Trace Minerals for Poultry

Edgar 0. Oviedo-Rondon DVM, MSc., Ph.D., Dipl. ACPV Associate Professor/Extension Specialist Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh

Take Home Message

Requirements for TM are not well defined and more research is needed to determine the most adequate levels in practical diets. Factors such as eggshell strength, internal egg quality, deposition of TM in yolk, bone strength, reductions in leg problems and footpad dermatitis, improvements on bone and skin biomechanical properties and collagen formation in several tissues, and immunity parameters should be considered as better parameters to estimate requirements and bioavailability values than just mineral accumulation in bones or other tissues. There is a considerable amount of data that demonstrates that TM affect all parameters previously mentioned. Requirements should be evaluated using practical diets and normal levels of all other TM. It will become more important to obtain absolute bioavailability values at least for those sources considered standards. If relative bioavailability values will continue to be used for TM, these evaluations should additionally use molecular biomarkers such as protein gene expression in several tissues to test relative absorption and utilization simultaneously. Organic TM sources definitely have better bioavailability and cause more positive responses in poultry than ITM sources based on the meaningful biological parameters previously listed. The methodologies to evaluate OTM product quality and relative bioavailability may not be adequate at this moment. The optimum combination ratios of ITM with OTM remain to be established.

Introduction

There are 27 essential minerals for animals, and those found in the diets in less than 100 ppm are considered micro or trace minerals {TM}. Generally, their levels in the diets will be measured in ppm, mg/kg or g/ton. In poultry species, the TM that are supplemented are zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), iodine (1), and selenium (Se). Other trace minerals like cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), and molybdenum (Mo) are not generally added in poultry mineral premixes, but they can have some effects in poultry. The purpose of this presentation is to discuss sources of TM, their bioavailability, and their utilization in poultry diets. Some examples of utilization of different levels and sources of trace minerals will be presented. This discussion will include applications in broiler breeder, broiler, layer, and turkey diets. Aspects of mineral nutrition and functions of TM in metabolism and health will only be used to illustrate differences among TM sources during the discussion, because there are several literature reviews on these topics (Leeson, 2005; Salim et al., 2008; Spears and Hansen, 2008; Bao and Choct, 2009; Sahin et al., 2009).

Trace Mineral Requirements for Poultry

The requirements of TM for poultry are not totally defined and there is considerable variation in research results and recommended levels for all poultry sectors and feeding phases {Tables 1 to 4 ). Almost all research used to estimate TM requirements for poultry was done between the 1950's and 1980's, and very little has been done since that time (NRG, 1994; Leeson, 2005). Some of the recommendations of TM levels are based on estimations from research done in other species, since research specifically focused to estimate TM requirements has never been conducted in poultry. For example, there are no research results available for broiler breeders, so levels used are based on

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extrapolation from experience or research results conducted in leghorn layers without considering needs for embryo development. Consequently, it is difficult to trust that those values are valid for modern poultry genetically selected for rapid growth, high meat yield or egg production. Thus, different levels could be appropriate depending on the bioavailability of the source used, environmental conditions and productivity status. In fact, many of the values compiled in the NRC (1994) differ greatly from those recommended by genetic companies and currently used in the poultry industry (Tables 1 to 4). The difficulties to determine TM requirements are similar to the ones observed at evaluating bioavailability in TM sources and they will be discussed later on in this text (Spears and Hansen, 2008; Bao and Choct, 2009).

Table 1. Trace mineral levels (g/ton) recommended or used for broiler breeders. Cobb2 Hubbard3 Ross4 Commercial

Trace NRC 43- Pre-lay 0- Prelay 0- 105d-Lay levels5

minerals (1994)1 0-42d 119d & lay 133d & Lay 104d & Males Growing Laying Copper 10-15 10-15 10-15 10-15 5 10 16 10 6-10 6-12 Manganese 100-120 100 100 120 80 100 120 120 60-85 80-100 Iodine 0.5-2.0 1.5 0.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.25 2.0 0.5-0.9 0.5-1.3 Iron 20-55 20-50 20-50 40~55 60 60 40 50 35-50 30-70 Selenium 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2-0.3 0.2-0.35 Zinc 100-120 100 120 110 80 100 100 100 50-65 60-100 7 Balded and italic values indicate that there were no research reports in 1994 for NRC recommendations. 2 Cobb - 500 Breeder management supplement, Cobb-Vantress, Siloam Springs, Arkansas, USA. 3 Hubbard. Management guide parent stock. 4 Ross. Ross Nutrition Supplement, 2009. Parent stock nutrition specification, 2007. 5 Personal communications.

