15 0.1% 99.2%Checkered gartersnake (Thamnophis marcianus) 13 0.1% 99.3%Chihuahuan spotted whiptail (Cnemidophorus exsanguis) 12 0.1% 99.4%Massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) 10 0.1% 99.4%Canyon treefrog (Hyla arenicolor) 10 0.1% 99.5%Western coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum testaceus) 9 0.1% 99.6%New Mexico milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum celaenops) 7 0.0% 99.6%Black-necked gartersnake (Thamnophis cyrtopsis) 7 0.0% 99.7%Prairie ring-necked snake (Diadophis punctatus arnyi) 5 0.0% 99.7%Baird's ratsnake (Elaphe bairdi) 5 0.0% 99.7%

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Table 8. Number, percent of total, and cumulative percent ofamphibians and reptiles collected by nongame permit holdersoperating in the CDE in Texas in 1999 (continued)

Species common name (scientific name) Number Percent Cumulativecollected of total percentage

Leopard lizard (Gambelia wislizenii) 4 0.0% 99.8%Eastern patch-nosed snake (Salvadora grahamiae) 3 0.0% 99.8%Mexican hog-nosed snake (Heterodon nasicus kennerlyi) 3 0.0% 99.8%Central Texas whipsnake (Masticophis taeniatus girardi) 3 0.0% 99.9%Big Bend patch-nosed snake (Salvadora deserticola) 3 0.0% 99.9%Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) 2 0.0% 99.9%Texas ratsnake (Elaphe obsoleta lindheimeri) 2 0.0% 99.9%Glossy snake (Arizona elegans) 2 0.0% 99.9%No name given 2 0.0% 99.9%New Mexico whiptail (Cnemidophorus neomexicanus) 2 0.0% 99.9%Banded rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus klauberi) 2 0.0% 100.0%Trans-Pecos striped whiptail (Cnemidophorus inornatus heptogrammus) 1 0.0% 100.0%Southwestern Woodhouse’s toad (Bufo woodhousii australis) 1 0.0% 100.0%Gulf Coast toad (Bufo valliceps) 1 0.0% 100.0%Little ground skink (Scincella lateralis) 1 0.0% 100.0%Ornate tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus ornatus) 1 0.0% 100.0%Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius tenere) 1 0.0% 100.0%TOTAL 14 351

1 Western plains garter snake Thamnophis radix haydeni is known only from a few counties in the extreme northern panhandle of Texas. Thesespecimens were reported in the TPWD nongame database as collected in Kinney County, well outside the range of T. radix. It is more likelythat these were Western ribbon snakes T. proximus.

Source: Counties in Texas included in the CDE are listed in Figure 5. Names follow Crother (2000) and/or Dixon (2000); specimenidentification as reported in individual collectors' reports.

Although the trade in snakes for pets receives alot of attention, reports indicate that the numberof snakes removed from the wild is notextraordinary. In 1999, the TPWD nongamedatabase showed that 985 snakes were collectedin the CDE (Table 9). Of these, 325 weregarter snakes and 307 were rattlesnakes.Seventy-three kingsnakes were collected (allspecies of Lampropeltis); 42 were gray-bandedkingsnakes. Thirty-two ratsnakes and 48 Trans-Pecos ratsnakes were reported collected bynongame permit holders. Several other specieswere collected in smaller numbers. Althoughpurely anecdotal, conversations withinterviewees about the numbers of animalscollected seemed to be consistent with thelimited reporting data available. A professionalherpetologist and hobbyist interviewed claimedthat the history of gray-banded kingsnakecollection is well known and traceable. Thisinterviewee claimed that a total of approx-imately 40 gray-banded kingsnakes had beencollected from the road through the Black Gap

Wildlife Management Area since the 1970s,and that the most gray-banded kingsnakescollected from that popular road cruising site inone year was six in 1992.

Similarly, this person estimated that 20 gray-banded kingsnakes collected yearly originatedin the Davis Mountains, and another 25-30collected yearly came from the Sanderson area.This collector has never noticed a drop-off inthe number of Trans-Pecos ratsnakes collectedalong River Road (along Rio Grande west ofBig Bend National Park), and it is still commonto find as many as six individuals in a singlenight of road cruising. Another intervieweepointed out that, in the Trans-Pecos region,collecting is most intense during Spring Break,when out-of-state collectors are more likely tovisit the region. When asked how manycollectors might be active in the area where thatperson worked, the interviewee estimated thenumber to be 14 people per year, from springthrough fall. These numbers of snakescollected and the numbers of collectors

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Figure 4. Distribution of 14 354 amphibians and reptiles collected in 27Texas counties within the CDE during 1998-99.

El Paso Co.: 5767

Hudspeth Co.: 3370

Table 9. Number of snakes, lizards and turtles reported as collected bynongame permit holders in Texas in 1999

1331 specimens from 17 countiesJeff Davis, Brewster, Andrews, Ector,Kinney, Pecos, Ward, Presidio, Culberson,Val Verde, Upton, Winkler, Terrell, Crane,Maverick, Crockett, Midland

3886 specimens from 8 countiesHockley, Lubbock, Garza, Yoakum,Lynn, Terry, Fisher, Jones

Taxonomic Suborder of ReptiliaGenus Lacertilia Serpentes Testudines TOTAL

Copperheads and cottonmouths Agkistrodon spp. 2 2Glossy snakes Arizona elegans 2 2Trans-Pecos ratsnake Bogertophis subocularis 48 48Whiptails Cnemidophorus spp. 701 701Banded geckos Coleonyx spp. 166 166Speckled earless lizards Holbrookia maculata aproximans 370 370Rattlesnakes Crotalus spp. 307 307Collared lizards Crotaphytus spp. 573 573Ring-necked snakes Diadophis punctatus ssp. 5 5Ratsnakes Elaphe spp. 32 32Skinks Eumeces spp. 38 38Leopard lizards Gambelia wislizenii 4 4Hog-nosed snakes Heterodon spp. 50 50Mud turtles Kinosternon spp. 865 865Kingsnakes Lampropeltis spp. 73 73Coachwhip and whipsnakes Masticophis spp. 12 12Coral snakes Micrurus spp. 1 1Horned lizards Phrynosoma spp. 215 215Bullsnake and gopher snakes Pituophis spp. 48 48Long-nosed snake Rhinocheilus lecontei ssp. 23 23Patch-nosed snakes Salvadora spp. 6 6Spiny lizards and fence lizards Sceloporus spp. 140 138Ground skink Scincella lateralis 1 1Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus 10 10Box turtles Terrapene spp. 528 528Gartersnakes Thamnophis spp. 325 325Tree lizards Urosaurus ornatus 52 52Common side-blotched lizards Uta stansburiana 4855 4855GRAND TOTAL 7115 944 1393 9450

Source: Data from TPWD Nongame Permit Program.

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Table 10. Number of specimens collected by 53 nongame permitholders operating in the CDE in Texas in 1999.The ranked contributions by the top 26 collectors are shown. The remaining 27collectors contributed only 145 specimens to the total 14 354 and are not shown.

Collector rank Total Cumulative % of total Cumulative %

1 3891 3891 27.11% 27.11%2 3467 7358 24.15% 51.26%3 2195 9553 15.29% 66.55%4 1129 10 682 7.87% 74.42%5 781 11 463 5.44% 79.86%6 683 12 146 4.76% 84.62%7 426 12 572 2.97% 87.59%8 386 12 958 2.69% 90.27%9 208 13 166 1.45% 91.72%10 192 13 358 1.34% 93.06%11 127 13 485 0.88% 93.95%12 105 13 590 0.73% 94.68%13 79 13 669 0.55% 95.23%14 69 13 738 0.48% 95.71%15 65 13 803 0.45% 96.16%16 54 13 857 0.38% 96.54%16 54 13 911 0.38% 96.91%18 53 13 964 0.37% 97.28%19 52 14 016 0.36% 97.65%20 33 14 049 0.23% 97.88%20 33 14 082 0.23% 98.11%22 32 14 114 0.22% 98.33%23 30 14 144 0.21% 98.54%24 23 14 167 0.16% 98.70%25 21 14 188 0.15% 98.84%26 21 14 209 0.15% 98.99%

estimated to operate in the area are consistentwith the total of 42 gray-banded kingsnakesreported in the TPWD database in 1999.

6. International Trade 6.1 Availability and Usefulness of

Trade Data

International trade in reptiles from the CDE inthe United States is difficult to assess, due to anumber of factors. Though some data areavailable from the USFWS, these data raise asmany questions as they provide answers.

All wildlife imports and exports must bedeclared to the USFWS. These declarations arelater entered into a computerized databasecalled the Law Enforcement ManagementInformation System (LEMIS). These entries

are often, but not always, recorded at thespecies level through the use of assigned four-letter codes. Though virtually all trade inCITES-listed species is recorded at the specieslevel, many non-CITES species are notafforded species-specific codes. In these cases,international trade may be recorded at thegenus or family level, or simply as “RNCT,” orreptiles — non-CITES. Further, even forentries that are recorded at the species level,there is no locality-specific informationavailable. Entries indicate the country oforigin, and may also indicate whether thewildlife is of wild or captive origin.

Despite these limitations, LEMIS data are ofsome value in an analysis of CDE species trade.A thorough review of U.S. export data showedthat there are approximately 50 reptile species

Source: Data from TPWD Nongame Permit Program.

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Table 11. U.S. exports of live reptile species found in the CDE

Scientific Name Common Name 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Apalone spinifer Spiny softshell 704 4156 3260 3732 2876 4752320 kg 102 kg 55 kg

Chelydra serpentina Snapping turtle 17 759 19 527 19 255 16 008 11 575 19 122Chrysemys picta Painted turtle 4674 26 520 27 011 13 890 14 701 22 610Pseudemys concinna River cooter 6748 18 116 31 675 19 902 22 185 100Terrapene ornata Ornate box turtle 61 0 0 1 0 4Trachemys scripta Pond slider 7.79 8.24 11.18 9.82 7.58 9.51

million million million million million millionCallisaurus draconoides Zebra-tailed lizard 208 104 172 357 250 238Coleonyx brevis Texas banded gecko 27 70 381 145 234 123Coleonyx variegatus Western banded gecko 50 146 78 108 38 16Cophosaurus texanus Greater earless lizard 0 0 3 125 258 40Crotaphytus collaris Collared lizard 355 1633 2913 2864 5206 2775Eumeces obsoletus Great plains skink 50 25 28 4 45 87Gambelia wislizenii Leopard lizard 340 259 805 1052 1028 1057

found at least in part in the CDE that appear tobe involved in international trade. Again, thisshould be considered a minimum figure, giventhat many CDE species do not have species-specific coding. For example, though there areonly a few entries for individual species in thegenus Sceloporus, there are a large number ofentries at the genus level. Thus, it is difficult toassess exactly which species are being tradedand whether or not they are CDE species.

