Toxic mold: The next asbestos?

Modern wonder

drugs that have saved

millions of lives

come from it. So does

our cheese, beer, and

wine. We bake our

bread with it.

In early colonial

America, it may have

produced LSD in the rye bread that people ate—

and thus might have induced hallucinations that

gave rise to the infamous Salem witchcraft trials.

In the 1840s, it devastated a third of the Irish

potato crop, resulting in death by famine of

nearly one million people, and emigration by

many more. If you are an American of Irish her-

itage, your very presence in the United States may

be attributable to it.

Toxins produced by some species of it are so

potent that the former Soviet Union reportedly

experimented with using them as biowarfare

weapons.

It has truly “molded” history and societies.

Mold may yet come to shape modern society in

ways it has never before done. Concern over toxic

mold has captured the attention of politicians, en-

vironmental and health agencies, courts, insurance

companies, employers and employees, property

owners and, predictably, personal injury lawyers.

Toxic mold may become the defining envi-

ronmental issue of the twenty-first century.

Cleveland, Ohio—1994Prior to 1994, mold was largely regarded as a

harmless, albeit unwelcome, annoyance. This

changed in the win-

ter of 1994, when

an investigator by

the name of Dear-

born alerted the

Centers for Disease

Control and Pre-

vention (CDC)

about a disturbing

trend: a number of infants had become seriously

ill from pulmonary hemosiderosis, a condition in

which victims cough up blood from their lungs.

Some of the infants died as a result of the con-

dition. An investigation was launched to deter-

mine the cause of this puzzling syndrome.

A slimy black fungus gained notoriety when

investigators initially suggested that the cause of

this frightening condition was Stachybotrys char-

tarum or “black mold.” The conclusion was based

on an association of pulmonary hemosiderosis

with water-damaged homes containing Stachy-

botrys.

It was not the first time that misdeeds had

been attributed to this fungus. Stachybotrys had

also been blamed for the death of perhaps thou-

sands of horses in the Ukraine after they ate wet

hay that had become moldy.

Later, however, the CDC released a report sug-

gesting shortcomings in the original study. The

report called into question the small size of the

sample, the way mold calculations were per-

formed, and the diagnosis of pulmonary hemo-

Environmental Quality Management / Spring 2004 / 1

© 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).DOI: 10.1002/tqem.20000

Charles H. Eccleston

Toxic Mold: The Next Asbestos?

A primer on mold-related issues

for environmental professionals

Charles H. Eccleston2 / Spring 2004 / Environmental Quality Management

siderosis, which the CDC says is not a disease but

a condition that accompanies a host of ailments.

Other medical doctors and investigators con-

tinue to maintain that the initial conclusions

about Stachybotrys chartarum were correct. How-

ever, the CDC itself still has not decided what led

to the death of the Cleveland infants.

Mold: Background and BasicsLike bacteria or viruses, mold spores are ubiq-

uitous. They are everywhere.

Fossil evidence indicates that mold has been

around for over 400 million years.1 Mold spores

can be found in the soil, in plants and their leaves,

in lawns and gardens,

and on one’s body. Lit-

tle wonder, then, that

they routinely blow

into homes and work-

places.

By some estimates,

there may be upward

of 1.5 million different

species of fungi in the environment. Of this total,

only around 70,000 species have been well de-

scribed.2

Names and TerminologyIn the terminology used by biologists, the

names given to organisms are composed of two

parts: genus and species. Consider, for example,

the fungus Stachybotrys chartarum, discussed

above.

The first part of the name, Stachybotrys, refers

to the genus to which the organism belongs.

Among the more common mold genera found in-

doors are Cladosporium, Penicillium, and As-

pergillus. The second half of the name, chartarum,

refers to the species of the organism.

It should be noted that the term toxic mold

has no scientifically agreed-upon meaning, al-

though it is widely used.

Mycotoxin is simply the term used to describe

toxins produced by molds.

The Fungus KingdomAll life on earth is divided into five kingdoms:

plants, animals, protozoa, monera (bacteria), and

fungi. Mold dwells within the fungus kingdom.

Unlike plants, fungi lack the vital compound

chlorophyll, which plants use to make their own

food by synthesizing carbohydrates and sugars.

Fungi exist by digesting plant materials (such as

cellulose) or other organic materials for food. For

this reason, molds belong to their own distinct

biological kingdom, rather than being classed as

part of the plant kingdom.