Table 2. Trace mineral levels (g/ton) recommended or used for broilers. Hubbard3 Commercial levels5

Trace NRC minerals (1994)1 Cobb2 Broiler "Label" Ross4 0-18d 18-35d Copper 8 15 1 O 1 O 16 5-10 4-8 · Manganese 60 120 80 60 120 70-120 60-100 Iodine 0.35 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.25 0.6-1.2 0.5-0.9 Iron 80 40 60 50 40 20-50 15-40 Selenium 0.15 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.25-0.30 0.20-0.32 Zinc 40 100 80 70 100 60-85 50-70 1 Balded and italic values indicate that there were no research reports in 1994 for NRC recommendations.

>35d 3-6

50-75 0.4-0.7 10-30

0.20-0.30 40-60

2 Cobb - 500 Broiler management manual & Cobb Broiler Nutrition Guide. Cobb-Vantress, Siloam Springs, Arkansas, USA.

3 Hubbard. Management guide Broiler. 4 Ross. Ross Nutrition Supplement. 2009. Broiler Management Guide. 5 Personal communications.

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Table 3. Trace mineral levels (g/ton) recommended or used for leghorn-type chickens in growing and laying periods and egg-type breeders.

Egg type pullets NRC (1994)1

White Brown strains strains Layers and breeders

Trace 0-6 6-18 0-6 6-18 NRC minerals wk wk wk wk Hy-line2 ISA3 (1994) Hy-line4 ISA5

Copper 5 4 5 4 4.4 6-8 ?-6 9.0 8 Manganese 60 30 56 28 66 60 17-25 66 70 Iodine 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.33 0.9 1.0 0.034-0.04 0.9 1.0 Iron 80 60 75 56 33 60 38-56 33-66 60 Selenium 0.15 0.10 0.14 0.10 0.30 0.25 0.03-0.04 0.30 0.25 Zinc 40 35 38 33 66 60 29-44 66 60 1 Bolded and italic values indicate that there were no research reports in 1994 for NRC recommendations. 2 Hy-line. Commercial management guide. 3 ISA. Nutrition management guide.

Lohmann PAN6

5-8 60-80 0.7-1.0 40-45 0.15

50-60

4 Hy-line. Parent stock management guide. 5 ISA. Nutrition management guide. 6 Jeroch, H. Recommendations for energy and nutrients of layers: a critical review. Lohman information 46:61-72.

Table 4. Trace mineral levels {g/ton) recommended or used for turkeys and turkey breeders. NRC (1994) Commercial recommendations

Trace Growth Breeders Growth Nicholas & BUT1

minerals 0-8 wk 8-24 wk Holding Laying 0-6wk Copper 8 6 6 8 12 Manganese 70-50 60-50 60 60 130-120 Zinc 70-65 40 40 65 100 Iodine 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 3-2 Iron 80-60 60-50 50 60 100-80 Selenium 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4-0.3

Aviagen. Feeding Guidelines for Nicholas and B.U.T. Medium Lines. 2 Aviagen. Feeding Guides for Breeder Males.

Trace Mineral Sources

7-16wk >17wk 12 12 110 110

100-80 80 2-1 1

60-45 45 0.3-0.25 0.2

Breeder2

Males 20

100-120 70-100

2 20-50

0.2

Trace minerals can be ingested through drinking water, feed ingredients, and supplemental sources. The supplemental sources can be inorganic salts or organic sources (Tables 5 and 6). Adequate drinking water should not provide considerable amounts of TM, and generally its contribution is disregarded. The total Cu and Zn provided by corn soybean meal diets or diets based on other grains feed ingredients could be enough for the needs of young broilers, but their bioavailability is generally low or too variable due to phytate content and other factors. The few bioavailabilities reported for feed ingredients range from 40 to 78% (Leeson, 2005).