Unfortunately, the data often do not indicatewhether the animals are of wild or captiveorigin or, if of wild origin, whether theyactually originated in the CDE. For example,there are roughly between 7 and 12 million red-eared slider turtles Trachemys scripta elegansexported from the United States each year.However, other research has shown that all buta very small fraction of this trade is producedon turtle farms in Louisiana and surroundingstates. Though the trade data don’t necessarilyindicate this, it is very unlikely that any of thistrade originates in the CDE.

The available data show trends in the trade inthese species with regard to volumes, wild orcaptive source, price, and shifts in majorcountries of import. Some of these trends arediscussed below.

6.2 Export of Live Specimens from theUnited States

Table 11 gives a summary of available data forreported U.S. exports of live specimens ofreptile species found in the CDE.

The export of turtle species found in the CDElikely involves few, if any, turtles actuallycollected from the CDE. As mentioned above,the export of red-eared sliders almost exclu-sively involves turtles produced on farms inLouisiana and elsewhere in the southeasternUnited States. The same is true for the exportof most other turtle species in Table 11.

Two possible exceptions to this rule would bespiny softshell turtles Apalone spinifer andornate box turtles Terrapene ornata. Theexport of these species involves a significantnumber of wild-caught turtles. The export ofspiny softshell turtles involves hatchlingsproduced on turtle farms from Florida andelsewhere, as well as the export of larger turtlesin demand for food in Asia. The data indicatethat at least some of the softshell turtle tradehas been recorded in kilograms, rather than inindividual turtles. This proportion of the trademost likely involves wild-caught adult turtles.However, it is impossible to determine whetherany of these turtles originated in the CDE.Most likely, they did not. Likewise, the trade inornate box turtles is supplied primarily by wild-caught turtles. However, all box turtles of thegenus Terrapene were listed on CITESAppendix II in 1995, and very few ornate boxturtles have been exported since that listing.

Based on these data, the export of CDE lizardspecies from the United States does not appearto be a significant concern. Most species areapparently being exported in small numbers,and at least some of these species (e.g., Texas

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Table 11. U.S. exports of live reptile species found in the CDE (continued)


Heloderma suspectum Gila monster 0 6 16 6 15 22Holbrookia maculate Lesser earless lizard 0 0 0 17 1 39Phrynosoma cornutum Texas horned lizard 0 0 0 0 4 0Phrynosoma modestum Round-tailed horned

lizard 0 0 0 0 5 40Sceloporus magister Desert spiny lizard 116 97 201 331 378 364Sceloporus olivaceous Texas spiny lizard 12 0 3 125 172 350Sceloporus poinsetti Crevice spiny lizard 232 78 1167 920 1024 672Sceloporus variabilis Rose-bellied lizard 25 0 0 0 42 217Scincella lateralis Ground skink 100 119 54 177 117 0Urosaurus ornatus Ornate tree lizard 28 16 828 143 256 120Uta stansburiana Common side-

blotched lizard 43 272 2343 3988 3505 1282Agkistrodon contortrix Copperhead 6 27 5 6 8 14Arizona elegans Glossy snake 59 27 143 95 83 18Bogertophis subocularis Trans-Pecos ratsnake 0 0 0 12 17 11Coluber constrictor Eastern racer 397 289 258 166 98 79Crotalus atrox Western diamond-

backed rattlesnake 30 33 25 21 32 8Crotalus lepidus Rock rattlesnake 9 22 12 123 69 30Crotalus molossus Black-tailed rattlesnake 2 9 2 54 36 9Crotalus scutulatus Mojave rattlesnake 0 4 4 4 12 6Crotalus viridis Prairie rattlesnake 19 50 29 21 48 14Diadophis punctatus Ring-necked snake 78 1234 2485 229 58 68Drymarchon corais Western indigo snake 1 3 3 6 8 7Elaphe bairdi Baird’s ratsnake 0 0 0 9 18 6Elaphe guttata Cornsnake 6054 4915 5617 4110 5472 4485Elaphe obsolete Eastern ratsnake 624 956 1100 862 1197 622Lampropeltis alterna Gray-banded

kingsnake 0 0 0 83 152 110Lampropeltis getula Common kingsnake 1723 1858 2137 1892 2524 1874Lampropeltis mexicana San Luis Potosi

kingsnake 0 0 12 100 221 270Lampropeltis Sonoran Mountain pyromelana kingsnake 0 0 0 27 67 146Lampropeltis triangulum Milksnake 631 937 1014 988 1785 1348Masticophis flagellum Coachwhip 25 4 48 82 63 15Nerodia rhombifer Diamond-backed

watersnake 337 83 88 0 13 17Opheodrys aestivus Rough greensnake 1364 1470 4301 2733 5676 5813Pituophis catenifer Gopher snake 0 0 3 27 70 91Rhinocheilus lecontei Long-nosed snake 36 22 97 41 57 415Salvadora grahamiae Mountain patch-nosed

snake 0 1 12 2 11 2Sistrurus catenatus Massasauga 2 9 3 26 10 1Sonora semiannulata Groundsnake 0 0 0 3 86 31Thamnophis marcianus Checkered

gartersnake 1 3 110 120 156 88Thamnophis sirtalis Common gartersnake 14 643 11 590 11 309 7147 9695 5282

Source: TRAFFIC analysis of USFWS LEMIS data.

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banded gecko Coleonyx brevis) are beingproduced in captivity. However, noting theshortcomings of the data mentioned above, itwould be prudent to continue monitoring exportfigures to identify any increasing trends.

Nor does the export of CDE snake species tosupply foreign demand for live snakes, for themost part, raise significant concerns. Mostspecies are traded in very low numbers, withlittle indication of increasing trade throughoutthe time period examined. Many of the mostheavily traded species either have a largerange outside of the CDE as well (e.g.,common gartersnake Thamnophis sirtalis), orare primarily produced in captivity (e.g.,common kingsnake Lampropeltis getula).Finally, many species appear to exhibit adeclining trend with regard to exports (e.g.,ring-necked snake Diadophis punctatus,Eastern racer Coluber constrictor).

6.3 Trade in Parts and Products

A review of LEMIS data showed that at leastseven species found in the CDE are traded asparts or products (Table 12). Though theexport of native CDE species as parts orproducts involves far fewer species than areinvolved in the live trade, this practice may behaving a far greater impact on individualspecies, because much of the live trade isderived from captive breeding efforts, while thetrade in most parts and products is more likelyto involve wild-caught adult animals.

Again, as described above, there is little indi-cation that the export of turtle species found inthe CDE actually involves individual animalsharvested from the CDE. The export ofcommon snapping turtle meat is likely the mostsignificant turtle product export, given that thistrade likely involves wild-caught turtles.However, this species has a tremendous rangein the United States, and is not likely to betargeted specifically in the CDE. Likewise, theexport of significant numbers of red-earedslider eggs has no impact on CDE populations,given that these eggs are probably exclusivelythe product of turtle farming in the southeasternUnited States.

Of far greater concern is the exploitation ofseveral venomous reptile species for meat,skins, and leather products. This is especiallytrue of the Western diamond-backed

rattlesnake, which is exported in a large arrayof forms. The most significant trade in thisspecies appears to be meat, with well over 2000 kilograms of meat exported over the six-year period examined. Further, a significantvolume of skins and skin products was alsoexported during this period, including 1616skins, 712 shoes/boots, 1407 small leatherproducts/skin pieces/leather trim, 34 handbags,79 garments, 939 pieces of jewelry, and 753unspecified items.

7. Illegal Collection and TradeIllegal collection and trade occur, but appearnot to be extensive in the U.S. portions of theCDE. Interviews with rangers in Big BendNational Park consistently indicated one tothree cases of illegal collecting each year. Oneranger reported that about six vehicles had beenstopped between October and January 1999,but that nothing was found. Another rangerspeculated that there could be one or two illegalcollectors in the park, maybe one night a week,perhaps amounting to 40 events in the park peryear. This was speculation based on thatranger’s experience. The ranger indicated thatthere had been an apparent decrease in illegalreptile collecting in the park. Another rangerpointed out that it is easy to collect legallyoutside the park, which probably reduces illegalcollecting inside the park.

Several interviewees felt that judges did notplace a high priority on the crime of reptilepoaching and that, in the few instances whencases were brought before the court, the fineswere minimal. Some enforcement staffinterviewed believed that such an attitude couldundermine enforcement efforts. One rangerpointed out that judges were unlikely toprosecute unless the suspect was caught in theact of picking up an animal. Rangers needconsent to search suspects’ vehicles unless theyhave probable cause to believe that the suspecthas an animal. Another ranger related a casefrom the late 1990s in which a suspect wascaught in the park handling a blacktailrattlesnake and a pillowcase. The suspect hadseveral animals thought to be from Arizona andwas looking for snakes. The judge dismissedthe case.

One ranger interviewed pointed out that manyherp enthusiasts were very law abiding and

had great disdain for “bad herpers.” All parkrangers, agency biologists, and other enforce-ment personnel interviewed were aware ofreptile collecting problems. Although thenumber of persons detained for collecting islow, most park rangers and biologistsinterviewed consider the threat of reptilepoaching a serious issue that merits constantattention.

All hobbyists and collectors interviewed werecompletely aware of regulations and licenserequirements. In Texas and New Mexico, it isnot difficult to find areas where collecting islegal. Most of the areas searched in NewMexico are on public lands (e.g., Bureau ofLand Management, U.S. Forest Service, orNew Mexico state lands) and therefore allowlegal public access. Although some landowners

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Apalone spinifer Spiny softshell 82 kg meat

Chelydra serpentina Snapping turtle 3 skulls 18 skulls 2 skulls 19 kg unsp. 228 kg meat 12 items353 kg meat 272 kg meat 10 shells 18 kg meat 1 skull meat

22 kg meat 19 items 1 shell meat product

Trachemys scripta Pond slider 1 skull 227 kg meat 26 shells 2 unsp. 100 eggs 1 carapace72 500 eggs 30 750 eggs 200 eggs 50 eggs

700 4 leather pcscarcasses 1 skull

2 sci. spec.3 bodies2 unsp.