Mold Survival and Reproduction Typically, mold needs only four basic envi-

ronmental elements to flourish:3

• water;

• a food source;

• an appropriate temperature range; and

• oxygen.

In order to proliferate, mold needs nutrients.

Mold nutrients are commonly present in building

environments and their components, such as

paper and paper products, cardboard, ceiling

tiles, wood and wood products, drywall, carpet,

fabric, insulation materials, wallpaper, paints,

and dust.

Mold reproduces through spores, which serve

the same purpose as seeds. Typically, mold spores

do not become a major problem unless they be-

come wet and begin to grow inside a building.

Why Here, Why Now?Why, seemingly overnight, has mold become

such a national issue? In part, it is the panic cre-

ated by widely inaccurate headlines, which is in-

creased by lawyers chasing lucrative lawsuits.

Fossil evidence indicates that moldhas been around for over 400 millionyears.

Environmental Quality Management / Spring 2004 / 3Toxic Mold: The Next Asbestos?

this material can be consumed by mold if ideal

conditions are not maintained.

A Creeping Catastrophe?The insurance, real estate, lending, and con-

struction industries are expressing increasing

alarm at the dramatic rise in toxic mold cases.

In the workplace setting, mold problems can

trigger employee complaints and increase worker

downtime, resulting in reduced productivity.

They can also lead to employers being cited and

penalized by federal, state, and local occupational

safety and health agencies. And, of course, toxic

mold can also give rise to personal injury claims.

In the end, some-

body is going to have

to pay the bill for these

claims—and it will

probably be the con-

sumer.

Legal IssuesOne lawyer re-

cently referred to mold litigation as “toxic gold.”

Mold cases are now increasing exponentially.

Much of the current interest in mold litiga-

tion can be traced to a 2001 Texas jury decision

that awarded consumer advocate Melinda Ballard

$32 million ($6 million for home and contents,

$17 million in punitive damages, and $9 million

in legal fees) for property damage and mental an-

guish in a toxic mold case filed against her insur-

ance company.4 It should be noted that this jury

award was later reduced on appeal to approxi-

mately $4 million.

The types of toxic mold actions that can be

filed include:

• worker compensation claims;

• negligence and fraudulent concealment suits;

• insurance coverage and liability claims;

• claims alleging intentional torts by employers;

But there are also a number of very real

problems that account for the current “mold

explosion.”

Pieces of the PuzzleHere is an odd piece of the mold puzzle: The

toxic mold problem appears to be more pro-

nounced in newer, more energy-efficient homes

and buildings than in older ones. Shouldn’t one

expect the problem to be the reverse—that is,

much worse in older structures?

Some of the principal reasons for the recent

upsurge in mold-related problems are noted

below.

Airtight BuildingsFollowing the oil embargo of the 1970s, em-

phasis was placed on increasing energy efficiency

within homes and buildings, and new building

codes were adopted.

As a result of these requirements, many build-

ings are now tightly sealed to enhance energy ef-

ficiency. Without adequate ventilation, humidity

can rise in stagnant areas and moisture can col-

lect. Thus, “tight houses” can create ideal homes

for mold.

Modern Building MaterialsDrywall is composed of a layer of gypsum sur-

rounded by paper. This paper, and other modern

cellulose-based building materials such as ori-

ented strand board (OSB), provide ideal nutrients

for mold.

Shoddy Construction PracticesThe breakneck pace of construction in recent

years has allowed many poorly designed and de-

fective homes and buildings to be constructed.

Construction flaws may allow water and moisture

to seep into building interiors.

Materials such as OSB and drywall are

cheaper—at least in the short run. Unfortunately,

In the workplace setting, moldproblems can trigger employee

complaints and increase workerdowntime, resulting in reduced

productivity.


• claims alleging intentional infliction of emo-

tional distress; and

• suits for defective design or manufacturing.

Some of the principal defendants in toxic

mold cases may include:

• employers;

• homeowner associations;

• real estate agents;

• school districts and school boards;

• lending institutions, such as banks;

• insurers;

• architects;

• engineers;

• municipal and private building inspectors;

• developers and construction contractors;

• building product manufacturers;

• building owners, landlords, and property

managers;

• HVAC designers and manufacturers; and

• plumbers, roofers, and carpentry subcon-

tractors.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y,

many toxic mold cases

are being litigated on

the basis of “facts”

that are still scientifi-

cally unproven. As one

lawyer stated with a

grin, “In science, for

something to be

proven it has to be 100 percent certain. In a civil

lawsuit, it must only be proved by 51 percent.”

