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This paper is primarily concerned with Tocqueville’s vision of modern societies. This paper also utilizes other notable thinkers and ideas in an attempt to critique Tocqueville’s observations and theories.
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Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
Relational Paradox: That of the Individual and Society
Alexis de Tocqueville enjoyed paradoxes. In his visit to the United States, Tocqueville
remarked that “No novelty in the United States struck me more vividly during my stay there
than the equality of conditions.”1 Tocqueville was awed by what he observed in his trip, and he
believed that the relatively young country represented a new modern society that would
replace an aging aristocratic one. To Tocqueville, it was the basic premise of equality and
egalitarianism that gave rise to a more improved society. Tocqueville continued his remarks on
the United States’ ‘equality of conditions’ in his introduction, where he wrote “It is easy to see
the immense influence of this basic fact on the whole course of society. It gives a particular
turn to public opinion and a particular twist to the new laws, new maxims to those who govern
and particular habits to the governed.”2 On the other hand, especially in volume two of his
great work Democracy in America, Tocqueville paradoxically wrote about the dangers of the
country’s egalitarianism. Notably, Tocqueville feared individualism, as well as the tyranny of
the majority. The perfect state, in Tocqueville’s mind, was a delicate balance of individual
freedoms and collective cohesion that seems impossible for any state to practically attain.
Although this paper is primarily concerned with Tocqueville’s vision of modern societies,
this paper also utilizes other notable thinkers and ideas in an attempt to critique Tocqueville’s
observations and theories. We begin with the idea that Tocqueville, who is interested in the
development of the democratic social state, seems to inaccurately emphasize religion’s ability
1 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 92 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 9
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
to preserve mores that are essential to the maintenance of freedom. History has shown that in
reality religion can be divisive, encourage self-segregation, and emphasize differences among
individuals rather than encourage unity among all peoples. The development of social mores
that stem from equality are also a great concern for Tocqueville, who believed that equality
begot individualism and encouraged self-centered individuals. But this paper argues that
Tocqueville is unnecessarily concerned about the ramifications of the self-centered individual
who, as Adam Smith and Friedrich A. von Hayek would argue, can still be both self-centered and
at the same time serve society’s needs. Smith and Hayek would argue that these two points are
not mutually exclusive, whereas Tocqueville seems to imply that they are. Furthermore, this
essay looks at a possible solution to the Tocqueville’s other problem of the “tyranny of the
majority” by utilizing associations as havens for dissent and debate. Finally, this essay goes
back to Tocqueville’s major point about the importance of equality in the modern society
attempts to piece together a coherent philosophy behind the concept of the individual in
modern society. Additionally, it is important to note that all references to American democracy
refer to republican democracy.
For Tocqueville, the origins of United States egalitarian society is founded upon a
complex interaction of the physical geography of North America, the history of the colonies,
and the religious beliefs of its people. Inevitably, these major influences on American society
assisted in its development into an egalitarian society by helping to determine the country’s
social state. The American social state allowed individual Americans a suitable participatory
role in local and national politics that was mutually beneficial to both individuals and the state.
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
Tocqueville supported this idea when he wrote that “The social state is commonly the result of
circumstances, sometimes of laws, but most often of a combination of the two.”3 Tocqueville
emphasized two factors, however, that are primarily responsible for the culture of democracy
that pervaded the country: the interaction between the religious and political ideals among all
members of United States society. In the religious/moral world, Tocqueville wrote, everything
was ordered, coordinated and organized while everything in the political world was chaotic,
disordered and confused. “Far from harming each other,” Tocqueville wrote, “these two
apparently opposed tendencies work in harmony and seem to lend mutual support.”4
Tocqueville explained this idea of mutual benefit by describing religion as the “guardian of
mores” and the companion of freedom in its struggle to maintain itself.