Agkistrodon contortrix Copperhead 913 small 966 unsp. 1 sci. spec.leather 366 leatherproducts pieces

Crotalus atrox Western 525 kg meat 141 kg meat 1278 kg 203 kg meat 1 body 10 jewelrydiamond-backed 372 shoes/ 90 shoes/ meat 19 items 68 leather 1 leather pcrattlesnake boots boots 49 shoes/ meat pcs 490 kg

518 small 466 small boots 75 shoes/ 413 kg meat meatleather leather 71 small boots 57 shoes 69 shoesproducts products leather 144 small 613 skins 59 skins9 skins 725 skins products leather 1 skull 1 skin pc63 stuffed 2 carcasses 208 skins products 53 unsp. 2 trophies531 pcs 2 stuffed 3 stuffed/ 2 skinsjewelry 228 pcs trophies 3 stuffed/11 unsp. jewelry 130 pcs trophies6 skin pcs 415 unsp. jewelry 40 pcs 8 leather trim 34 handbags 167 unsp. jewelry79 garments 2 rugs 46 carcasses

107 unsp.3 stuffed4 leather pcs120 leather trim2 skulls250 bio.samples

Crotalus lepidus Rock rattlesnake 2 bodies

Crotalus viridis Prairie rattlesnake 15 sci. spec. 36 stuffed/ 40 trophies 5 skins30 skins trophies 3 sci. spec.

30 trophies

Elaphe guttata Cornsnake 539 small 184 leather leather piecesproducts

Table 12. U.S. exports of reptile parts and products derived fromspecies found in the CDE

Source: TRAFFIC analysis of USFWS LEMIS data.

prohibit collecting on their property, otherprivate and public-lands ranchers in NewMexico and Texas are anxious to have snakehunters enter their lands to collect rattlesnakes,in the hopes of eliminating the snakes.

ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACTS OFCOLLECTION AND TRADEOwing to the lack of field studies andmonitoring data on the trade in reptiles andamphibians, it is not possible to draw definiteconclusions about the threats posed bycollection and trade. General conclusions canbe drawn, however, based on what is knownabout patterns of collecting and the biology ofamphibians and reptiles from the CDE.

The severity to which populations ofamphibians and reptiles are impacted bycollecting depends on the geographic extent ofcollecting in relation to the distribution of thespecies (the geographic scale); the ability oflocal populations to sustain collecting (thespecies’ life history); and the complexinteractions between geography and life history,such as source-sink phenomena. Areas wherereptiles are collected, e.g., roadsides or aquatichabitats, may be sinks where populations arecontinually diminished. Uncollected areasadjacent to sinks may serve as sourcepopulations, where dispersing individualscontinually repopulate exploited populations.

Species with high reproductive rates that growquickly to maturity are more likely to be able tosustain collecting than species with delayedonset of reproduction and low reproductiverates (Fitzgerald, 1994). The geographicdistribution of species in combination with thescale and frequency of collecting may alsoinfluence the likelihood that populations maywithstand collecting. Species that are widelydistributed and collected in small parts of theirrange are more likely to sustain collecting thanspecies that are restricted in distribution andintensively collected over large areas.Unpredictable activity patterns result in lowerdetectability and vulnerability of many snakespecies. Based on life history pattern,geographic extent of range, and detectability, itis likely that the vast majority of reptile andamphibian species found in the CDE are widelyenough distributed that collecting will not leadto regional or global species extinction. Almost

all amphibian and reptile collecting is donefrom roads or in accessible canyons. Enormousareas are on private land or so remote thatcollecting for trade is inefficient, and there areextensive areas of suitable and occupied habitatthat are never collected.

Collecting and trade in the CDE probablyshould not be considered a threat to speciesthat are relatively widely and continuouslydistributed, are small in size, and that possess alife history characterized by relatively shortlife span and high reproductive rate. Commonside-blotched lizards Uta stansburiana fit thislife-history strategy. They reproduce annually,have a life span of one or two years, and aregenerally abundant and conspicuous wherethey occur. Although common side-blotchedlizards were the most collected species inTexas in 1998-99, it is doubtful that collectingthis species for pet food or for pets would leadto measurable impacts on populations. Westerndiamond-backed rattlesnakes apparently canwithstand long periods of collection(Fitzgerald and Painter, 2000), and althoughthey are collected for commercial trade in NewMexico, Texas, and elsewhere, it is extremelyunlikely that the several hundred Westerndiamondback rattlesnakes taken yearly fromthe Texas and New Mexico portions of theCDE could cause the endangerment orextinction of this widespread species. Thespecies of garter snakes appearing in trade inTexas in 1999 are also common and wide-spread. It is also unlikely that collection ofgarter snakes, presumably for the pet trade,could cause the endangerment or extinction ofthese widespread species.

Considering that collecting is not likely tocause global or regional extinction of species ofamphibians and reptiles in the CDE, it isprobably more relevant to evaluate the impactsof collecting on local populations. The vastmajority of park rangers, game wardens, andTexas Parks and Wildlife biologists interviewedfor this report felt that collecting did depresslocal populations. Hobbyists on the other hand,were divided on this question. Field researchwould be required to answer this questionquantitatively. In addition, the effects ofcollecting on populations would be different for different species.

Gila monsters Heloderma suspectum, turtles ingeneral, and the prairie rattlesnake Crotalus

70

viridis are species that, based on natural history,may be locally vulnerable to over-collecting.Large congregations of prairie rattlesnakes canbe found at den sites, and the systematicelimination of prairie rattlesnakes at dens eachyear could lead to local extirpations. Denhunting was the cause of local extirpation oftimber rattlesnakes in the northern part of theirrange (Greene, 1997). Species with fragmentedranges, even if the geographical extent of therange is large, may be susceptible to localpopulation extirpation, especially if the speciesare habitat specialists. The range of themassasauga Sistrurus catenatus, for example, isfragmented and the grasslands it inhabits aredegraded throughout much of its former range(Greene, 1997). Massasauga populations arenow widely separated and presumably muchsmaller than they were in the recent past. Thevagaries of their geographical distribution havealso led to evolved differences in litter size,diet, and habitat affinity in different parts oftheir range. Hence, for the massasauga,collecting in isolated habitat fragments mayhave large impacts, despite the large range ofthe entire species complex, because thepotential for recolonization from sourcepopulations is much reduced. Another CDEspecies that may fit the pattern Greene (1997)described for the massasauga is the Westernhog-nosed snake Heterodon nasicus.

Because of their vulnerability and the life-history characteristics of long-lived organisms,turtle populations may be eliminated fromspecific sites from over-collecting. Given thelimited aquatic habitat in New Mexico inparticular, specific river reaches (e.g., BlackRiver and Delaware River) often leave turtlesespecially vulnerable to over-collecting duringlow water periods. With repeated andintensive trapping, collectors could easilycause significant population reductions inspecific areas. Dixon (2000) cites anobservation of the disappearance of RioGrande cooters Pseudemys gorzugi, a CDEendemic species, from an area on the RioGrande near Del Rio that presumably was theresult of over-collecting, possibly to supplyAsian food markets.

The seven most collected species from the CDEin Texas in 1998-99 accounted for 79% of allspecies collected, and apparently originatedmostly in El Paso, Hudspeth, Lubbock,

Hockley, and Garza Counties (Table 3, Table4). It is impossible to evaluate quantitatively theimpact of collecting on the populations thatwere exploited without detailed information oncollecting effort, geographic extent ofcollecting, and demographic information on theexploited populations. However, the threeamphibians—tiger salamander Ambystomatigrinum, Couch’s spadefoot Scaphiopuscouchii, and green toad Bufo debilis—arecommon and widely distributed. The twolizards—common side-blotched lizard Utastansburiana and marbled whiptailCnemidophorus tigris—are also widespreadand continuous in their distributions throughoutmuch of the CDE. These five species generallyshare the characteristics discussed above thatshould allow them to withstand collecting,although there is not enough information todraw any conclusions. The yellow mud turtleKinosternon flavescens and desert box turtleTerrapene ornata luteola were collected inlarge numbers. Yellow mud turtles are common and widespread, but are generallyfound when locally concentrated in ponds,stock tanks, and playas. It is reasonable toconsider the possibility that local populations of yellow mud turtles could be impacted fromremoval of most of the individuals from pondsin an area. Desert box turtles are common andwidespread, but have a low reproductive rate.It is reasonable that desert box turtle popula-tions might be significantly changed by thesystematic removal of adults.

Although there are data from only one year, thepattern of collecting in Texas indicates somegeneralities that are relevant to reptile andamphibian collecting throughout the region.First, few collectors account for the greatmajority of specimens collected. We are awareof only a few collectors in New Mexico whoactively collect reptiles and amphibians forpurposes of commercialization. Second, fewspecies were collected in large numbers. Thespecies that were collected in large numbers arewidespread, small bodied, and, except foramphibians and turtles, are relatively short lived.A third generalization was that collecting wasvery patchy, with a small number of areas beingintensively collected. In Texas, the samestretches of roads that have been popular withcollectors for decades continue to producespecimens, and remain the principal areas used

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by collectors. There are enormous expanses ofhabitat throughout the entire ecoregion that arenot visited by collectors. Finally, based on theTexas database, turtles were collected innumbers large enough to raise concern. If turtlecollecting were to continue at the same leveland was restricted to a few sites, localpopulations could be reduced to the point ofendangerment or local extinction. A similarargument could be made for prairie rattlesnakes,because of their vulnerability at dens.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Collection and Trade Monitoring:

1. To ensure that collection and trade of CDEamphibians and reptiles is sustainable,implementation of a legally bindingmonitoring system of take and trade inthese groups is needed. Such a monitoringsystem must be based on the legal status ofamphibians and reptiles and rules regulatingtheir take. Such systems have beenimplemented in Texas and New Mexico and have provided valuable information on the trade of amphibians and reptiles inthese states.

Field Research:

2. It is not often feasible to census amphibianand reptile species directly because of thelarge geographic areas involved, the time and

expense required to measure thesepopulations, and the inherent difficulties inmeasuring amphibian and reptile populationswith confidence. Instead, targeted researchshould be aimed at producing sufficientinformation about collecting amphibians andreptiles to guide management decisions.