Implications for Real Estate TransactionsThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) estimates that approximately 50 percent of

homes contain some type of mold problem.

Worse yet, since toxic mold is still emerging as a

national issue, few guidelines exist to help buy-

ers and sellers navigate through a maze of liabil-

ity issues.

Laws concerning the disclosure of mold vary

from state to state. As of this writing in late 2003,

there are more than 35 different types of disclo-

sure laws around the country.

In some states, sellers who “rectify” the mold

problem do not need to notify buyers. However,

just because a problem has been addressed does

not mean the work was performed in a manner

that will prevent future problems.

Financial institutions are becoming increas-

ingly concerned about mold and its effect on

real estate. If the current trend continues, build-

ings that have a history of water damage or

mold may be increasingly difficult to sell. To

prevent potential legal battles, landlords need

to exercise due diligence, especially in instances

where substantial leaks or flooding have oc-

curred.

Even after a home or other building is sold,

liability issues can still arise if mold is later dis-

covered by the buyers. It is quite conceivable

that, within a few years, mold inspections may

become a standard part of many real estate

transactions.

Implications for Insurance CoverageMold-related insurance claims are estimated

to have increased five- to ten-fold across the

country during the past two years.5 The number

of toxic mold insurance claims filed in Texas

soared from 228 in 2000 to 1,188 in the first half

of 2001.6 Settlements for mold claims in 2001

topped $85 million.7

From a legal standpoint, insurance coverage is

governed by the rules of contract law. Mold has

never been a covered loss under any standard in-

surance policy. Until recently, most policies con-

tained either general or absolute “pollution ex-

clusions.” Nonetheless, lawyers have found ways

of getting around these exclusions.

Financial institutions are becomingincreasingly concerned about moldand its effect on real estate.


It is important to note that allergic reactions

and toxicity are associated with dead mold spores

as well as live ones.

Hypersensitivity Some people show little sensitivity to mold,

while others are extremely sensitive. With even

slight exposures to mold and spores, sensitive

people may experience runny noses, headaches,

sinus problems, skin rashes, nausea, memory loss,

and coughs.

The elderly, women, newborns, the sick, and

those with compromised immune systems appear

to be at particular risk.

Conditions andSymptoms

Symptoms that

have been attributed

to exposure to toxic

mold include:

• cough;

• asthma, atypical asthma;

• nasal and sinus congestion;

• sore throat;

• nose and throat irritation;

• sinusitis/rhinitis;

• chronic fatigue (possibly due to mycotoxin

exposure);

• skin rashes;

• respiratory problems, such as wheezing and

shortness of breath;

• eye problems, including burning, watering eyes,

redness, blurry vision, and light sensitivity;

• aches and pains;

• fever;

• diarrhea;

• hemosiderosis (possibly due to mycotoxin ex-

posure); and

• immune suppression (possibly due to myco-

toxin exposure).

Separate coverage for mold and water damage

is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain.

Soon, it may be nothing but a memory.

As a result of the escalating number of mold

claims and lawsuits, insurance companies are

doing more than just raising rates. Owners of

homes or businesses may soon find that their

property has actually been “flagged” by insurance

companies as high risk or uninsurable.

Once an insurance company learns that there

has been mold or water damage at a particular

property, the owner may be declined future cov-

erage for fear of mold contamination claims and

related lawsuits. If the property owner is lucky

enough not to be declined completely, he or she

may be forced to purchase a policy at a much

higher rate from another company.

There is yet another issue to be concerned with

here. Once a claim has been made on an insurance

policy, the claim is frequently filed in a national

database that is shared with most other principal

insurance companies. Current and future insur-

ance coverage can be greatly affected once a prop-

erty has been registered in the database.

Health Effects of MoldAn EPA working group consisting of 15 scien-

tists from eight nations had this to say about the

health effects of mold. Although the study dis-

cussed here related specifically to children, the re-

sults most likely would apply to adults as well:

[E]xposure to molds may constitute a

health threat to children resulting in res-

piratory symptoms in both the upper and

lower airways, an increased incidence of

infections, and skin symptoms. Allergy, ei-

ther to molds or to other indoor agents,

also presents a health risk. At very high ex-

posure levels to specific molds, nose bleed-

ing, hemoptysis, and pulmonary hemor-

rhage have been documented.8

It is important to note that allergicreactions and toxicity are associ-

ated with dead mold spores as wellas live ones.


