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© 2011 by Srinivasan S. PillayPublished by Pearson Education, Inc.Publishing as FT PressUpper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataPillay, Srinivasan S.Your brain and business : the neuroscience of great leaders/Srinivasan Pillay.

p. cm.ISBN-13: 978-0-13-706444-1 (hardback : alk. paper)ISBN-10: 0-13-706444-6

1. Executive coaching. 2. Leadership—Psychological aspects. 3. Management—Psychologicalaspects. 4. Executive ability. 5. Brain. I. Title.

HD30.4.P485 2011658.4'07124—dc22

2010031431

To Papa and the typewriter

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Contents

Chapter 1 Relevance of Neuroscience to the BusinessEnvironment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1What Is “Brain Science”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The Development of Brain Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

How Does Brain Science Relate to the Personal,Managerial, and Organizational Problems That Coaches Face? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

How Does the Application of Brain Science Help Coaches Deal with Their Clients More Effectively? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

More Examples of How Brain Science ConceptsEnhance Coaching When Dealing with Problemsand Traps That Leaders Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

A Map of Where the Book Is Going and What the Coach Will Take Away from It . . . . . . . . 20Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Chapter 2 How Does Positive Thinking Affect the Business Brain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25The Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26The Impact of Negative Emotions on the Brain . . 27The Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Concept 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Concept 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Concept 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Summary of the Concepts as They Are Relevant to Coaches, Managers, and Leaders . . . 33

The Impact of Negative Thinking on the Brain . . . 35Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Concept 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Concept 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Why Should Leaders Be Optimistic? . . . . . . . . . . . 40The Concepts and Their Applications to Coaches, Managers, and Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Why Positive Emotions Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46The Psychology of Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48The Psychology of Compassion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 3 The Neuroscience of Social Intelligence:Guiding Leaders and Managers to Effective Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59The Neuroscience of Empathy in Business . . . . . . 61

Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Concept 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Beyond Empathy: The Neuroscience of Perspective-Taking in Business. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

The Neuroscience of Fairness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Concept 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Concept 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Concept 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

The Neuroscience of Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Concept 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Concept 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Summary of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

viii YOUR BRAIN AND BUSINESS

The Neuroscience of Vicarious Reward . . . . . . . . . 76The Neuroscience of Community and Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77The Neuroscience of Persuasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

The Neuroscience of Attachment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Concept 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Concept 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Concept 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Concept 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Concept 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 4 Of Innovation, Intuition, and Impostors:Intangible Vulnerabilities in the Brains of Great Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91The Neuroscience of Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92The Neuroscience of Intuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98The Neuroscience of Body Language and Its Application to Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101The Neuroscience of the “Impostor Syndrome” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104The Neuroscience of Mirrored Self-Misidentification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105The Neuroscience of the Summit Syndrome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107The Neuroscience of Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109The Neuroscience of Expert Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111The Neuroscience of Advice-Giving. . . . . . . . . . . 113Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CONTENTS ix

Chapter 5 The Challenge Prior to Change: How BrainScience Can Bring Managers and Leadersfrom Idea to Action Orientation . . . . . . . . 121Why Is Change Such a Challenge in the Human Brain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Competing Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Biased Choice Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

What Is Happening in the Brain When Conditioning Occurs?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

The Entrapment of Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Motivated Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

The Fundamental Concepts in Change: A Working Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137The Neuroscience of Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Imagery vs. Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Action-Oriented Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Noise Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Stimulate Short-Term Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Address the Emotional Elements Affecting the DLPFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Chapter 6 From Action Orientation to Change: How Brain Science Can Bring Managers and Leaders from Action Orientation to Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Organizational Context for Change . . . . . . . . . . . 156Model of the Relevance of Brain Science to Understanding Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Relationship of the Neuron to Brain Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Evidence that Brain Change Is Possible in Adulthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Task Switching and the Brain: Relevance to Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

x YOUR BRAIN AND BUSINESS

Memory and the Brain: Relevance to Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Ironic Process Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Action and the Brain: Relevance to Change . . . . 170Emotions and the Brain: Relevance to Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Chapter 7 Coaching Brain Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183Review of Brain Regions and Their Basic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

1. The Thinking Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

2. The Feeling Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

3. The Brain’s Reward System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

4. The Brain’s Action System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

5. The Insula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191Regional Brain Interventions: Targeting Mechanisms for Coaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Thinking Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

