Topic 13.

FUNGI AND LICHENES. LICHENOPHYTA

• Plan:• General characteristics of fungi• Reproduction• Classification• Lichens• The importance of fungi and lichens in nature

and for humans

•• Literature:• Life of plants in six volumes. Volume 2: Mushrooms. edited by

prof. M.V.Gorlenko. Moscow. »Education», 1976, 480str.• V.G. Khrzhanovsky. "Course of general botany" (I-P tom) 1982. M.

High School.• P.M. Zhukovsky "Botany". M. 1982, High School• Suvorov V.V., Voronova IN- Botany with the basics of geobotany. L.

Kolos. 1979• Andreeva I.I., Rodman L.S. Botanica.-M .: Kolos, 2005,P.172-175.• Lotova L.I. Botany: .Morphology and anatomy of higher plants.

Uchebnik.-M .: Kom.Kniga, 2007 with..312-321• Barabanov B.I. Zaychikova S.G. Botany: training. for universities.• M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2006-p.82-85• Yakovlev G.P. Chelombitko V.A. Botany: educational for higher

education.-SPb .: ed.SPhFA, 2003.-129-132 (647 pages.)

• 1. The fungi include a large group of lower plants (100 thousand species), devoid of chlorophyll and quite diverse in their structure. Their body is not dissected into organs (roots, stems, leaves) and do not have real roots. The body of the fungus is a thallus, usually composed of a large number of thin, intertwined filaments or hyphae, the totality of which forms a mycelium or mycelium.

• The mycelium often has the appearance of a gentle, fluffy coating or thin films. Hyphae of mycelium can be branched and not branched, unicellular and multicellular. In the transition to the resting state, the mycelium forms a strong plexus of hyphae, tangles called sclerotia. There are unicellular organisms - yeast fungi.

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• The of wall of fungal cells is usually solid, consisting of cellulose or pectin substances. Sometimes it is saturated with a special nitrogenous substance, close in composition to animal chitin. Starch fungi do not form and produce another carbohydrate-glycogen, not blue with iodine. Inside the cells there is a mild cytoplasmic layer, one or more vacuoles, filled with cell sap, one or more nuclei, which can sometimes be very small.

• Most fungi have an undifferentiated mycelium: nutrition and reproduction functions can be performed by the same hyphae. However, there are species in which reproduction functions are performed by special formations bearing the name of fruit bodies.

I. Champignon II. White mushroom III. MorelAgaricuscampestis Boletus edulus Morchellaesculenta1,4,6 - fruit bodies, 2 - basidi formation 3 - basidio spores, 5 -transverse section of the fruit body, 7 - asci (bag) formation, 8 -asco spores.

• Fungi multiply vegetative, spore and sexually. Vegetative reproduction is characteristic of most fungi due to breakage of the threads of the mycelium. Sometimes vegetative reproduction occurs by budding, in which a growth occurs on the mother cell, which later grows and separates (yeast fungi), sclerotia (ergot), oidia formed at the ends of hyphae (mucor-ovye), chlamydospores.

• Fungi multiply vegetative, spore and sexually. Vegetative reproduction is characteristic of most fungi due to breakage of the threads of the mycelium. Sometimes vegetative reproduction occurs by budding, in which a growth occurs on the mother cell, which later grows and separates (yeast fungi), sclerotia (ergot), oidia formed at the ends of hyphae (mucor-ovye), chlamydospores

• The most important method of multiplying fungi is sporulation, which is carried out in various ways. Spores can occur externally (exogenously) or inside the body (endogenously). In exogenous spore formation, spores usually form at the ends of the hyphae, and then separate from them. Such threads are called conidiophores, and the spores of conidiospore separated from them. In endogenous spore formation, spores arise within special organs - sporangia, which are usually located on filaments of mycelium, called sporangiophores

• Sometimes a dispute arises within a particular fruit body, which is the formation of densely woven hyphae of the mycelium.