Patients may also experience neurological

symptoms (possibly due to mycotoxin expo-

sure) such as:

• headaches;

• mood changes;

• depression;

• anxiety;

• reduced ability to concentrate; and

• memory loss.

It should be noted

that this list is contro-

versial since many of

these symptoms can

be caused by a wide va-

riety of allergens and

irritants other than

mold.

Human Exposure RoutesPotential routes of human exposure to mold

can include:

• inhalation (breathing);

• ingestion (swallowing);

• skin contact (including cuts); and

• contact with eyes, nose, or mouth (overlap-

ping with inhalation and ingestion routes).

Four Types of Health EffectsMold is believed to elicit four distinct types of

physical health effects:

• allergic—sensitization and immune response;

• irritant—volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

and particles produced by mold may cause ir-

ritation in upper or lower airways;

• infectious—growth of some fungi in or on the

body; and

• toxic—disruption of physiological, cellular, or

immunological functions due to exposure to

mycotoxins; exposure pathways for mycotox-

ins include inhalation, ingestion, and skin

contact.

The Stachybotrys Genus There are about 20 species of the genus

Stachybotrys, with a worldwide distribution. Not

all species are currently considered to be toxic.

The presence of Stachybotrys is indicative of ex-

tremely saturated wet conditions over a pro-

longed period, typically a minimum of several

months.

As noted, media commentators frequently

use the term black mold when referring to Stachy-

botrys chartarum. However, this term is poorly de-

fined, and has no scientific meaning. Only a few

molds are truly jet black, although many are

blackish in color. It is important to emphasize

that not all molds that appear to be black are

Stachybotrys.

Stachybotrys chartarum produces tri-

chothecene mycotoxins. It is this mycotoxin that

has given Stachybotrys its bad name.

In the late 1930s, a disease called stachy-

botryotoxicosis was reported in humans working

on collective farms in Russia. These workers were

affected after handling hay or feed grain infested

with Stachybotrys chartarum, or were exposed to

aerosols of dust and debris from the contami-

nated materials.

Commonly reported symptoms in the work-

ers included rash, dermatitis, tightness of the

chest, cough, pain, and inflammation of the

membranes of the mouth and throat, bloody

rhinitis, fever, headache, and fatigue. Symptoms

were typically reported within two to three days

of exposure.

Testing for MoldMold generally cannot be accurately identi-

fied by visual inspection. Unfortunately, there is

no simple, cheap technique for sampling air to

Mold is believed to elicit fourdistinct types of physical healtheffects.


more, most training and certifying organizations

have no expertise in the science of mycology.

Many testers claim to be qualified after at-

tending a short weekend class, or even complet-

ing a home study course that includes “certifica-

tion.” Many of these “graduates” lack formal

training in the science and techniques of testing.

Unqualified “professionals” are thus making

expensive decisions that may overstate or un-

derstate the degree of mold contamination

present, or the level of remediation required. In

one recent example, a man who had been a gar-

dener the year before set up shop as a “Mold

Certified Tester.”

To protect against

sham operations, the

author suggests that

mold professionals

should be required to

have the following

minimum qualifica-

tions:

• a bachelor’s or advanced degree from an ac-

credited college or university in science or en-

gineering;

• certification in a related field (for instance,

the professional might be a Certified Environ-

mental Professional, recognized by the Acad-

emy of Board Certified Environmental Profes-

sionals; a certified industrial hygienist; or a

registered engineer);

• five years or more of experience in environ-

mental analysis and/or testing or industrial

hygiene; and

• completion of at least three professional train-

ing classes in mold testing and investigation.

Site Investigation and Testing A thorough site investigation by an experi-

enced professional can be at least as important

as testing.

find out what types of mold are present and

whether they are airborne.

Testing for toxic mold has become a signifi-

cant issue among mortgage brokers, banks,

home inspectors, realtors, building owners and

managers, and homebuyers, not to mention in-

dividual homeowners. Testing has three princi-

pal purposes:

• demonstrating the presence or absence of

mold on a substrate;

• identifying the type of mold, either through

its spores or by direct examination of a cul-

tured sample; and

• locating the source or amplification site of

contamination.