The Feeling Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

The Reward Brain (Ventral Striatum) . . . . . . . . 209

The Action Brain (Motor and Premotor Cortex) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

The Insula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Chapter 8 Coaching Brain Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217An Approach to Mirror Neuron Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218An Approach to Cognitive Perspective Taking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223An Approach to Increasing Innovation. . . . . . . . . 227An Approach to Working with the Impostor Syndrome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

CONTENTS xi

An Approach to Managing Emotions . . . . . . . . . . 233DLPFC (Short-Term Memory) Intervention . . . 234

MPFC (Accountant) Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

ACC (Attention Monitor) Intervention: SAFE-Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Corpus Callosum (Brain-Bridge) Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Motor (Action) Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Reward (Basal Ganglia) Intervention . . . . . . . . . 237

Amygdala Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

An Approach to Managing Cognitive Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238An Approach to Managing Breach of Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

ACC Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Amygdala Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Ventral Striatum, VTA, and Septal Nuclei Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

vmPFC Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

An Approach to Managing Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . 244Alternative Brain Probing (ABP): Brain-BasedInsights into Alternative Strategies to Use When Encountering Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

xii YOUR BRAIN AND BUSINESS

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all those who believed that no meet-ing of ideas is impossible; in particular, the faculty of Wharton Busi-ness School and the people at FT Press. I would also like toacknowledge the continued inspiration of all those members ofNeuroBusiness Group who have joined me in applying these basicprinciples to improve the lives of so many managers and leaders.Thanks to Alice Domar and Dave Ostrow for their generosity ofspirit. And to Perry Zeus and Hendré Coetzee for encouraging me topursue this line of thinking. Thanks also to Shervert Frazier for teach-ing me that understanding human psychology can be applied to anydomain of human life and to Leston Havens for convincing me thatthe answers lie inside and that real power lies in the vulnerability ofbeing human. Finally, to all those who love me and to those who allowme to love you—I could not have done this without you.

About the Author

Srinivasan S. Pillay, M.D., is a certified master executive coach,brain-imaging researcher, and Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychia-try at Harvard Medical School. He is also the Founder, CEO, andPresident of NeuroBusiness Group—an executive coaching companywith coaches trained in the application of brain science to profitabil-ity and personal satisfaction in the business environment. Dr. Pillayhas taught these methods with very high acclaim to executives frommany companies, including but not limited to McKinsey, The WorldBank, The MITRE Corporation, Genzyme, Novartis, Arab Banks ofNorth America, CEO Clubs of Greece and Boston, Coca Cola, Pep-sico, and Microchip. He has worked with coaches in a teaching or col-laborative capacity from The Forum Corporation, Mobius ExecutiveLeadership, and Triad Consulting. In addition, he has been invited topresent his work in Boston, New York, Los Angeles, London, Switzer-land, Greece, and Singapore, and his most recent presentations havebeen to executives from Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Dr. Pillayis also the author of Life Unlocked: 7 Revolutionary Lessons to Over-come Fear (Rodale, August 2010), and he also writes for The Huffing-ton Post and Psychology Today.

He is extensively sought out as a speaker and by the media. Selectmedia appearances related to his business experience include TheFinancial Times in Greece, Epoca Magazine in Brazil, Forbes Maga-zine, The Pittsburgh Post Gazette, Investors Business Daily, AtlantaJournal Constitution, and the Sarasota Herald Tribune. Aside fromhis work on applying brain science to improving business perform-ance, Dr. Pillay is also regarded as an international expert in burnout,stress, and anxiety, having been the Director of the Outpatient Anxi-ety Disorders Program at Mclean Hospital, consistently ranked thetop freestanding psychiatric hospital in the United States for the past20 years. Dr. Pillay lives in Newton, MA, and works out of Cambridge, MA.

Relevance of Neuroscience to theBusiness Environment

It is one of my favorite times in teaching a class of managers,leaders, and coaches: those first five minutes when executives andleaders from a variety of personal and business backgrounds—smallbusinesses and Fortune 100 companies, male and female coaches,“in-your-face” and “one-step-at-a-time” personalities—are all unitedby a single question lurking at the back of their minds: What the heckdoes knowledge of the brain have to do with business?