• Some fungi produce different kinds of spores at different periods of life: in rust fungi, during their life five species of various spores are formed. Spores of most fungi are immobile and passively carried by wind or water. Sexual reproduction in mushrooms is diverse. Inferior fungi are characterized by isogamy, heterogamy, oogamy.

• When the female and male sex gametes merge, a zygote is formed, which after the reduction of division (meiosis) sprouts into sporangium with spores.

• The higher fungi are characterized by a peculiar sporulation in the form of a bag (asci) and basidy on the surface of the body. In marsupial mushrooms bags with ascosporesare formed, in basidial fungi - basidia with basidiospores.

• In lower fungi, a fertilized cell - the zygote is covered with a thick shell and turns into a spore that after some rest sprouts. In higher fungi, the zygote does not immediately turn into a spore, and first sprouts and forms new spores only at the end of its development.

• The extensive department of fungi is divided into five classes: archimycetes, phycomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and imperfect fungi. All these classes are grouped into two large groups: lower and higher fungi. The science of fungi is called mycology

• Lower fungi - hyphae have no partitions and mycelium is unicellular and multinucleate. Spores are formed endogenously, in sporangia. Sexual sporulation is not observed. This group unites two classes of the most primitive fungi - archimycetes and phycomycetes. Consider representatives of certain classes

• Archimycete class - more than 300 species of microscopically small fungi, a very primitive structure. The way of life is parasitic. Settles inside the cells of higher and lower plants. Archimycetes are often completely devoid of mycelium and their vegetative body is the smallest cells of the naked cytoplasm. In some species, the mycelium is in its infancy, in the form of fine outgrowths of the cell. Archimycetes multiply asexually and sexually. A typical representative of archimycetes is the olpidium mushroom parasitizing on cabbage seedlings and causing it a disease called the "black leg"

• Class of zygomycete. This group of fungi is characterized by a well-developed mycelium, which has a noncellular structure, which is not divided into individual cells. Zygomycetes lead a terrestrial saprophytic or parasitic lifestyle. Propagate by spores or sexually. In asexual (spore) reproduction a large number of immobile spores develop, developing in special sporangia raised above the mycelium. The sexual process proceeds according to the zigogamy type.

• Zygomycetes can be represented by the head-mold meal, which often settles on raw bread and other organic substrates, vegetables, in the form of white fluffy plaque. The mycelium of mukor does not have transverse septa and is, as it were, one extraordinary large and branched cell. Above the mycelium, sporangiophores, fungi threads, form a bag with spores on top. When the spores mature, the sporangium turns black and the spores are spilled out.

• Higher fungi are characterized by a developed, multicellular mycelium. They reproduce mainly by spore and sexual path. Spores are formed in various ways: in special bags , on special outgrowths - basidia or inside fruit bodies.

• The group of higher fungi includes three classes: marsupial fungi-ascomycetes, basidiomycetes -basidiomycetes and imperfect fungi

• Marsupial fungi are divided into two subclasses: vocaloid - not forming fruit bodies and fruit-bearing fungi - forming fruiting bodies.

• Some mycologists consider vocalized fungi as primitive organisms, others - regressing. According to the method of nutrition, vocalidsare saprophytes and parasites. Representatives -bread and sugar yeast - unicellular fungi, having the form of oval, colorless cells, several microns in size

• Yeasts live mainly in a medium rich in sugars and have the ability to cause fermentation, in which sugar is converted to ethyl alcohol, with the release of carbon dioxide. This ability is based on the use of yeast in bakery, winemaking, brewing. Currently, yeast is produced in large quantities in special plants and is widely used for food, animal feed and medicinal purposes.

• Saprophytic fungi include penicillium and aspergillus, which form a plaque on nutrient substrates, known as mold. Therefore, these fungi are often called molds. Some types of penicillium are used in the preparation of hot cheeses (Roquefort, Camembert, etc.)

• The class of basidiomycetes includes 15 thousand species. A characteristic feature is a special type of sporulation, the formation of basidiospores, mycelium-basidia formed on the outgrowths. The sexual process is peculiar: special sexual organs do not arise in them, copulation of basidiosporeis observed, or the vegetative cells of individual hyphaemerge. In this case, only the cytoplasm merges, and the nuclei do not merge.