Inorganic sources of TM (ITM) generally are oxides, sulfates, and in some cases carbonates. In the inorganic salts the metal ion is bound by electrovalency which can easily release free ions. Those free ions can react with other dietary molecules, like other metals, phytate, phosphate, polyphenols or ascorbic acid. These reactions can form compounds difficult to absorb or can change the form of the ion to a non-absorbable state. Additionally, free ions can affect enzymatic activities in the intestinal tract. Apparently, these problems could be solved with metal chelates, also called organic sources of TM, which could be protected from pH changes during digestion and traverse the mucosal cell and basement membrane intact into the blood circulation.

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Table 5. Main trace mineral sources and relative biological values. Relative Standard

Chemical formula Element% Bioavailabilit~ deviation

Zinc Inorganic Sources Zinc sulfate (heptahydrate) ZnS04 . 7H20 22 100 Zinc sulfate (monohydrate) ZnSO4. H2O 36 100 Zinc oxide ZnO 46 -80 50-67 25 Zinc carbonate Zn. CO3 52-56 93-100 16 Zinc chloride ZnCl2 48 100-107 Organic Sources Zinc methionine 4 - 10 131 11 Zinc lysine 9.5 105 - 115 Zinc amino acid chelate Zn (x)1-3· nH2O 9.5 98 - 112

(x = anion of any amino acid derived from hydrolysed

soya protein) Zinc proteinate 13-14 100- 111 Zinc polysaccaride 19 94-105

Copper Inorganic Sources Copper sulphate (pentahydrate) CuS04 . 5H20 25 100 Cupric sulfate (anhydrous) CuSO4 39.9 100 Copper hydroxide Cu(OHh Copper nitrate Cu(NO3h 33.9 Copper orthophosphate Cu3(PO4h Copper acetate Cu(OAch 32.1 103 10 Cupric carbonate (monohydrate) CuCO3.Cu(OHh.H2O 50 - 55 64 4 Cupric chloride CuCl2 37 81 Cupric chloride tribasic, CuiOHhCI 58-60 103 Cupric oxide, CuO 75-80 0-10 Organic Sources Cupric methionine Cu(CsH10NO2S h variable 91

Cupric lysine 10 109 - 124

Cupric amino acid chelate Cu (x)1_3· nH2O 9 122 (x = anion of any amino acid

derived from hydrolysed soya protein)

Cupric proteinates 8-10 105 - 111

Manganese Inorganic Sources Manganous sulfate MnS04 . H20 28.5-32 100

(monohydrate) Manganous oxide MnO 52 - 77 70-85 12

Manganous dioxide MnO2 36 -43 31 -95

Manganous carbonate MnCO3 43-47 30-66

Manganous chloride ( tetra hydrate) MnCl2. 4H2O 27.5 97

Organic Sources Manganese methionine 15 110

Manganese eroteinate 10 109-112 12 Sources: Sauvant et al., 2004; Ewing and Charlton, 2007.

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Table 6. Iodine, iron, selenium and cobalt sources and relative biological values. Relative Standard

Chemical formula Element% Bioavailability deviation

Iodine Inorganic Sources Potassium or sodium iodide 76-84 100 Calcium iodate (anhydrous) Ca(lO3h 65 95 Calcium iodate (hexahydrate) Ca(IO3)2 6H2O 51 Calcium iodide Cal2 86.4 Ethyldiaminedihydroiodide (EDDI) C2H10l2N2 80

Iron Inorganic Sources Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate FeSO4. 5H2O 20 100 Ferric ammonium citrate C5Hs+4yF exNyO1 17 115 Ferrous carbonate FeCO3 47 27 39 Ferric citrate FeC6HsO1· 3H2O 16.5-18.5 Ferric chloride (hexahydrate) FeCl3. 6H2O 20 106 Ferrous chloride (tetrahydrate) FeCl3. 4H2O 28 106 Ferrous sulphate monohydrate FeSO4 H2O 33 103 1 Ferric orthophosphate (FePO4)2· 5H2O 37 10 4 Ferric sodium pyrophosphate Fe Na 01 P2 16 12 8

Selenium Inorganic Sources Sodium selenite Na2O3Se 45 100 Calcium selenite CaSeO3.H2O 41.4 104 Cobalt selenite CoSeO3 32 Sodium selenate Na2SeO4 41 92 25 Organic Sources Selenium methionine variable 78 27 Yeast selenium variable 108

Cobalt Cobalt sulphate heptahydrate CoSO4.7H2O 22 Cobalt carbonate CoCO3 49 Cobalt glucoheptonate 2.5 Cobalt oxide Co3O4 65-75

Sources: Sauvant et al., 2004; Ewing and Charlton, 2007.