There is even a faint look of horror on some of the faces of theparticipants who have come to this neurocoaching certification pro-gram as they learn that we will be talking for three days on how neu-roscience informs business practices. Everyone sits back at first,preparing for the information deluge. But even within the first half-hour, I can sense a “huh?” response: “Wait a minute. Maybe, justmaybe, there is something here that I can use.” By the end of the firsthour, hands are up asking questions or down scribbling ideas, and fin-gers are tapping on the desk while the information being presented isprocessed. The brains of these listeners are suddenly faced with anunderstanding of themselves, and I can sense that there is a readinessto change. Is this not the point that all of us want to bring our clientsto? And is this not the point when we say, “Okay! Time to create theaction plan.”?

Andy Habermacher is the Managing Director of CTP (CorporateTraining Programs) in Zurich, Switzerland. As a coach, he works with a

1

1

2 YOUR BRAIN AND BUSINESS

wide variety of leaders, including prominent leaders of political organi-zations. This is what he wrote about his exposure to neuroscience: “Inthe autumn of 2008 I sat down in a conference room in a hotel in NewYork. Just 15 minutes later I realized I now had in my hands an excep-tionally powerful tool for coaching, for leadership and for change man-agement. That was what I had realized after 15 minutes, now 6 monthslater do I still feel the same? No, now I would say it is my most power-ful tool. And by saying that I don’t mean that neuroscience makes myother tools and my love of all things psychology irrelevant—no it simplymakes them more relevant. I feel like I could see the nail before andknew where to bang the nail and was banging it with a brick—still effec-tive, still doing the right things at more or less the right time. The con-cept and insights neuroscience brought me gave me the hammer toreally bang home the nail....”

Coaches are not only those people who have trained to be execu-tive coaches. They often are managers or leaders who have to act ascoaches within their specific business domains. In fact, the role of“coach” is intrinsically built into the role of managers and leaders.When we use brain science as the basis of a coaching methodology orcommunication, our goal is to make this as practical as possible. Infact, it is really only useful when it is the best way to communicate.This book is about how to use this knowledge of the brain to commu-nicate in the business environment.

This does not require an immediately in-depth understanding ofbrain chemistry, anatomy, and physiology. In the same way that amechanic does not have to know the basic engineering principlesbehind how a car works, a manager or coach does not have to under-stand irrelevant intricacies. Also, because neuroscience in coaching isin its infancy, the learning involved in coaching is a staged approachthat is gradual but incremental. Although the field is advancing at atremendously rapid pace, learning the fundamental principles of neu-roscience and how brain science can help communication in coachingis a solid first step.

CHAPTER 1 • RELEVANCE OF NEUROSCIENCE TO THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 3

In this chapter, we will get a chance to end those burning ques-tions (and hopefully inspire new questions) about the relevance ofneuroscience to improving performance in the business environmentonce and for all. You will come to see what a substantial role anunderstanding of the brain can play in how you work with people; andwhy now, more than any other time in the history of building leaders,knowing how to apply a knowledge of the brain in the corporate envi-ronment is an important and fundamental part of creating a contextfor change. This—the ability to create a context for change—is whatcoaching, management, and leadership are all about, and neuro-science is a critical part of this context development. But before wetake a look at brain science and its applicability to the business envi-ronment, let’s briefly examine the specific angle of brain science thatwill be discussed in this book.

What Is “Brain Science”?

Neuroscience refers to the scientific study of the nervous sys-tem. Brain science is a division of neuroscience. Studies on thebrain relate to either its structure or function. “Brain science,” as it isused in this book, refers predominantly to functional brain imagingstudies that have been published in the peer-reviewed literature.Functional brain imaging examines how the brain works when it ispresented with a task or challenge when people lie inside an MRIscanner. There are various kinds of functional brain imaging, such asfMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), PET (positron emis-sion tomography), and SPECT (single photon emission computedtomography). The focus of this book is fMRI, which measures brainblood flow as a correlate of brain cell (neuronal) activity. By under-standing how brain blood flow changes in different brain regions inresponse to tasks or challenges, we can start to understand how thebrain works, and in so doing, gain insights about a different metaphorto describe human behavior (apart from organizational psychology).


In addition, we can develop communication strategies that target spe-cific brain regions.