3. Information is needed on the amount ofsuitable habitat available for species withrelatively small distributions and that requirevery specific habitat types in relation to theamount of area where they are collected.

4. Research on source-sink phenomena inexploited amphibians and reptiles would beuseful, and has yet to be conducted for anyexploited amphibian or reptile. Informationon source-sink dynamics of selected speciesmay clarify whether populations are self-sustaining, or to what extent habitat corridorsand large uncollected areas are needed tosustain populations on a regional basis.

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A-1

APPENDICES

A-2

APPENDIX 1 NORMA OFICIAL MEXICANA 059

Norma Oficial Mexicana 059 (Official Mexican Norm 059) (NOM-059-ECOL-2001) lists thespecies and subspecies of wild terrestrial and aquatic fauna, based on degree of threat to theirsurvival, including: In Danger of Extinction (P), Threatened (A), Subject to Special Protection (Pr),and Probably Extinct in the Wild (E). It also indicates whether or not the species is endemic. NOM059 applies to all activities involving specimens, parts, products, byproducts, and derivatives oflisted species.

Mexican Reptiles

SPECIES/SUBSPECIES Category ENDEMIC/NOT ENDEMIC

Abronia bogerti Pr endemicAbronia chiszari Pr endemicAbronia deppei Pr endemicAbronia fuscolabialis Pr endemicAbronia graminea Pr endemicAbronia kalaina Pr endemicAbronia lythrochila Pr endemicAbronia matudai Pr not endemicAbronia mitchelli Pr endemicAbronia mixteca Pr endemicAbronia oaxacae Pr endemicAbronia ochoterenai Pr endemicAbronia ornelasi Pr endemicAbronia reidi Pr endemicAbronia taeniata Pr endemicAnelytropsis papillosus Pr endemicAnniella geronimensis Pr endemicAnniella pulchra Pr not endemicAnolis adleri Pr endemicAnolis anisolepis Pr endemicAnolis baccatus Pr endemicAnolis barkeri Pr endemicAnolis biporcatus biporcatus Pr not endemicAnolis cumingi Pr endemicAnolis cuprinus Pr endemicAnolis cymbops Pr endemicAnolis duellmani Pr endemicAnolis dunni Pr endemicAnolis forbesi Pr endemicAnolis gadovi Pr endemicAnolis isthmicus Pr endemicAnolis liogaster Pr endemicAnolis macrinii Pr endemicAnolis matudai Pr endemicAnolis megapholidotus Pr endemicAnolis microlepidotus Pr endemicAnolis milleri Pr endemicAnolis naufragus Pr endemicAnolis omiltemanus Pr endemic

A-3

Appendix 1 Norma Oficial Mexicana 059 (continued)


Anolis parvicirculatus Pr endemicAnolis pentaprion Pr not endemicAnolis polyrhachis Pr endemicAnolis pygmaeus Pr endemicAnolis schiedei Pr endemicAnolis simmonsi Pr endemicAnolis subocularis Pr endemicAnolis taylori Pr endemicAnolis utowanae Pr endemicAristelliger georgeensis Pr not endemicBarisia imbricata Pr endemicBarisia levicollis Pr endemicBarisia rudicollis Pr endemicBipes biporus Pr endemicBipes canaliculatus Pr endemicBipes tridactylus Pr endemicCallisaurus draconoides A not endemicCelestus enneagrammus Pr endemicCelestus rozellae Pr not endemicCnemidophorus alpinus Pr endemicCnemidophorus bacatus Pr endemicCnemidophorus calidipes Pr endemicCnemidophorus canus A endemicCnemidophorus catalinensis Pr endemicCnemidophorus celeripes Pr endemicCnemidophorus ceralbensis Pr endemicCnemidophorus communis Pr endemicCnemidophorus estebanensis Pr endemicCnemidophorus hyperythrus beldingi A endemicCnemidophorus hyperythrus caeruleus A endemicCnemidophorus hyperythrus danheimae A endemicCnemidophorus hyperythrus espiritensis A endemicCnemidophorus hyperythrus pictus A endemicCnemidophorus hyperythrus schmidti Pr endemicCnemidophorus labialis Pr endemicCnemidophorus lineattissimus Pr endemicCnemidophorus martyris Pr endemicCnemidophorus maximus Pr endemicCnemidophorus mexicanus Pr endemicCnemidophorus neomexicanus Pr not endemicCnemidophorus parvisocius Pr endemicCnemidophorus rodecki Pr endemicColeonyx brevis Pr not endemicColeonyx elegans A not endemicColeonyx reticulatus Pr not endemicColeonyx variegatus Pr not endemicCophosaurus texanus A not endemic

A-4



Corytophanes cristatus Pr not endemicCorytophanes hernandezi Pr not endemicCorytophanes percarinatus Pr not endemicCrotaphytus collaris A not endemicCrotaphytus reticulatus A not endemicCtenosaura acanthura Pr endemicCtenosaura clarki A endemicCtenosaura defensor A endemicCtenosaura hemilopha Pr endemicCtenosaura pectinata A endemicCtenosaura quinquecarinatus A not endemicCtenosaura similis A not endemicLegaría kingi Pr not endemicLegaría multicarinata Pr not endemicLegaría parva Pr endemicLegaría paucicarinata Pr endemicEumeces altamirani Pr endemicEumeces colimensis Pr endemicEumeces copei Pr endemicEumeces dugesi Pr endemicEumeces gilberti Pr not endemicEumeces lagunensis A endemicEumeces lynxe Pr endemicEumeces multilineatus Pr endemicEumeces multivirgatus Pr not endemicEumeces ochoterenae Pr endemicEumeces parviauriculatus Pr endemicGambelia wislizenii Pr not endemicGehyra mutilata Pr not endemicGerrhonotus liocephalus Pr not endemicGerrhonotus lugoi A endemicGonatodes albogularis Pr not endemicGymnophthalmus speciosus Pr not endemicHeloderma horridum A not endemicHeloderma suspectum A not endemicHolbrookia lacerate Pr not endemicIguana iguana Pr not endemicLaemanctus longipes Pr not endemicLaemanctus serratus Pr not endemicLepidophyma alvarezi A endemicLepidophyma chicoasensis Pr endemicLepidophyma dontomasi Pr endemicLepidophyma flavimaculatum Pr not endemicLepidophyma gaigeae Pr endemicLepidophyma lipetzi Pr endemicLepidophyma micropholis Pr endemicLepidophyma occulor Pr endemic

A-5



Lepidophyma pajapanensis Pr endemicLepidophyma radula Pr endemicLepidophyma sawini Pr not endemicLepidophyma smithi Pr not endemicLepidophyma sylvaticum Pr endemicLepidophyma tarascae Pr endemicLepidophyma tuxtlae Pr endemicMesaspis antauges Pr endemicMesaspis gadovi Pr endemicMesaspis juarezi Pr endemicMesaspis moreleti Pr not endemicMesaspis viridiflava Pr endemicOphisaurus ceroni Pr endemicOphisaurus incomptus Pr endemicPetrosaurus mearnsi Pr not endemicPetrosaurus thalassinus Pr endemicPhrynosoma asio Pr endemicPhrynosoma branconnieri Pr endemicPhrynosoma cerroense A endemicPhrynosoma cornutum A not endemicPhrynosoma ditmarsi A endemicPhrynosoma mcallii A not endemicPhrynosoma orbiculare A endemicPhrynosoma taurus A endemicPhyllodactylus angelensis Pr endemicPhyllodactylus apricus Pr endemicPhyllodactylus bordai Pr endemicPhyllodactylus bugastrolepis Pr endemicPhyllodactylus davisi A endemicPhyllodactylus delcampoi Pr endemicPhyllodactylus duellmani Pr endemicPhyllodactylus homolepidurus Pr endemicPhyllodactylus muralis Pr endemicPhyllodactylus nocticolus Pr not endemicPhyllodactylus partidus Pr endemicPhyllodactylus paucituberculatus Pr endemicPhyllodactylus santacruzensis Pr endemicPhyllodactylus tinklei Pr endemicPhyllodactylus unctus Pr endemicPhyllodactylus xanti Pr endemicSauromalus ater A endemicSauromalus australis A endemicSauromalus hispidus A endemicSauromalus klauberi P endemicSauromalus obesus A not endemicSauromalus slevini A endemicSauromalus varius A endemic

A-6



Sceloporus adleri Pr endemicSceloporus angustus Pr endemicSceloporus asper Pr endemicSceloporus cozumelae Pr endemicSceloporus cryptus Pr endemicSceloporus exsul Pr endemicSceloporus graciosus Pr not endemicSceloporus grammicus Pr not endemicSceloporus grandaevus Pr endemicSceloporus hunsakeri Pr endemicSceloporus insignis Pr endemicSceloporus licki Pr endemicSceloporus lineatulus Pr endemicSceloporus macdougalli Pr endemicSceloporus maculosus Pr endemicSceloporus megalepidurus Pr endemicSceloporus ornatus Pr endemicSceloporus rufidorsum Pr endemicSceloporus salvini Pr endemicSceloporus serrifer prezygus Pr endemicSceloporus stejnegeri Pr endemicSceloporus subpictus Pr endemicSceloporus tanneri Pr endemicSceloporus zosteromus Pr endemicScincella gemmingeri forbesorum Pr endemicScincella lateralis Pr not endemicScincella silvicola Pr endemicSphaerodactylus argus Pr not endemicSphaerodactylus glaucus Pr not endemicThecadactylus rapicaudus Pr not endemicUma exsul Pr endemicUma notata A not endemicUma paraphygas P endemicUrosaurus irregularis A endemicUrosaurus lahtelai A endemicUrosaurus nigricaudus A endemicUta antique Pr endemicUta concinna A endemicUta mannophora A endemicUta nolascensis A endemicUta palmeri A endemicUta squamata Pr endemicUta stansburiana martinensis A endemicUta stansburiana Stellata A endemicXantusia bolsonae A endemicXantusia sanchezi P endemicXenosaurus grandis Pr not endemic