There are different sources of organic trace minerals (OTM) and several commercial products available containing Zn, Cu, Mn, and Se (Tables 5 and 6). All of these commercial products should be classified according to the following four definitions given by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO):

1. Metal Amino Acid Chelate. Products resulting from the reaction of a soluble metal salt with amino acids with a molar ratio of one mole metal to one to three moles of amino acids to form coordinate covalent bonds. This is a ratio of 1 :1 to 1 :3 metal:amino acid. The average weight of the hydrolysed amino acids must be approximately 150 and resulting molecular weight of the chelate must not exceed 800. Minimum .metal content must be declared. To be classified as a chelate, a ligand or chelating agent must contain a minimum of two functional groups (oxygen, nitrogen, amino, hydroxyl), each capable of donating a pair of electrons to combine (via coordinate covalent bonding) with a metal, and must form a heterocyclic ring structure with the

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metal. Amino acids are examples of 'bidentate' ligands, which bond to metal ions via an oxygen of the carboxylic acid group and the nitrogen of the amino group.

2. Metal Amino Acid Complex. Products resulting from combining a soluble metal salt with an amino acid. This is a ratio of 1 :1 metal:amino acid. For these products, the minimum metal content must be declared.

3. Metal proteinate. Products resulting from the chelation of a soluble salt with amino acids and/or partially hydrolysed protein. This is a ratio of 1 :1 metal: polypeptide.

4. Metal polysaccharide complex. Product resulting from complexing a soluble salt with a polysaccharide solution declared as an ingredient as the specific metal complex.

Selenium (Se) cannot be chelated in the same manner, but organic forms are available as selenized yeast where Se is present within the sulphur-containing amino acids displacing the sulphur.

Methodologies for Chemical Analyses of TM Sources

Atomic absorption spectroscopy is the standard methodology to evaluate concentrations of Zn, Cu, Mn, Co and Fe according to the official method 968.08 (AOAC, 1996). The range of variation in analytical results for these minerals can oscillate between 20 and 25%. For Se and I, the official methods to determine their concentrations are 969.06 and 934.02, and the permitted analytical variations for these TM are 25 and 40%, respectively (AOAC, 1996). Another method that is frequently used is the Inductively-Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy. These analyses do not indicate what proportion of the mineral can be utilized by animals. Bioavailability studies are necessary to determine their absorption and utilization. The methodologies to estimate bioavailability of TM have been described by Ammerman et al. (1995) and Bao and Choct (2009), and will be discussed in this text later on.

There is not an agreement on the methodology to test the amount of chelation, complexing or proteination of the mineral ion to the organic ligand of OTM products or its quality (AAFCO, 2006). Several different chemical methods have been used to evaluate the solubility and strength of mineral chelation, as described by Cao et al. (2000), for commercial OTM products. Parameters that can be used to evaluate quality of OTM include total mineral content, amino acid profiling, the nitrogen-to­mineral ratio, the percentage of bound mineral, size or molecular weight, solubility and stability. However, after evaluating those parameters in vitro, animal feeding trials have failed to distinguish among organic products with regard to absorption, and bone, liver or pancreas deposition of Zn (Cao et al., 2000) and Cu (Guo et al., 2001 ). Several indicators of chelation integrity and solubility had been reported to have little value as predictors of bioavailability (r2 ~ 0.445) and sometimes very strong chelation strength can cause low bioavailability (Huang et al., 2009).

Frequently, it is argued in publicity for OTM products that stability of the compound before absorption is very important to guarantee that the metal will be strongly bound to the ligand. This theory indicates that the stability constant of an OTM is usually higher when the ligand is a single amino acid or dipeptide. If the ligand molecular size increases, the stability constant usually decreases. Thus, according to this theory, products with high stability constant values have ligands or chelates that can guarantee that the TM will be carried and delivered to the small intestine for absorption independently of intestinal pH. The stability constant must be high enough to allow metal ion removal at the metabolic point of use, and the ligand molecular weight must be low enough to permit intact absorption of the metal complex. However, results of experiments with animals, previously cited, do not show great differences among OTM products of different stability constants.