It is important to note, however, that during Tocqueville’s visit the entire country
(excluding Native American and African Americans), was almost entirely Christian. More
specifically, most of America at that time was Protestant. Since this is the case, Tocqueville’s
observation that religion and freedom mutually supported one another was in actually an
observation that Protestantism (rather than religion overall) and freedom are only mutually
beneficial to each other. He wrote that “For Americans the idea of Christianity and liberty are
so completely mingled that it is almost impossible to get them to conceive of the one without
the other.”5 But, if Tocqueville is correct to assume that religion and freedom are mutually
3 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 504 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 475 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 293
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
beneficial to each other, then his conception of the development of democratic mores is almost
useless in a society that consists of different and/or several religions and belief systems—
assuming that everyone doesn’t or won’t convert to become Protestants. Tocqueville doesn’t
seem to disagree. On page 445 Tocqueville writes how Islamic beliefs and egalitarian mores are
inherently incompatible, and therefore, Islamic countries are less susceptible to democratizing:
Mohammed brought down from heaven and put into the Koran not religious doctrines only, but political maxims, criminal and civil laws, and scientific theories. The Gospels, on the other hand, deal only with the relations between man and God and between man and man. Beyond that, they teach nothing and do not oblige people to believe anything. That alone, among a thousand reasons, is enough to show that Islam will not be able to hold its power long in ages of enlightenment and democracy, while Christianity is destined to reign in such ages, as in all others.6
Tocqueville, an imperialist, would argue that other societies and cultures have to emulate
Protestantism if they didn’t convert outright, in order to remain competitive and/or not be
conquered by Christian democratic societies. If this is the case, that societies should first
convert into Protestantism in order to craft a workable democratic society, then Tocqueville
doesn’t explain the rise of other great democracies since his time in Japan, India, and South
Africa. Each has their own set of beliefs and religious values that are different from
Protestantism, and none of these countries adopted Protestantism or another form of
Christianity as a major religion. If Christianity were so important to the development of
democratic culture, then why did America’s founding fathers purposefully separate the roles of
church and state in society?
6 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 445
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
History has shown that even if all of one society or country has similar beliefs, there are
times and cases from which religion is divisive, and encourages self-destructive social behavior.
For example, modern American society is currently extremely conflicted over abortion and gay
rights issues. Even within the Protestant religious umbrella, people are fragmented on their
stances on these two issues. Some have taken to militant action, such as the bombing of
abortion clinics, or the assassination of gay rights activists (i.e. Harvey Milk). Some churches,
such as the Episcopal Church, have adopted amended rules and/or split and formed other
organizations in order to recognize gay couples, or to allow women a place in religious
organizational leadership. These destructive social behaviors and divisions can sometimes be
primarily fueled by religious fervor. In these cases, religion can emphasize differences among
individuals rather than encourage unity, as extremely polarized issues remain unresolved as
long as opposing beliefs exist. These conditions can make it difficult for associations to develop
and/or foster.
For Toqueville, associations are the bonds that are created among individuals in order to
utilize their collective power to influence government and society. Associations are an
important aspect of American culture because associations help develop fellow-feeling and
solidarity. Tocqueville observed that forming and belonging to associations was one of the
more pronounced activities of American citizens. Tocqueville noted that “Americans of all ages,
all stations in life, and all types of disposition are forever forming associations.”7 He
emphasized associations because they provide a necessary service in fighting against the
7 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 513
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
problems of individualism. “If men are to remain civilized or to become civilized,” Tocqueville
wrote, “the art of association must develop and improve among them at the same speed as
equality of conditions spreads.”8 The ramifications of the equality of conditions are a
paramount concern for Tocqueville, who believed that equality encouraged individualism.
Tocqueville had the belief that because equality enables each person to serve their individual
self interests, then individuals were susceptible to harmful individualist tendencies that could
prove destructive. “Individualism” is an evolution from egoism, which Tocqueville claims is “a
passionate and exaggerated love of self which leads a man to think of all things in terms of
himself and to prefer himself to all.”9 Each citizen, then, is isolated from (or isolates himself
from) the rest of society into the society of his or her limited social circle of family and friends.