A-7



Xenosaurus newmanorum Pr endemicXenosaurus platyceps Pr endemicAdelophis copei Pr endemicAdelophis foxi Pr endemicAdelphicos latifasciatus Pr endemicAdelphicos nigrilatus Pr endemicAdelphicos quadrivirgatus sargi Pr not endemicAgkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus Pr not endemicAgkistrodon bilineatus taylori A not endemicAtropoides nummifer A not endemicAtropoides olmec A endemicBoa constrictor A not endemicBothriechis aurifer A not endemicBothriechis bicolor A not endemicBothriechis rowleyi Pr endemicCerrophidion barbouri Pr endemicCerrophidion tzotzilorum Pr endemicChersodromus liebmanni Pr endemicChersodromus rubriventris Pr endemicChilomeniscus cinctus Pr not endemicChilomeniscus punctatissimus Pr endemicChilomeniscus savagei Pr not endemicChilomeniscus stramineus Pr endemicColuber constrictor A not endemicConopsis biserialis A endemicCrotalus aquillus Pr endemicCrotalus atrox Pr not endemicCrotalus basiliscus Pr endemicCrotalus catalinensis A endemicCrotalus cerastes Pr not endemicCrotalus durissus Pr not endemicCrotalus enyo A endemicCrotalus exsul A endemicCrotalus intermedius A endemicCrotalus lannomi A endemicCrotalus lepidus Pr not endemicCrotalus mitchelli Pr not endemicCrotalus molossus Pr not endemicCrotalus polystictus Pr endemicCrotalus pricei Pr not endemicCrotalus pusillus A endemicCrotalus ruber Pr not endemicCrotalus scutulatus Pr not endemicCrotalus stejnegeri A endemicCrotalus tigris Pr not endemicCrotalus tortugensis Pr endemicCrotalus transversus P endemic

A-8



Crotalus viridis Pr not endemicCrotalus willardi Pr not endemicCryophis hallbergi A endemicDipsas brevifacies Pr not endemicDipsas elegans Pr endemicDipsas gaigeae Pr endemicElaphe phaescens Pr endemicEnulius oligostichus Pr endemicEridiphas slevini A endemicExiliboa placata Pr endemicFicimia ramirezi Pr endemicFicimia ruspator Pr endemicGeagras redimitus Pr endemicGeophis anocularis Pr endemicGeophis bicolor Pr endemicGeophis blanchardi Pr endemicGeophis cancellatus Pr not endemicGeophis chalybeus Pr endemicGeophis dubius Pr not endemicGeophis duellmani Pr endemicGeophis incomptus Pr endemicGeophis isthmicus Pr endemicGeophis laticinctus Pr endemicGeophis laticollaris Pr not endemicGeophis latifrontalis Pr endemicGeophis maculiferus Pr endemicGeophis mutitorques Pr endemicGeophis nasalis Pr not endemicGeophis nigrocinctus Pr endemicGeophis omiltemanus Pr endemicGeophis petersi Pr endemicGeophis pyburni Pr endemicGeophis ussatus Pr endemicGeophis sallaei Pr endemicGeophis sieboldi Pr endemicGeophis tarascae Pr endemicGyalopion quadrangulare Pr endemicHeterodon nasicus Pr not endemicHypsiglena torquata Pr not endemicImantodes cenchoa Pr not endemicImantodes gemmistratus Pr not endemicImantodes tenuissimus Pr endemicLampropeltis alterna A not endemicLampropeltis getula A not endemicLampropeltis mexicana A endemicLampropeltis pyromelana A not endemicLampropeltis ruthveni A endemic

A-9



Lampropeltis triangulum A not endemicLampropeltis zonata herrerai A endemicLeptodeira annulata Pr not endemicLeptodeira maculata Pr endemicLeptophis ahaetulla A not endemicLeptophis diplotropis A endemicLeptophis mexicanus A not endemicLeptophis modestus Pr not endemicLeptotyphlops bressoni Pr EndemicLichanura trivirgata A not endemicLoxocemus bicolor Pr not endemicMasticophis anthonyi A EndemicMasticophis aurigulus A EndemicMasticophis flagellum A not endemicMasticophis lateralis barbouri A EndemicMasticophis mentovarius varilosus A EndemicMicruroides euryxanthus A not endemicMicrurus bogerti Pr EndemicMicrurus browni Pr not endemicMicrurus diastema affinis Pr EndemicMicrurus distans Pr endemicMicrurus elegans Pr not endemicMicrurus ephippifer Pr endemicMicrurus fulvius Pr not endemicMicrurus laticollaris Pr endemicMicrurus limbatus Pr endemicMicrurus nebularis Pr endemicMicrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis Pr endemicMicrurus proximans Pr endemicNerodia erythrogaster A not endemicNerodia melanogaster A endemicOphryacus undulates Pr endemicPhyllorhynchus browni Pr not endemicPituophis deppei A endemicPliocercus andrewsi A endemicPliocercus bicolor A endemicPorthidium dunni A endemicPorthidium hespere Pr endemicPorthidium melanurum Pr endemicPorthidium nasutum Pr not endemicPorthidium yucatanicum Pr endemicPseudoleptodeira latifasciata Pr endemicPseudoleptodeira uribei Pr endemicRhadinaea bogertorum Pr endemicRhadinaea cuneata Pr endemicRhadinaea forbesi Pr endemicRhadinaea hempsteadae Pr not endemic

A-10



Rhadinaea hesperia baileyi Pr endemicRhadinaea marcellae Pr endemicRhadinaea mcdougalli Pr endemicRhadinaea Montana Pr endemicRhadinaea myersi Pr endemicRhadinaea omiltemana Pr endemicRhadinaea quinquelineata Pr endemicRhadinaea schistose Pr endemicRhadinophanes monticola Pr endemicSalvadora bairdi Pr endemicSalvadora intermedia Pr endemicSalvadora lemniscata Pr endemicSalvadora mexicana Pr endemicSibon annulifera Pr endemicSibon philippi Pr endemicSibon Sartorii macdougalli Pr endemicSibon zweifeli R endemicSistrurus catenatus Pr not endemicSistrurus ravus Pr endemicSonora aemula Pr endemicSymphimus leucostomus Pr endemicSymphimus mayae Pr endemicTantalophis discolor A endemicTantilla atriceps A not endemicTantilla briggsi A endemicTantilla cascadae A endemicTantilla calamarina Pr endemicTantilla coronadoi Pr endemicTantilla cuniculator Pr endemicTantilla deppei A endemicTantilla flavilineata A endemicTantilla gracilis Pr not endemicTantilla miniata Pr endemicTantilla morgani Pr endemicTantilla oaxacae Pr endemicTantilla shawi Pr endemicTantilla slavensi Pr endemicTantilla striata Pr endemicTantilla tayrae Pr endemicTantillita brevissima Pr not endemicTantillita lintoni Pr not endemicThamnophis chrysocephalus A endemicThamnophis cyrtopsis A not endemicThamnophis digueti A endemicThamnophis elegans A not endemicThamnophis eques A not endemicThamnophis exsul A endemic

A-11



Thamnophis godmani A endemicThamnophis hammondi A not endemicThamnophis marcianus A not endemicThamnophis mendax A endemicThamnophis nigronucaulis Pr not endemicThamnophis proximus A not endemicThamnophis scalaris A endemicThamnophis scaliger A endemicThamnophis sirtalis Pr not endemicThamnophis sumichrasti A endemicThamnophis vicinus Pr not endemicTrimorphodon biscutatus vilkinsoni Pr not endemicUngaliophis continentalis Pr not endemicApalone ater Pr endemicApalone spinifera Pr not endemicCaretta caretta P not endemicChelonia agassizi P not endemicChelonia mydas P not endemicChelydra serpentine Pr not endemicChrysemys picta Pr not endemicClaudius ngustatus P not endemicDermatemys mawii P not endemicDermochelys coriacea P not endemicEretmochelys imbricata P not endemicGopherus agassizi A not endemicGopherus berlandieri A not endemicGopherus flavomarginatus P endemicKinosternon acutum Pr not endemicKinosternon alamosae Pr endemicKinosternon herrerai Pr endemicKinosternon hirtipes Pr not endemicKinosternon integrum Pr endemicKinosternon leucostomum Pr not endemicKinosternon oaxacae Pr endemicKinosternon scorpioides Pr not endemicLepidochelys kempi P not endemicLepidochelys livacea P not endemicPseudemys gorzugi Pr not endemicRhinoclemmys areolata A not endemicRhinoclemmys pulcherrima A not endemicRhinoclemmys rubida Pr endemicStaurotypus salvini Pr not endemicStaurotypus triporcatus Pr not endemicTerrapene carolina Pr not endemicTerrapene coahuila Pr endemicTerrapene nelsoni Pr endemicTerrapene ornata Pr not endemic

A-12



Trachemys scripta Pr not endemicCaiman crocodiles Pr not endemicCrocodylus acutus Pr not endemicCrocodylus moreletii Pr not endemic

A-13

TITLE 19 NATURAL RESOURCES AND WILDLIFECHAPTER 35 CAPTIVE WILDLIFE USESPART 10 PROTECTION FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 19.35.10.1 ISSUING AGENCY: New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. [19.35.10.1 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.2 SCOPE: To prohibit, permit and regulate commercial collecting of free-ranging, nativeamphibians and reptiles.[19.35.10.2 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.3 STATUTORY AUTHORITY: 17-1-14, 17-2-4.1, and 17-3-1 NMSA 1978 provide thatthe New Mexico State Game Commission has the authority to establish rules and regulations that itmay deem necessary to carry out the purpose of Chapter 17 NMSA 1978. [19.35.10.3 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.4 DURATION: Permanent. [19.35.10.4 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.5 EFFECTIVE DATE: October 31, 2001. [19.35.10.5 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.6 OBJECTIVE: Establish procedures and requirements for the take of free-ranging, nativeamphibians and reptiles for commercial purposes.[19.35.10.6 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.7 DEFINITIONS:

A. “Free Ranging, Native Amphibians and Reptiles” are those species and subspecies ofamphibians and reptiles naturally occurring in New Mexico.

B. "Commercial purpose" shall mean for the purpose of sale, barter, or profit. For this regulation,any person in possession of the annual bag limit or more than the annual bag limit of wild-caughtamphibians and reptiles shall be deemed to possess these individuals for commercial purposes. Inaddition, any person in possession of more than 50 individuals with unlimited take, shall bedeemed to possess these individuals for commercial purposes.

C. “Take” shall mean the act of seizing, capturing, trapping, killing of free-ranging, nativeamphibians and reptiles.

D. “Annual bag limit” shall mean the allowed number of individual, wild-caught amphibians andreptiles taken in a license year by a licensed collector.