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Animal Responses to Trace Mineral Sources

Results of scientific evaluations indicate no significant and/or consistent differences between inorganic or organic sources on poultry performance evaluated as body weight gain, feed conversion, and egg production. In fact, bioavailability studies have indicated that not all OTM are more available than ITM (Tables 5 and 6). However, positive effects of OTM have been observed on mineral tissue accumulation, bone and eggshell strength and egg internal quality (Mabe et al., 2003; Zamani et al., 2005a, b; Fernandes et al., 2008; Swiatkiewicz and Koreleski, 2008), reduction of leg problems in broilers and turkeys (Ferket et al., 2009), improved immunity (Virden et al., 2003; Hudson et al., 2004) breast meat yield, reduction of footpad dermatitis, and improved skin traits (Rossi et al., 2007; Salim et al., 201 O; Zhao et al., 2010). Some benefits in immunity and bone development of the chick progeny have been observed when feeding OTM to broiler breeders (Virden et al., 2003; Hudson et al., 2004; Eusebio-Balcazar et al., 201 O; Leandro et al., 2010). These beneficial effects cannot always be obtained by increasing the level of an inorganic source. Combinations of ITM with OTM seem to have positive responses, not completely additive, but total substitution of ITM by OTM seems to be better. However, the return on investment may not be easy to measure. The literature reviewed is not clear about the best ratio to combine an ITM source with OTM products. Frequently, increasing levels of ITM cause antagonisms that reduce performance and impact bioavailability of other TM (Leeson, 2005; Sunder et al., 2008).

Currently, the inorganic sources of TM face another issue. Nowadays, great proportion of Cu is obtained from electric and electronic recycling that may contain dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), and heavy metals like cadmium. In processing of Zn sulfate, it is also possible to observe cadmium contamination. These contaminants can affect animal immunity, bone growth, performance, and can additionally accumulate in meat and eggs for human consumption. Several poultry health problems and contamination of poultry products have been reported in popular press causing negative impact on productivity and marketing for the poultry industry. Additionally, high levels of TM can negatively affect soil and water. Environmental regulations are increasing worldwide to limit TM levels of feed in an attempt to minimize their excretion and environmental impact. The European Union legislated (Commission Regulation, 2003) the reduction in permitted feed concentrations of Co, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn. This regulation is not specific for poultry, but under the denomination of "other species" sets the limits to include TM in poultry diets, which are close to the minimum requirement recommended levels. To comply and avoid poultry health issues, animal industries have adopted the use of TM sources that may have higher or guaranteed bioavailability. Consequently, these are additional reasons that have made OTM sources more interesting for animal feeds. It is expected, though not completely guaranteed, that these OTM products should not contain contaminants and should have higher bioavailability to feed at low concentrations. Possible contaminants in all TM sources should be periodically evaluated and bioavailability of new sources should be established.

Bioavailability of Trace Mineral Sources

Mineral bioavailability is the degree to which an animal can absorb and utilize a mineral from one particular source (Ammerman et al., 1995). Bioavailability encompasses the sum of impacts that may reduce or promote the absorption and metabolic utilization of a nutrient (Schumann et al., 1997). Bioavailability is not an inherent characteristic of a particular source of an element, but rather an experimentally determined value that is related to absorption and utilization under conditions of the test (Fairweather-Tait, 1996; Guo et al., 2001 ). In other words, bioavailability is not independent of the animal test. In fact, it is well known that several factors affect TM utilization (Bao and Choct, 2009). These factors include, but are not limited to, age of bird, dietary protein contents, dietary Ca and P, and environmental temperature. Therefore, there is no single, correct value to assign to any particular source of an element, although this is a common misconception among researchers and the feed industry. Consequently, the relative values of bioavailability are just guides to know how

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available the TM is in that specific source and it should not be used as an absolute value to calculate exact amounts of nutrients needed.

Bioavailabilities are expressed in each test as relative values to a mineral from a given source of known highly available, usually called "standard" source. The standard or reference sources for each TM were placed first and balded on Tables 5 and 6. These standards are usually ITM salts like zinc sulfate, copper sulfate, or manganous sulfate that are set as 100% bioavailable, though a great proportion of ingested mineral is excreted. However, it is known that the absolute bioavailability of these standards is not 100%. In the case of OTM, the present techniques cannot trace the absorption and metabolic fate of the minerals in OTM products, because they cannot be manufactured with an intrinsic radio- or stable-isotopic label at a reasonable price. There are no recent scientific reports of absolute bioavailability of TM for modern poultry. Consequently, the bioavailability of all TM is calculated relative to that of the ITM standard source.