The reader should note that it is difficult to

prove a negative—that is, the absence of

mold—unless extensive sampling and testing is

performed.

Lack of Professional StandardsUnfortunately, mold testing and remediation

are in a sad state at present. There currently are

no national standards for determining acceptable

levels of either mold or toxicity. Nor are there any

national standards governing mold inspection,

testing, or remediation.

Absence of regulatory standards has not

stopped aggrieved employees, businesses, home-

owners, tenants, and many others from making

claims against anyone and everyone who might

be responsible for defects leading to the presence

of mold in their home or workplace.

Some testing and remediation contractors

claim to be “mold certified.” Such certifications

are essentially worthless marketing ploys used to

establish “credentials” among an unsuspecting

public. The truth is that no recognized national

or international organization has developed a

credible mold certification program. Further-

The truth is that no recognized na-tional or international organizationhas developed a credible mold cer-

tification program.


If mold is suspected but not visibly detectable

after an inspection, testing can be very effective

in revealing the mold reservoir or amplification

area. In some cases, destructive testing (such as

cutting access holes in a wall or floor) may be

necessary.

Interpreting Test ResultsOnce samples have been collected and cul-

tures are grown, the findings have to be inter-

preted before remediation can begin. The inter-

pretation phase can be quite difficult, requiring

the skills of an experienced professional. It is im-

portant to recognize that there are no specific

standards for “acceptable” levels of airborne mold

spores.

It is not uncommon to find that a set of data

may have more than

one interpretation. For

example, even very

low levels of certain

molds can indicate a

mold problem. Con-

versely, elevated levels

of some molds may be

of little concern. It re-

ally requires an expert

to interpret the results and determine an appro-

priate course of action.

Typically, indoor molds should be similar to,

and their levels should be no greater than, those

for outdoor and noncomplaint areas.

Analytical results from bulk material or dust

samples may also be compared to similar samples

collected from reasonable comparison areas.

It is also useful to check for the consistent

presence of certain fungi such as Stachybotrys

chartarum, Aspergillus versicolor, or various species

of Penicillium at levels greater than background

concentrations. Such occurrences may indicate

the presence of a moisture problem and corre-

sponding mold growth.

Cultured and Noncultured SamplesGrowing cultures from samples can allow

differentiation between mold species, which

may be important in cases of significant expo-

sure. However, while cultured samples can pro-

vide significant additional information, they

are also more expensive and take longer to

complete.

Cultured samples are grown in a petri dish for

several days before analysis. This method enables

more exacting identification of certain mold

types. Sampling requires a period of seven to ten

days (varying from sample to sample), during

which the sample is cultured and grown.

It should be noted that some molds do not

grow in standard culture media, or grow very

slowly. Moreover, dead spores will not grow at all,

even though these spores can have the same

health effects as viable (living) spores.

Noncultured samples involve direct examina-

tion and identification of individual spores. Both

viable and nonviable (nonliving) spores can be

analyzed by direct examination under a micro-

scope. Direct examination is quicker than cul-

tured sampling since it does not require any

growing time.

Some molds (such as Aspergillus, Penicillium,

and similar types) are not distinguishable by their

spores alone. Thus, for noncultured samples, cer-

tain molds have to be grouped together as

“asp/pen-like” spores.

Types of Mold Sampling Mold samples can be divided into two broad

categories—air samples and source samples.

• Air SamplesNoncultured samples are the most common

type of air sample. Laboratory results of noncul-

tured samples are reported in concentrations of

fungal structures or spores per cubic meter

(spores/m3).

Once samples have been collectedand cultures are grown, the find-ings have to be interpreted beforeremediation can begin.


urement can be very successful in assessing hid-

den mold problems.

Into the Future: Legislation and Regulation In dozens of jurisdictions throughout the

United States, legislation relating to mold has

been adopted or is currently pending. Concern is

also growing in other nations.

The state of Texas is expected to have mold

regulations in effect in the near future, based on

legislation adopted in 2003. California has also

enacted some legislation, although the law has

not yet been implemented.

Discussion of specific state and local laws on

mold is beyond the

scope of this article.

Readers are advised to

research their particu-

lar jurisdiction’s laws

carefully.