E. “Fish Bait” shall mean the aquatic larval stage of the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum,used for baiting fish.

F. “Lizard races” shall mean the organized, competitive racing of any lizard not listed as threatenedor endangered.

G. “Rattlesnake Roundup” shall mean an organized public event where the purpose is to display,buy, sell, and trade rattlesnakes of the genus Crotalus.

H. “Captive-bred” shall mean amphibians and reptiles that are hatched or born in captivity as aresult of captive breeding.

[19.35.10.7 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

APPENDIX 2

LAWS REGARDING COLLECTING AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN NEW MEXICO

A-14

APPENDIX 2

LAWS REGARDING COLLECTING AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN NEW MEXICO (continued)

19.35.10.8 TAKE:

A. It is unlawful for any person to take free-ranging, native amphibians and reptiles in New Mexicofor commercial purposes without purchasing and having in possession a valid commercialcollecting permit. In addition, nonresidents must purchase and also have in their possession anonresident hunting license listed in Section 17-3-13 NMSA 1978 required by law for the year inwhich the taking is done.

B. It is unlawful to take all free-ranging, native amphibians and reptiles species that are Federal orState listed as threatened or endangered.

C. Exceptions:

(1) When there is an emergency situation involving an immediate threat to human life or privateproperty, rattlesnakes may be captured, removed, or destroyed without a permit.

(2) No permit is necessary for take of free-ranging, native amphibians and reptiles for thepurpose of rattlesnake roundups, fish bait, or lizard races. A commercial collecting permit isrequired when these species are taken for a commercial purpose.

(3) All other species of snake (other than rattlesnakes) collected and displayed for rattlesnakeroundups shall not be bought, sold, or traded unless the person collecting such snakes is inpossession of a commercial take permit.

(4) Amphibians and reptiles held in captivity prior to July 1, 2001 and their progeny are notsubject to these regulations.

[19.35.10.8 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.9 METHODS OF LEGAL TAKE: Only the following methods shall be used for thelegal, commercial take of free-ranging, native amphibians and reptiles.

A. Field collection, including the use of hand-held flashlights or spotlights, provided the collector isnot in possession of a firearm or other implement whereby any big game animal or domestic animalcould be killed.

B. Collection from road surfaces.

C. Lizard nooses, snake grabbers, and snake hooks.

D. Seines, cast nets, and dip nets.

[19.35.10.9 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.10 ANNUAL BAG LIMITS:

A. A list of native, free-ranging amphibians and reptiles known to occur in the state of New Mexicowherein take is allowed, with the annual bag limit for each, shall be established and maintainedby the Director of New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (Director’s Amphibian and ReptileList).

B. It shall be unlawful to exceed the annual bag limit of any species of amphibian or reptile listed onthe Director’s Amphibian and Reptile List for the current license year.

[19.35.10.10 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

A-15

APPENDIX 2


19.35.10.11 PERMIT:

A. Commercial Collecting Permit: This permit is herein established and required to be purchasedand in the possession of any person prior to their attempt to take any amphibian or reptile forcommercial purposes.

B. Availability and expiration: Commercial Collecting Permits will be available for purchase throughthe New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. Commercial Collecting Permits are valid onlyduring the current license year for which they were purchased. License years run from April 1through March 31 of the following calendar year. All commercial Collecting Permits expire onMarch 31 of each year.

C. Nonresidents are required to purchase and have in their possession a nonresident hunting licenselisted in Section 17-3-13 NMSA 1978 required by law for the year in which the taking is done, inaddition to the Commercial Collecting Permit.

D. FEE: Each person must pay $50.00 to receive a Commercial Collecting Permit.

[19.35.10.11 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

19.35.10.12 Year-End Reports: Each person who purchases a Commercial Collecting Permit isrequired to file a year-end report on a standardized form approved by the New Mexico Departmentof Game and Fish.

[19.35.10.12 NMAC - N, 10-31-01]

Summary of other relevant nongame laws in New Mexico

Sections pertinent to trade in CDE reptiles are in boldface.

Jurisdiction: State jurisdiction over nongame species is afforded through various statutes, as follows:

17-2-3: Defines game by listing the species or groups.

17-2-13: Defines protected birds by listing the species or groups.

17-5-5 Defines and protects birds of prey in the orders Falconiformes and Strigiformes, exceptthat bald and golden eagles are excluded (the bald eagle is included by regulation under17-2-28).

17-5-6 Protects horned toads [lizards] from willful killing, sale, and exportation.

17-5-7 Authorizes the Department of Game and Fish to restrict the taking of rabbits to protecthumans from bubonic plague.

17-5-8 Authorizes the listing as threatened or endangered of any qualifying species ofmammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish, mollusk, or crustacean in New Mexico, withprotection, research, and management also authorized.

17-5-9 Protects nongame animals or birds from being taken by nonresidents without a license.

17-5-10 Authorizes the Department of Game and Fish to issue scientific collecting permits to takegame, birds, or fishes mentioned in Chapter 17.

17-5-11 Requires a permit from the Department of Game and Fish for the importation into NewMexico of live animals, birds, and fishes.

17-5-12 Protects nonpredatory furbearing animals from harvest by persons 14 and older without alicense.

A-16

APPENDIX 2


Programs: The only specific unit within the Department of Game and Fish that is charged withthe management of nongame animals per se is the Endangered Species Program in theConservation Services Division. This program was established on 1 July 1974 by the passage ofthe Wildlife Conservation Act (17-2-37 through 17-2-46). Conservation Services Division, alongwith Division of Wildlife, Fisheries Division, Law Enforcement, and Public Affairs, administersnumerous other programs that involve major nongame components.

Funding: Funding from nongame activities in the department comes from multiple sources: TheEndangered Species Program is supported by the New Mexico General Fund, with the majority ofthat appropriation being matched against federal aid programs. The chief source of federal aid forthe program is from the Pittman-Robertson Act that provides for the study and management ofnongame birds and mammals. A lesser amount is provided from the Dingell-Johnson Act, whichallows for the general study and management of nongame fishes in association with game species.Finally, other program funds are obtained through the federal Endangered Species Act fundingauthorized in Section 6.

Nongame species benefit from various programs in the Department based on Pittman-RobertsonAct/Dingell-Johnson Act funding. Matching state funds for these projects come from severalsources, including license fees and the Share With Wildlife state income tax checkoff program. Thedepartment also spends some 100% state funds on projects for nongame species, both from license-fee and tax-checkoff sources.

The Share With Wildlife Program was instituted in 1981, with the passage of income tax checkofffor wildlife (17-2-23). That law allows persons who are entitled to receive a refund on their NewMexico state income tax to donate all or a portion of it to the Department of Game and Fish. Thesefunds are used both as matching shares in federal aid projects and as 100% state outlays.

A-17

Nongame regulations for Texas:Source http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/nature/wild/nongamregs.htm

PERMITS FOR THE COLLECTION AND SALE OF NONGAME WILDLIFE

§65.325.Applicability.

A. Except as provided in subsection (b) of this section, this subchapter applies to the nongamewildlife listed in §65.331 of this title (relating to Affected Species), living or dead, including partsof nongame wildlife and captive-bred nongame wildlife.

B. This subchapter does not apply to:

1. dead mountain lions, bobcats, or coyotes;

2. fish;

3. the purchase, possession, or sale of processed products;

4. teachers at accredited primary or secondary educational institutions, provided that thenongame wildlife is possessed solely for educational purposes and is not sold or transferred toanother person for the purpose of sale;

5. persons or establishments selling nongame wildlife for and ready for immediate consumptionin individual portion servings, and which are subject to limited sales or use tax; or

6. persons 16 years of age or younger, provided the person is not engaged in a commercialactivity involving nongame wildlife;

7. aquatic products possessed under a valid bait dealer’s license; or

8. albinos of any species of nongame

§65.326. Definitions. The following words and terms, when used in this subchapter, shall have thefollowing meanings, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. All other words and terms shallhave the meanings assigned by the Parks and Wildlife Code or regulatory definitions adopted underthe authority of Parks and Wildlife Code.

1. Captive-bred — Any wildlife born in captivity from parents held in captivity.

2. Commercial activity — The sale, offer for sale, exchange, or barter of nongame wildlife.

3. Possession — actual care, custody, or control of nongame wildlife.

4. Resale — Any transaction or activity in which a person purchases nongame wildlife orotherwise acquires nongame wildlife for a consideration and subsequently transfers ordelivers the same nongame wildlife to any person in exchange for compensation orremuneration of any kind.

5. Processed product —

a. nongame wildlife or parts of nongame wildlife that have been treated or prepared, bymeans other than refrigeration or freezing, to prevent decomposition; or

b. parts of nongame wildlife that do not require treatment or preparation to preventdecomposition.

APPENDIX 3

LAWS REGARDING COLLECTING AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN TEXAS

A-18

APPENDIX 3

LAWS REGARDING COLLECTING AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN TEXAS (continued)

§65.327. Permit Required.

A. Except as provided in this section or in §65.325 of this title (relating to Applicability), no personin this state may possess nongame wildlife for commercial purposes, or possess more than tenspecimens of a single subspecies of nongame wildlife or more than 25 specimens of nongamewildlife in the aggregate, unless that person possesses a valid commercial collection permit or avalid nongame dealer permit issued by the department.

B. No person in this state may resell nongame wildlife unless that person possesses a valid nongamedealer permit by the department.

C. No person may sell nongame wildlife unless that person possesses a valid commercial nongamecollection permit.

D. No person may, for the purpose of sale, transport or ship nongame wildlife out of this state, orcause such transport or shipment, unless that person possesses an applicable, valid nongamepermit issued by the department.

E. Except as provided by subsection (f) of this section, a permit required by this subchapter shall bepossessed on the person of the permittee during any activity governed by this subchapter;however, an employee of the holder of a nongame dealer’s permit may engage in commercialactivity or the resale of nongame wildlife at a permanent place of business operated by thepermittee, provided that:

1. the employer’s permit is maintained at the place of business during all activities governed bythis subchapter; and

2. the place of business has been identified on the application required by §65.329 of this title(relating to Permit Application).

a. In the event that the holder of a nongame dealer’s permit conducts activities at a place inaddition to a permanent place of business, that person shall possess on their person alegible photocopy of a valid nongame dealer’s permit during all such activities.

b. This subchapter does not relieve any person of the obligation to possess an appropriatehunting license for any activity involving the take of nongame wildlife.