The Development of Brain Science

Important discoveries as a result of the scientific study of thebrain date back to ca. 4000 B.C.E., when the euphoriant effect ofpoppy plants was reported in Sumerian records. Since then, therehave been various findings and discussions within the field, includingHippocrates discussing epilepsy as a phenomenon of the brain(460–379 B.C.E.) and Plato discussing the brain as the seat of mentalprocesses (387 B.C.E.; see http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hist.html). In fact, much of Darwin’s theory of evolution was centeredaround his theories about the brain.1

In contrast with these early interests in the brain, imaging thebrain using MRI is a relatively recent technique. The first MR imagewas published in 1973, and the first studies in humans were done in1977.2 Furthermore, the first papers in the area of functional brainimaging (fMRI) were published in 1992, and since then, the tech-nique has evolved so that we can understand brain changes withinvery small time periods and we can also see these brain changes moreand more clearly as the technology evolves. By having people respondto various challenges (imagery, reaction time, emotions), we areunraveling the mystery of how the brain works. In this book, we willsee how this understanding of brain function can be applied to thebusiness environment.

It is important to remember that the field of fMRI is relativelynew and still evolving. We are still in the process of trying to under-stand what the “lighting up” of the brain actually means, but as wegrow in our knowledge of this meaning, there are several compellingfindings that deserve reflection and translation into the business envi-ronment. As with organizational psychology, our knowledge andunderstanding of the brain is constantly being refreshed.

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hist.html

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hist.html


How Does Brain Science Relate to the Personal,Managerial, and Organizational Problems ThatCoaches Face?

Accelerating the execution of strategies is a goal that managers,leaders, and coaches share.3 Up until now, coaching theory has beenbased largely on personal or organizational psychology. By under-standing the ways in which people and organizations work, businessdevelopers have been able to institute effective interventions to cre-ate a context for change. Organizational development and coachinghas distinguished itself from psychotherapy in being time limited andgoal oriented, but over time, as the psychotherapies have evolvedtoward this approach as well, the gap between the two is gettingsmaller. Although the psychological frameworks can be used veryeffectively to help people develop, these are based mostly on “exter-nal” observations of behavior. Inferences about interventions havebeen based on these external observations. With the advent of fMRI,we now have a chance to infer what is going on inside the brains ofleaders so that we can augment this “external” behavioral and psycho-logical approach with an “internal” understanding of what is going oninside the brain. On their own, brain anatomy and physiology are tooesoteric to have practical significance in the coaching environment,but when the brain is examined in the context of personal or organiza-tional development, it can provide amazing insights and can also pro-vide a template for targeted strategies in accelerating the execution ofstrategy.

How Does the Application of Brain Science Help CoachesDeal with Their Clients More Effectively?

There are six basic ways in which brain science can enhanceunderstanding within the executive environment:

• Repackaging—Any person who has been in marketing knowsthat one can completely change whether people will buy aproduct by repackaging it. A girl’s toy, for example, may be


received differently when it is packaged in yellow versus babypink. It is the same toy, but the packaging has changed. Simi-larly, business leaders and managers sometimes hit a wall whenworking with colleagues, and although they want to maintaintheir primary focus, the colleague may be completely closed to“buying into” the executive’s suggestion. This can cause a stale-mate in communication. For example, if a leader feels thatunconscious fear is eroding the thinking of a manager, the man-ager may be closed to such “psychological” concepts as “uncon-scious fear.” However, if the leader provides a biologicalexplanation for how unconscious fear and stress impacts think-ing and productivity, the manager may be more receptive to thefollow-up interventions. Coaches can use this methodologywhen working with leaders or managers.

• Decreasing threat—One of the obstacles to communicatingin the business environment occurs when there is a rupture inalliance between two people in conversation, and when theperson being spoken to feels criticized or threatened. When acoach or the “manager/leader as coach” uses psychological lan-guage, some people may experience this as a personal affrontand may close up. Using the language of brain science can be apowerful way for executives to understand their behaviorswithout personalizing the explanation. When a coach focuseson a leader, the effect is one of direct focus, whereas focusingon “the brain” is something the coach and client can look attogether. For example, if a coach feels that a leader’s overconfi-dence is getting in his or her way, the coach cannot simply sayto all leaders that they are being overconfident. The leader maybe insulted and may close up. Instead, if a coach explains thatconfidence is tricky, and that there are two types of confi-dence—real confidence (which reflects the truth) and illusoryconfidence (which does not reflect the truth)—and that both ofthese types of confidence activate different parts of the brainwithout us being able to know which one we have (details arepresented later in the book), this would soften the impact onthe leader and encourage an exploration of the type of confi-dence that the leader has.