• According to the method of nutrition, most basidial saprophytes, some settle on wood, destroying it (tinder, house mushroom), other parasites (dusty smut), damaging cereals. The most common is linear rust, parasitizing on cereals and on the intermediate host barberry.

• According to the method of nutrition, most basidial saprophytes, some settle on wood, destroying it (tinder, house mushroom), other parasites (dusty smut), damaging cereals. The most common is linear rust, parasitizing on cereals and on the intermediate host barberry

• In the cycle of development of linear rust, five different types of spores are noted: 1-year-old uredospores, 2-wintering-telospores, 3- spring basidio spores, 4-pycnido spores developing on the top of the barberry leaf, 5 eccidio spores on the underside of the barberry leaf, which after maturation separated from the mother plant and carried by the wind infecting new plants of cereals.

• To the class of imperfect fungi, containing about 30 thousand species, include fungi with a multicellular mycelium, but do not have in the development cycle of marsupial or basidial sporulation. Their reproduction occurs only with the help of conidia. The system of their classification is based on the features of the development of conidiospores

• By way of life imperfect fungi are saprophytes and parasites. Some of them first live as parasites of higher plants, and then after the death of the latter lead a saprophytic lifestyle. Representatives of this class include many species that cause dangerous diseases of crops: fusarium, cotton, pumpkin, potatoes, tomatoes, pepper, tobacco, flax, etc. The mushroom is a harmful vertebralium, causing a dangerous disease - cotton wilt, which affects the wood of the stem and roots cotton.

• 4.Otdel lichens comprises about 20 thousand kinds of original, combined plants, representing a combination of the two organisms -. Fungus and algae, forming a common body. For a long time this cohabitation was considered as mutually beneficial.

• In reality, this is not a symbiosis, but parasitism on the part of the fungus

• Fungi entering into a symbiotic relationship with the algae are usually the class of marsupials, rarely basidiomycete. Algae in these combined organisms are usually green, less often blue-green. In appearance, lichens are divided into cortical or calcareous, leafy and bushy. Most lichens are cortical

• Lichens settle on a variety of substrates: on the bark of trees, on the soil, sometimes on completely infertile

• rocks and stones. These are not demanding organisms, which can often live on bare stones and rocks. Settling on such substrates, lichens release special acids that destroy stony rocks, thereby participating in the chemical weathering of rocks.

• In addition, after withering, they accumulate a certain amount of humus and thereby contribute to soil-forming processes. The science of lichens is called lichenology.

• Outside, the body of the lichen is covered with a crust formed of compacted and altered hyphae of the fungus. Underneath are numerous threads of mycelium braiding individual cells or colonies of algae.

• The anatomical structure of the lichen body is different. It can be homeostatic, when algal cells are located more or less evenly throughout the entire body of the lichen. This is a more primitive form of the internal structure

• Heterogeneous lichens are more complex, they contain a bark, a gonidial layer and a core formed by loosely located hyphae of the fungus. Algae in this case are located only in the gonidial layer.

Hetermerus Homeomerus

• Reproduction in lichens is carried out in various ways: mushrooms and algae can reproduce themselves. Algae reproduce by simple cell division, and the fungi form the fruiting bodies in which the bags with spores are located. Spores of the fungus in the soil germinate, but they can give the body of lichen only in the event that in the course of its development the fungus meets the corresponding algal cells. Often lichens reproduce and vegetatively. At the same time, they have so-called soredia-microscopically small lumps consisting of algae cells braided with hyphae

• Vegetativ reproduction of Lichens by soredia• On the thallus of lichen, special outgrowths

of isidia may also occur, which also consist of cells of fungi and algae. At certain times they are broken off and carried by water or wind, giving rise to new lichen organisms

Vegetativ reproduction of Lichens by isidia

• The importance of fungi and lichens in the life of nature and for man. Mushrooms take an active part in the general cycle of substances in nature. They are capable of destroying organic compounds and converting them into inorganic compounds. Mushrooms take part in alcohol fermentation, are widely used in bakery, wine, beer, kvass. Hats are used as a food product with high taste qualities

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Trufell fungi

• Many fungi have a rich enzyme apparatus, and also form a number of physiologically active substances. These properties of fungi are widely used by man.