The methodologies to determine bioavailability and requirements of TM have been very well described and their problems discussed (Ammerman et al., 1995; Spears and Hansen, 2008; Bao and Choct, 2009). All methodologies present some disadvantages. For example, generally it is necessary to create a series of treatments with increasing dietary levels of the mineral. The levels used are generally higher than the estimated nutritional needs to be able to detect accumulation in bone or other tissues. The elevated dietary levels can represent problems with TM interactions and antagonisms that have been previously discussed (Leeson, 2005; Sunder et al., 2008; Spears and Hansen, 2008; Bao and Choct, 2009). The methodology used and the levels of other TM and nutrients in the experimental diets can greatly impact bioavailability values, not to mention the animal and environmental factors.

The majority of studies have indicated that OTM are more bioavailable than ITM. Additionally, recent reports (Zhao et al., 2010; Manangi et al., 2012) have indicated that using low levels of OTM with higher availability than ITM may have better responses. Feasible explanations for these results include possible absorption of intact chemically inert forms using peptide or amino acid transport mechanisms, reduction in the hydroxy-polymerisation of the metal allowing its effective donation to higher molecular weight binding ligands such as mucin, which keep them soluble and available to the mucosa for effective absorption . This is the reason that solubility at certain pH or stability constants of ligands are considered as indicators of stability, but, again, cannot be considered always as predictors of in vivo results. For example, the bioavailability in chicks of the Zn and Cu in commercial organic Zn and Cu products was mostly related to negative solubility of Zn in pH 5 buffer (r2 = 0.924) and solubility of Cu in pH 2 (r2 = 0.91) in studies conducted by Cao et al., (2000) and Guo et al., (2001 ). However, the absorption of the intact and neutral form of OTM has not been demonstrated yet, and it is possible that due to changes in pH in the poultry gastrointestinal tract, some dissociation of OTM should occur. Nevertheless, the fact that several positive results have been observed when replacing ITM partially or totally with OTM indicates that the complexed form is beneficial for the uptake of TM. There is a need to develop better methodologies to evaluate both aspects of bioavailability, absorption and utilization.

Some functional assays have been used to determine bioavailability of TM in small populations of animals. The main function of Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe is to be catalyst of many enzyme systems within cells, or even to be constituent of certain enzymes. In spite of these important functions, deficiencies of Zn and Cu cannot always be detected by loss of enzyme activity. This could be related to the high affinity of metalloenzymes to retain their metal under situations with very low intake of the metal due to low dietary concentrations. Broilers can maintain constant tissue concentrations of Zn under dietary deficiency of Zn, but feed intake, and consequently growth is depressed (Bao and Choct, 2009). Recently, more sensitive methodologies have been used for bioavailability. This includes measuring gene expression of specific proteins that are up or down regulated for metals in specific tissues. For example, Huang et al. (2009) demonstrated how the metallothionein {MT) mRNA

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concentration in pancreas was more sensitive for reflecting differences in bioavailability among organic Zn sources than the MT concentration in pancreas or other indices such as bone or pancreas Zn concentrations. Richards (2010) discussed how measuring MT mRNA expression in small intestine as a biomarker can help determine the relative bioavailability of Zn organic sources at dietary concentrations of 70 ppm, which is close to the levels that the mineral will be fed in practical poultry diets. In the same way, other proteins or expression of those proteins, such as ceruloplasmin for copper, could be used to measure bioavailability of TM in animals.

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AGRI-TECH

Sparboe Farms Inc., headquartered in Litchfield, MN is the nation's 4 th largest egg producer.

Sparboe Farms is family owned and has been in business for 55 years. Its sister company,

Sparboe Foods Inc. is a major producer of liquid and dried egg products. The company provides

shell eggs to major grocery chains throughout the country and processed egg products to major

food manufacturers.

The AGRI-TECH division provides nutrition consulting and premixes to the egg production

industry in the U.S. and several foreign countries.

Dr. Bruce R. Behrends

Sparboe Farms Inc., AGRI-TECH

PO Box 309

Litchfield, MN 55455

Bruce.behrends@sparboe.com

WWW.SPARBOE.COM

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