§65.329. Permit Application.

1. An applicant for a dealer’s permit under this subchapter shall submit to the department acompleted application on a form supplied by the department, accompanied by thenonrefundable fee specified in Chapter 53 of this title (relating to Finance).

2. The department reserves the right to refuse permit issuance to any person finally convicted ofany violation of Parks and Wildlife Code during the five-year period immediately prior to anapplication for a permit under this subchapter. This paragraph does not apply to convictionsunder Parks and Wildlife Code, Chapter 31.

3. The department shall not issue a permit to any person who has not complied with theapplicable requirements of §65.330 of this title (relating to Reporting Requirements).

4. Permits shall be issued to named individuals only, resident or nonresident as applicable, andshall not be issued in the name of any firm, organization, or institution.

A-19

APPENDIX 3


§65.330. Record and Reporting Requirements.

A. A person possessing a commercial collection permit shall:

1. maintain and possess upon their person during any collection activities a daily collection logindicating the date, location, and number of specimens of each species collected and/orpossessed during the period of validity of the permit, which shall be presented upon therequest of a department employee acting within the official scope of their duties; and

2. complete and submit to the department an annual report, accompanied by the permittee’scollection log, by the 15th of September of each year.

a. A person possessing a nongame dealer permit shall:

1) maintain a current daily record of all purchases and sales, which shall be presentedupon the request of a department employee acting within the official scope of theirduties;

2) maintain a collection log, invoice, or receipt identifying the source or origin of eachspecimen of nongame wildlife in possession, which shall be presented upon requestto an employee of the department acting within the official scope of their duties; and

3) complete and submit to the department an annual report by the 15th of September ofeach year.

a) All records required by this section shall be retained and kept available forinspection for a period of one year following the period of validity of the permitunder which they are required to be kept.

§65.331. Affected Species. The following species are subject to the provisions of this subchapter.

Authors’ Note: The following list of species is taken directly from TPWD nongame regulations onthe TPWD website. There are some taxonomic redundancies and one turtle species, Pseudemysgorzugi, does not appear on the list.

FROGS AND TOADS (See our Key for ID)

Cope's gray treefrog (Hyla chrysoscelis) Canyon treefrog (Hyla arenicolor) Gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) Green treefrog (Hyla cinerea) Squirrel treefrog (Hyla squirella) Couch's spadefoot (Scaphiopus couchi) Plains spadefoot (Scaphiopus [=Spea] bombifrons) Northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans crepitans) Blanchard's cricket frog (Acris crepitans blanchardi) Coastal cricket frog (Acris crepitans paludicola) Great plains toad (Bufo cognatus) Eastern green toad (Bufo debilis debilis) Western green toad (Bufo debilis insidior)

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Red-spotted toad (Bufo punctatus) Texas toad (Bufo speciosus) Gulf Coast toad (Bufo valliceps valliceps) Southwestern Woodhouse's toad (Bufo woodhousii australis) East Texas Toad (Bufo woodhousii velatus) Woodhouse's toad (Bufo woodhousii woodhousii) Bull frog (Rana catesbeiana) Southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) Bronze frog (Rana clamitans clamatans) Pig frog (Rana grylio)

SALAMANDERS (See our Key for ID)

Barred tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium) Eastern tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum) Marbled salamander (Ambystoma opacum) Mole salamander (Ambystoma talpoideum) Spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum)

TURTLES

Desert (Western) box turtle (Terrapene ornata luteola) Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata ornata) Three-toed (Eastern) box turtle (Terrapene carolina triunguis) Cagle's map turtle (Graptemys caglei) Mississippi map turtle (Graptemys pseuogeographica kohnii) Ouachita map turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica ouachitensis) Sabine map turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica sabinensis) Texas map turtle (Graptemys versa) Yellow mud turtle (Kinosternon flavescens flavescens) Mississippi (Eastern) mud turtle (Kinosternon subrubrum hippocrepis) Western chicken turtle (Deirochelys reticularia miaria) Red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) Midland smooth softshell turtle (Apalone muticus muticus) Texas spiny softshell (Apalone spiniferus emoryi)Guadalupe spiny softshell (Apalone spiniferus guadalupensis) Western spiny softshell (Apalone spiniferus hartwegi) Pallid spiny softshell (Apalone spiniferus pallidus) Metter's river cooter (Pseudemys concinna metteri) Texas river cooter (Pseudemys texana) Western painted turtle (Chrysemys picta belli) Southern painted turtle (Chrysemys picta dorsalis) Common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina serpentina) Texas diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin littoralis)

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LIZARDS

Texas alligator lizard (Gerrhonotus liocephalus infernalis) Western slender glass lizard (Ophisaurus attenuatus attenuatus) Green anole (Anolis carolinensis) Texas banded gecko (Coleonyx brevis) Southwestern earless lizard (Cophosaurus texanus scitulus) Texas earless lizard (Cophosaurus texanus scitulus) Eastern collared lizard (Crotaphytus collaris collaris) Chihuahuan collared lizard (Crotaphytus collaris fuscus) Crevice spiny lizard (Sceloporus poinsetti poinsetti) Texas spiny lizard (Sceloporus olivaceus) Twin-spotted (Desert) spiny lizard (Sceloporus magister bimaculosus) Northern (Eastern) fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus) Northern prairie lizard (Sceloporus undulatus garmani) Southern Prairie lizard (Sceloporus undulatus consobrinus) Big Bend canyon lizard (Sceloporus merriami annulatus) Presidio canyon lizard (Sceloporus merriami longipunctatus) Merriam's canyon lizard (Sceloporus merriami merriami) Longnose leopard lizard (Gambelia wislizenii wislizenii) Eastern tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus ornatus) Big Bend tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus schmidti) Desert side-blotched lizard (Uta stansburiana stejnegeri) Roundtail horned lizard (Phrynosoma modestum) Broadhead skink (Eumeces laticeps) Great plains skink (Eumeces obsoletus) Ground skink (Scincella lateralis) Gray-checkered whiptail (Cnemidophorus dixoni) Chihuahuan spotted whiptail (Cnemidophorus exsanguis) Texas spotted whiptail (Cnemidophorus gularis gularis) Plateau spotted whiptail (Cnemidophorus gularis septemvittatus) Trans-Pecos striped whiptail (Cnemidophorus inornatus heptagrammus) Laredo striped whiptail (Cnemidophorus laredoensis) Marbled whiptail (Cnemidophorus marmoratus) New Mexico whiptail (Cnemidophorus neomexicanus) Colorado checkered whiptail (Cnemidophorus tesselatus) Desert grassland whiptail (Cnemidophorus uniparens) Six-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus sexlinieatus) Prairie-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus viridis)

SNAKES

Baird's rat snake (Elaphe bairdi)Texas rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta lindheimeri)

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Trans-Pecos rat snake (Bogertophis subocularis) Great Plains rat snake (Elaphe guttata emoryi) Rough green snake (Opheodrys aestivus) Rough earth snake (Virginia striatula) Western smooth earth snake (Virginia valeriae elegans) Ground snake (Sonora semiannulata) Yellowbelly water snake (Nerodia erythrogaster flavigaster) Gray-banded kingsnake (Lampropeltis alterna) Louisiana milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum amaura) Mexican milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum annulata) New Mexico milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum celaenops)Central Plains milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis) Speckled kingsnake (Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki) Desert kingsnake (Lampropeltis getulus splendida) Bullsnake (Pituophis melanoleucus sayi) Texas longnose snake (Rhinocheilus lecontei tessallatus) Eastern coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum flagellum) Western coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum testaceus) Central Texas whipsnake (Masticophis taeniatus girardi) Desert Striped whipsnake (Masticophis taeniatus taeniatus) Eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) Texas garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis annectans) New Mexico garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis dorsalis) Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix haydenii) Checkered garter snake (Thamnophis marcianus marcianus) Eastern blackneck garter snake (Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellatus) Western blackneck garter snake (Thamnophis cyrtopsis cyrtopsis) Western ribbon snake (Thamnophis proximus proximus) Redstripe ribbon snake (Thamnophis proximus rubrilineatus) Gulf Coast ribbon snake (Thamnophis proximus orarius) Arid land ribbon snake (Thamnophis proximus diabolicus) Mississippi ringneck snake (Diadophis punctatus stictogenys) Prairie ringneck snake (Diadophis punctatus arnyi) Regal ringneck snake (Diadophis punctatus regalis) Kansas glossy snake (Arizona elegans elegans) Texas glossy snake (Arizona elegans arenicola) Painted desert glossy snake (Arizona elegans philipi) Plains (western) hognose snake (Heterodon nasicus nasicus) Dusty hognose snake (Heterodon nasicus gloydi) Mexican hognose snake (Heterodon nasicus kennerlyi) Eastern hognose snake (Heterodon platirhinos)

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Mountain patchnose snake (Salvadora grahamiae grahamiae) Texas patchnose snake (Salvadora grahamiae lineata) Big Bend patchnose snake (Salvadora deserticola) Texas coral snake (Micrurus fulvius tenere) Southern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix) Broad-banded copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus) Trans-Pecos copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix pictigaster) Western cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma) Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) Prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis) Mottled rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus lepidus) Banded rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus klauberi) Northern blacktail rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus molossus) Western massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus) Desert massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus edwardsii) Pygmy rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius)

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APPENDIX 4

LAWS REGARDING COLLECTING AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN ARIZONA

Regulations for collecting and possession of amphibians and reptiles in Arizona (ArizonaGame and Fish Department)

COMMISSION ORDER 41: AMPHIBIANS

OPEN SEASON DATES NOTES OPEN AREAS LEGAL AMPHIBIANS

A. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 3, 6, and 7.Open statewide except areas closed in Note 7.All amphibians are legal, except those named in Subsections B, C, D, E, and F.BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Ten (10) per year or in possession per species live or dead.

B. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 3, 6, and 7.Open statewide, except areas closed in Note 7.Legal amphibians include: Bufo cognatus (Great Plains toad), B. punctatus (red-spotted toad),Scaphiopus couchii (Couch's spadefoot), and Spea multiplicata (New Mexico spadefoot).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Ten (10) per day or in possession per species live or dead.

C. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7.Open statewide, except areas closed in Notes 5 and 7.Legal amphibians include: Ambystoma tigrinum (waterdog or tiger salamander).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Unlimited live or dead.

D. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7.Legal amphibians include: Rana catesbeiana (bullfrog).Open statewide, except areas closed in Note 7, including Havasu, Bill Williams River, Cibola,and Imperial national wildlife refuges (as permitted by refuge regulations; posted areas closed).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Unlimited dead; see Note 2.

E. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 3, 6 and 7.Legal amphibians include: All species in the genus Xenopus (clawed frogs) and Bufo marinus(giant toad).Open statewide, except areas closed in Note 7.BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Unlimited dead.

F. There is no open season on Rana tarahumarae (Tarahumara frog), Rana blairi (plains leopardfrog), Rana chiricahuensis (Chiricahua leopard frog), Rana pipiens (northern leopard frog), Ranayavapaiensis (lowland leopard frog), Rana onca (relict leopard frog), and Rana subaquavocalis(Ramsey Canyon leopard frog). See Note 4.

NOTES

1. A fishing or combination license is required for take of amphibians. Amphibians may be takenday or night per to R12-4-313.

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2. The possession limit for live bullfrogs legally held prior to closure of live bag limits (January 1,1996, in Mohave, La Paz, and Yuma counties, or January 1, 1988, in all other counties) is 12 perperson.

3. The Fort Huachuca Military Reservation controls access to the taking of aquatic wildlife on itsinstallation.

4. The possession limit for native species of leopard frogs legally held prior to January 1, 1993,when season closure went into effect, is 10 per species per person.

5. No waterdogs or salamanders may be taken in that portion of Santa Cruz County lying east andsouth of State Highway 82 or that portion of Cochise County lying west of the San Pedro Riverand south of State Highway 82.

6. Wildlife areas are open or closed in accordance with Commission Order 1 and R12-4-802.Wildlife Area Restrictions (see Arizona Hunting Regulations).

7. Amphibians may not be taken at any time (or during periods specified) within the following areas:

(1). Posted boundaries of State or Federal hatcheries.

(2). Posted boundary of the Region I regional headquarters in Pinetop.

(3). The Colorado River one-half mile upstream and one-half mile downstream from itsconfluence with the Little Colorado River.

(4). That portion of the Little Colorado River lying within the Grand Canyon National Park.

(5). Lee Valley Creek above Lee Valley Lake.

(6). Gap Creek between Honeymoon Cabin and its confluence with the Verde River.

(7). Mineral Creek in Apache County upstream of the Apache-Sitgreaves National ForestBoundary.

(8). Posted areas immediately above the dams at Upper Lake Mary, Alamo Lake, and LakeMead.

(9). Posted areas immediately below Davis, Hoover, Glen Canyon, Waddell (Lake Pleasant),Roosevelt, Horse Mesa, and Mormon Flat dams.

(10). Posted, Spawning Pond Number 1 and Spawning Pond Number 2 located along theSalinity Canal north of Yuma.

(11). The Luna Lake Wildlife Area from April 1 through July 31.

(12). Posted portions of Alamo Lake.

(13). Posted portions of the Tonto Arm of Roosevelt Lake from January 1 through February 15and from November 15 through December 31.

(14). Posted portions of Mittry Lake from November 15 through February 15 annually.

(15). Posted portions of Becker Lake are closed to all public entry from April 1 through July31, and December 15 through June 15 annually.

(16). Posted portions of Lake Mead.

(17). Posted portions of Powers Butte Wildlife Area are closed to entry for the purpose oftaking wildlife.

(18). Posted portions of Bog Hole Wildlife Area.

APPENDIX 4

LAWS REGARDING COLLECTING AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN ARIZONA (continued)

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APPENDIX 4


(19). Posted portions of Lake Havasu.

(20). Posted portions of Cienega Creek in Pima County.

(21). Aravaipa Creek in Pinal and Graham counties.

(22). Sycamore Creek in Santa Cruz County.

Arizona Game and Fish Department

COMMISSION ORDER 43: REPTILES

OPEN SEASON DATES NOTES OPEN AREAS LEGAL REPTILES

A. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7.Statewide, except areas closed in Notes 5, 6, and 7.All reptiles, except those named in Subsections B, C, D, E, F, and G.BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Four (4) per year or in possession of each species live or dead.

B. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 2, 5, and 6.Statewide, except areas closed in Notes 5 and 6.Legal reptiles include Crotalus atrox (western diamondback rattlesnake) and C. scutulatus(Mojave rattlesnake).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Four (4) per day or in possession of each species live or dead.

C. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 2, 5, and 6.Statewide, except areas closed in Notes 5 and 6.Legal reptiles include Lichanura trivirgata (rosy boa), Senticolis triaspis (green rat snake),Lampropeltis pyromelana (Sonoran Mountain kingsnake), and Lampropeltis triangulum (milksnake).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Two (2) per year or four (4) in possession of each species liveor dead.

D. January 1 through December 31, 2001. Notes 5 and 6.Statewide, except closed in areas 1, 2, 5, and 6. Legal reptiles include: Sceloporus undulatus (prairie/plateau lizards), Tantilla hobartsmithi(southwestern blackheaded snake), and all species in the genera: Callisaurus (zebratail lizards),Cnemidophorus (whiptails), Coleonyx (banded geckos), Cophosaurus (greater earless lizards),Holbrookia (lesser earless lizards), Urosaurus (tree lizards), Uta (side-blotched lizards),Hypsiglena (night snakes), Leptotyphlops (blind snakes), and Sonora (ground snakes).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Twenty (20) per day or in possession in the aggregate live ordead.

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APPENDIX 4


E. January 1 through December 31, 2001.Notes 1, 5, 6, 8, and 9.Statewide, except areas closed in Notes 5, 6, and 9.Legal reptiles include Apalone spinifera (spiny softshell), Trachemys scripta (slider), and allspecies of the family Chelydridae (snapping turtles).BAG AND POSSESSION LIMIT: Unlimited dead.

F. There is no open season on Phrynosoma mcallii (flat-tail horned lizard), Heloderma suspectum(Gila monster), Crotalus lepidus (rock rattlesnake), Crotalus pricei (twin-spotted rattlesnake),Crotalus willardi (ridgenose rattlesnake), Sistrurus catenatus (massasauga), and Gopherusagassizii (desert tortoise); see Notes 3 and 4.

NOTES:

1. A hunting or combination license is required for take of reptiles other than softshell turtles.Reptiles may be taken day or night. See R12-4-304 for restrictions on the use of artificial light.By law, softshell turtles are considered aquatic wildlife and a fishing or combination license isrequired for take. Methods of take are prescribed at R12-4-313(E).

2. Per R12-4-404, progeny of lawfully held reptiles other than desert tortoises may, for twelvemonths from date of hatching or birth, be held in captivity in excess of the stated limits. Beforeor upon reaching twelve months of age, such progeny must be disposed of by gift to anotherperson or as directed by the Department.

3. Per R12-4-407.1, desert tortoises legally held prior to April 28, 1989, may be possessed,transported and propagated. Possession limit is one desert tortoise per person. Progeny oflawfully held desert tortoises may, for twenty-four months from date of hatching, be held incaptivity in excess of the stated limit. Before or upon reaching twenty-four months of age, suchprogeny must be disposed of by gift to another person or as directed by the Department.

4. The possession limit for massasaugas legally held prior to January 1, 1989, when season closurewent into effect, is four (4) per person. See Note 2.

5. The Fort Huachuca Military Reservation, the Yuma Proving Ground, and Camp Navajo controlaccess to hunting on their installations.

6. Wildlife areas are open or closed in accordance with Commission Order 1 and R12-4-802.Wildlife Area Restrictions (see Arizona Hunting Regulations).

7. Chuckwallas (genus Sauromalus) may not be taken within the boundaries of Phoenix SouthMountain Park.

8. The Fort Huachuca Military Reservation controls access to the taking of aquatic wildlife on itsinstallation.

9. Softshell turtles may not be taken at any time (or during periods specified) within the followingareas:

(1) Posted boundaries of State or Federal hatcheries.

(2) Posted boundary of the Region I regional headquarters in Pinetop.

(3) The Colorado River one-half mile upstream and one-half mile downstream from itsconfluence with the Little Colorado River.

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APPENDIX 4


(4) That portion of the Little Colorado River lying within the Grand Canyon National Park.

(5) Lee Valley Creek above Lee Valley Lake.

(6) Gap Creek between Honeymoon Cabin and its confluence with the Verde River.

(7) Mineral Creek in Apache County upstream of the Apache-Sitgreaves National ForestBoundary.

(8) Posted areas immediately above the dams at Upper Lake Mary, Alamo Lake, and LakeMead.

(9) Posted areas immediately below Davis, Hoover, Glen Canyon, Waddell (Lake Pleasant),Roosevelt, Horse Mesa, and Mormon Flat dams.

(10) Posted, Spawning Pond Number 1 and Spawning Pond Number 2 located along theSalinity Canal north of Yuma.

(11) The Luna Lake Wildlife Area from April 1 through July 31.

(12) Posted portions of Alamo Lake.

(13) Posted portions of the Tonto Arm of Roosevelt Lake from January 1 through February 15and from November 15 through December 31.

(14) Posted portions of Mittry Lake from November 15 through February 15 annually.

(15) Posted portions of Becker Lake are closed to all public entry from April 1 through July 31,and December 15 through June 15 annually.

(16) Posted portions of Lake Mead.

(17) Posted portions of Powers Butte Wildlife Area are closed to entry for the purpose of takingwildlife.

(18) Posted portions of Bog Hole Wildlife Area.

(19) Posted portions of Lake Havasu.

(20) Posted portions of Cienega Creek in Pima County.

(21) Aravaipa Creek in Pinal and Graham counties.

(22) Sycamore Creek in Santa Cruz County.

TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, works toensure that trade in wild plants andanimals is not a threat to the con-servation of nature. It has officescovering most parts of the worldand works in close co-operationwith the Secretariat of theConvention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Faunaand Flora (CITES).

For further information contact:

The DirectorTRAFFIC North America

c/o World Wildlife Fund-US1250 24th Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20037Telephone: 202-293-4800

Fax: 202-775-8287Email: [email protected]

Web Site: www.traffic.org

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Trade, and Regulation the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion · The views of the authors expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the TRAFFIC Network, ... The Chihuahuan