• Enzymes of a number of fungi are used for various purposes: pectinase - for clarification of fruit juices; cellulase - for the processing of paper raw materials, coarse feed, destruction of waste paper residues, protease - for the hydrolysis of proteins; amylase - for hydrolysis of starch, etc.

• In Vietnam, soy sauces are prepared using the enzymes of some mold fungi.

• One of the outstanding achievements of mycologists of the last century was the discovery of antibiotics.

• The first antibiotic, widely recognized in practice, was-penicillin, the product of the vital activity of one of the species of penicillin fungi. In medicine, drugs from ergot sclerosis are widely used

• One of the outstanding achievements of mycologists of the last century was the discovery of antibiotics.

• The first antibiotic, widely accepted in practice, (A.Fleming) in England was-penicillin-Penicillin -the product of the life of a penicilliumpenicillium species – Penicillium glaucum

• In medicine, drugs from ergot sclerosis are widely used.

• Many fungi cause damage - when they destroy wood, they cause diseases of agricultural plants, animals and humans. Many of them are very harmful. Especially mushrooms are parasitic plants, loss of crops and damage to agricultural products from which are so great that they are dealt with by special state institutions. The science of plant diseases caused by fungi and other organisms is called phytopathology

• Fungi cause great damage to forestry, affecting both growing trees and business wood. According to the Czech mycologist V. Ripacek, wood-destroying fungi on the average destroy 10-30% of harvested wood. Fungi spoil the lubricating oils and other petroleum products, optical products, paint and varnish coatings Fungi destroy books, using for the supply of glue, cloth, paper, leather, paint, thread, i.e all substances that make up the book.

• To combat damage to books, special measures are taken: organize the correct storage regime, use disinfectants, which are part of the glue, etc.

• No less important are the measures taken in agriculture to prevent the development of fungal diseases of valuable technical and food crops. This section of science you will study at the senior courses (mycology, phytopathology, diseases and pests of plants, etc.)

• With the help of black mold fungus (Aspergillus niger) on an industrial scale, citric acid is obtained. From the fungi of actinomycetes, according to reports of mycologists, it is now possible to teach up to 1500 antibiotics

• FUNGI from the genus Fusarium produce a growth substance-gibberellin, called after the name of the marsh stage of their Gibberellafudzhikuroya. Processing plants with gibberellins increases their productivity: increasing tying of grapes, accelerating the flowering time of ornamental plants, the grass grows faster on lawns.

• Lichens are of great importance in nature. Undemanding to the soil, can grow in such conditions where no other plants grow, for example, on bare rocks, stones. Isolating special lichen acids they destroy the surface of the bare stone and create conditions for the settling in these places of other plants. In the conditions of the tundra, in northern regions lichens serve as the main food for reindeer

• Of lichens, litmus is prepared, which is an indicator for determining the acidity and alkalinity of the medium in chemical laboratories. Lichen finds application in the perfume industry as an odor fixer, giving firmness to the spirits. Some species are used to obtain antibiotics (alectorium, cetrarium, cladonia, parmelia, asphyxia). Lichens are extremely sensitive to environmental pollution with sulfur dioxide and are used as lichen indicators. In geology, lichens are used to determine the age of glacial moraines, mountain landslides. the age of thallus lichens reaches several hundred and thousand years.

• QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL:

• What organs are the body of the fungus?• What types of sexual reproduction are characteristic of

lower fungi?• On which features of the biology of reproduction of the

alpidium cabbage are based measures to combat it?• What classes of lower fungi do you know?• What is the difference between marsupials and basidial

fungi?• How many types of spores do linear rust have?• What is the ecological role of fungi in nature?• What is the significance of lichens in nature?• How can I use lichens?•

• THANK YOU FOR ATTENTION !••