One proposed

piece of national legis-

lation is worth noting

here, however. In 2002, a bill entitled the United

States Toxic Mold Safety and Protection Act (also

known as the “Melina Bill”) was introduced in

Congress. The bill died in committee, but has

since been re-introduced. Provisions included in

the proposed legislation would:

• require EPA, the National Institutes of Health,

and the Centers for Disease Control and Pre-

vention to join in researching the health ef-

fects of mold;

• require the U.S. Department of Housing and

Urban Development to study the impact of

construction standards on mold growth;

• require EPA to publish national standards for

mold inspection, remediation, toxicity, and

protection of mold remediators;

• require mold inspection before the sale or

lease of property;

If a full profile analysis is performed, the re-

sults will include all spores (whether live, dead, or

dormant), as well as other contaminants such as

pollen, skin particles, and insect parts.

The normal laboratory turnaround time for

noncultured air samples is a few days. This

method is good for determining the genus or

groups of different molds, but it normally does

not allow one to determine the particular species.

A special apparatus (such as an Andersen air

sampler or other, similar equipment) can be used

to collect air samples that can be cultured and

grown in a laboratory on Malt Extract Media or

other nutrient media.

Results of cultured samples are normally re-

ported in concentrations of colony-forming units

per cubic meter of air (CFU/m3). Results indicate

the number of culturable (viable or live) spores in

the air at the time of sampling.

Culturing allows the laboratory technician to

identify the mold down to the species level. How-

ever, the analysis cannot include counts for dead

spores, or for other contaminants such as pollen,

skin particles, or insect parts. Normal laboratory

turnaround time for cultured air samples is seven

to ten days.

• Source SamplesSurface wipe, dust, and bulk samples are

called “source samples” because the origins of the

mold samples are known. They can be taken for

culture and laboratory identification.

Source samples are easier to collect and culture

than air samples. However, cultured samples take

longer to process and are generally more expensive.

The Problem of Hidden MoldHidden mold is a major problem that has not

received the attention it deserves. By its very na-

ture, hidden mold is much more difficult to assess

and remediate than visible mold. Fortunately, ap-

propriate testing, inspection, and moisture meas-

In dozens of jurisdictions through-out the United States, legislation

relating to mold has been adoptedor is currently pending. Concern is

also growing in other nations.


• restrict the federal government from making,

insuring, or guaranteeing a mortgage without

a mold inspection; and

• require the licensing of mold inspectors.

This legislation, if eventually adopted, would

provide some badly needed support and oversight.

AcknowledgmentThe author is indebted to Chin S. Yang, PhD,

chief mycologist for P&K Microbiology Services

Inc., of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, who reviewed the

manuscript of this article and offered many valu-

able comments.

Notes1. Sherwood-Pike, M. A., & Gray, J. (1985). Silurian fungal re-

mains: Probable records of the class Ascomycota. Lethaia, 18,1–20.

2. Hawksworth, D. L., Kirk, P. M., Sutton, B. C., & Pegler, D. N.(1995). Ainsworth and Bisby’s dictionary of the fungi (8thed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3. Zabel, R. A., & Morrell, J. J. (1992). Wood microbiology:Decay and its prevention. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

4. Ballard v. Fire Insurance Exchange, No. 99-05252 (TexasDist. Ct., Travis County, June 6, 2001).

5. Mitby, J., & Trost, K. (2002, March). Out of the dark: Theemergence of toxic mold litigation [Electronic version]. Wis-consin Lawyer, 75(3). Retrieved from http://www.wisbar.org/wislawmag/2002/03/mitby.html

6. Julavits, R. (2002, January 18). Mold crisis puts insurers,lenders in tight corner. The American Banker.

7. LiMandri, C. S. (2001, July 12). Epidemic of mold litigationplagues insurance industry. Insurance Litigation Reporter,23(9), 261–268.

8. Rylander, R., & Etzel, R. (1999, June). Introduction andsummary: Workshop on children’s health and indoor moldexposure. Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 107,supplement 3. Retrieved from http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/1999/suppl-3/465-468rylander/abstract.html

Charles H. Eccleston is a Certified Environmental Professional (CEP) and a leading national authority on environmentalimpact assessment and planning. He has published over 30 technical papers and three books on environmental policy,planning, and analysis with John Wiley & Sons and CRC Press. He currently is writing a fourth book, Toxic Mold!, which isscheduled for publication in 2004. His company, Air Quality & Mold Testing, specializes in mold and air quality testing andanalysis. He can be contacted at [email protected]. His Web site is www.mold-busters.biz.

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Toxic mold: The next asbestos?