The individual “gladly leaves the greater society to look after itself”10 and recuses him or herself
from a responsibility to contribute back to society. Equality of conditions demolishes human
fellowship, and according to Tocqueville, is of democratic origin and threatens to grow as
conditions get more equal.”11
However, there is no reason that individual self-interest and the interests of society are
mutually exclusive. By all accounts, Tocqueville would prefer a kind of political man over the
family man (or woman) when in reality in a modern society they can be one and the same, or at
least share similar interests. While individualism and social isolation is a worry, it is not as
8 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 5159 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 50610 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 50611 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 507
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
pronounced as Tocqueville believes. Smith notes that "It is not from the benevolence of the
butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own
interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to
them of our own necessities but of their advantages." Therefore, individual self-interest and
collective social interests can be intertwined. The family man can still serve society by serving
his family’s interests. In Smith’s example, the family man would help provide bread, meat, or
beer for society. In addition, there is little reason for men and women to isolate themselves
from politics or their fellow-beings when most businesses and occupations require some form
of social interaction and in many cases men and women of all interests are affected by various
state legislation concerning suitable business practices, taxation, driver’s licenses, etc.
Tocqueville’s other great concern for the individual was the tyranny of the majority. A
big question for Tocqueville was to whom individuals can turn to when conflicts arise between
the individual and the rest of society. On page 252 of Democracy in America, Tocqueville
pondered:
When a man or a party suffers an injustice in the United States, to whom can he turn? To public opinion? That is what forms the majority. To the legislative body? It represents the majority and obeys it blindly. To the executive power? It is appointed by the majority and serves as its passive instrument. To the police? They are nothing but the majority under arms. A jury? The jury is the majority vested with the right to pronounce judgment; even the judges in certain states are elected by the majority. So, however iniquitous or unreasonable the measure which hurts you, you must submit.12
James Madison, an American politician who helped oversee the development of the United
States, had a similar concern. In his editorial, Federalist #10, Madison wrote that “Complaints
12 Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America translated by George Lawrence edited by J.P. Mayer; published by Perennial Classics 2000, New York NY Page 252
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citizens, […] that measures are
too often decided, not according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor party, but by
the superior force of an interested and overbearing majority.”13 But Madison responded to this
question by stating that the only way to combat this tyranny was to encourage associations,
which he called factions, to increase so that they could combat one another when individual
associations become too powerful. Eventually, Madison assumed, if one faction was becoming
too powerful, then that would encourage many of the other smaller factions to work together
to negate the effects of the large faction. Madison concludes Federalist #10 by stating:
The influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within their particular States, but will be unable to spread a general conflagration through the other States. A religious sect may degenerate into a political faction in a part of the Confederacy; but the variety of sects dispersed over the entire face of it must secure the national councils against any danger from that source.14
Thus, associations, which already constitute a major part of American culture, can serve to both
divide the interests of the majority, and also serve to unite smaller associations against the
overwhelming power of the majority.
Tocqueville believed that equality of conditions was an important component of any
modern society. He believed the egalitarian social state of America helped develop American
characteristics of industriousness and the desire to accumulate wealth. Tocqueville, however,
may have used observations which were too general in order to craft his theory on American
society. Tocqueville seems to have confused the effects of democracy and egalitarianism with
the effects of commercial society. Furthermore, Tocqueville’s analysis of religion in America is
13 Madison, James Federalist #10 http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm14 Madison, James Federalist #10 http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm
Jason WongSocial Studies 10bNicolas Prevelakis
incomplete; his analysis doesn’t explain what might happen if America suddenly became less
religious, or more religious with different beliefs, and what effects these might have on society.
Tocqueville rightly concentrates on the power of the individual in modern society, but
Tocqueville fears both individualism, and paradoxically, the tyranny of the majority.
Tocqueville’s individualism is grounded on the idea that the goals and activities political man, as
opposed to those of the family man, are mutually exclusive.
In actuality I have tried to show that this isn’t the case, and there are many instances in
business and politics that directly affect the political and family man at the same time.
Tocqueville’s concern over the tyranny of the majority is a valid concern, and can be seen even
today in the majority’s denial of equal rights for gays and lesbians. Madison’s solution would
be to encourage the development of more factions and associations to limit any individual
association’s power. Tocqueville himself noted that associations were an enormous part of
American life. Ultimately, even though he expresses some reservations about, and an
incomplete understanding of commercial society, Tocqueville raises two penetrating concerns
of the modern era: the risk of the individual isolating him/herself from the rest of his/her
fellows, and the risk to the individual from the tyranny of society.