• Uncovering myths—This is one of the most important appli-cations of brain science to coaching. When brain science tells


us something different from personal or organizational psy-chology, it can provide major breakthroughs in how leadersthink. Examples of myths include the following: (1) Productiv-ity is fine as long as workers are not overtly anxious; (2) Confi-dence indicates that a decision is correct; (3) It is pointlessinteracting with employees if they don’t tell you what is goingon; (4) It is important to tell employees to avoid doing thewrong thing; (5) It doesn’t matter if times are hard; I have tokeep pushing on through. Each of these myths can bedebunked by neuroscience and will be discussed in greaterdetail in the book. Table 1.1 points to brief examples of the newinsights of brain science.

TABLE 1.1 Debunking Organizational Myths with Brain Science

Myth Insight from Brain Science

Productivity is fine as longas workers are not overtlyanxious.

The unconscious brain is connected to the thinkingbrain, and when anxiety is unconscious, it can dis-rupt the thinking brain and productivity; hence,workers may need to focus on unconscious anxiety.

Confidence indicates thata decision is correct.

Accurate confidence activates the temporal lobe ofthe brain, and illusory confidence activates thefronto-parietal brain without telling us whether theconfidence is accurate or illusory; hence, the inter-vention may need to focus on exploring the confi-dence rather than assuming that it indicates thecorrect approach.

It is pointless interactingwith employees if they don’ttell you what is going on.

Even if employees do not tell you anything, yourown brain can automatically pick up informationfrom their brains because you share mirror neurons(details later); hence, it is important for leaders whowant to know what is going on in the company tohave in-person dialogues, even with people who arenot talkative.

It is important to tellemployees to avoid doingthe wrong thing.

Under stress, the brain operates such that an avoid-ance command is misinterpreted as a “do it” com-mand; hence, we have to be careful when providingfeedback.

It doesn’t matter if timesare hard; I have to keeppushing on through.

“Pushing through” sometimes exhausts the uncon-scious brain, fatigues the amygdala, and will causethe brain to shut off; hence, less work, rather thanmore work, may be necessary


• Providing further insights and evidence—At times, theusual interventions may not work when trying to help a leaderchange behavior. The leader may be resistant to change andmay say, “I’ve always done this a certain way, and I can’t do itany differently.” Here, we can use the language of neuroplastic-ity in the dialogue. For example, rather than saying, “Of courseyou can change and you have to,” a coach may say, “Brain sci-ence teaches us that the brain can change even in adulthood; infact, the brain can form new connections and pathways and bytrying out something new, your brain can rewire itself in time.”Here, the coach circumvents the resistance to change byovertly describing a biological reality: that the brain can change.Another example would relate to visualization. Many peopleknow that visualizing goals is helpful, but this often sounds too“New Age” or unsubstantiated. In this book, we will examinethe biology of visualization and a new language of brain scienceto understand this phenomenon entirely differently.

• Providing a system for targeted interventions—When weuse brain biology to explain phenomena, we may also extendthis to use biological principles to construct interventions orstrategies. For example, in the example of unconscious feargiven earlier, it is often difficult to just ask a leader to stop his orher unconscious fear. If the leader is not conscious of it, howwill he or she stop this? By understanding that the amygdala(the brain’s emotional center) connects to the anterior cingu-late cortex (ACC), we can target the functions of the ACC (thebrain’s conflict detector) to reach the amygdala. Details of theseinterventions will be provided later in the book. Another exam-ple would be, how do coaches increase the commitment of aclient to a new plan of action in the face of old habits? Or howdo managers increase the commitment of people who report tothem? By understanding the brain science behind commitment(which requires activation of the left frontal cortex), coachesand managers can then develop interventions that target theleft frontal cortex (explained in detail later). Thus, brain sciencecan help us construct active interventions as well.

• Developing coaching protocols and tools—The aforemen-tioned piecemeal interventions can be incorporated into acoaching protocol so that a significant part of the coaching may


include the biological basis and related interventions. Forexample, I was hired by a company to work with senior leadersto help them increase their power and influence during diffi-cult conversations. These leaders had found that the peoplethey were reporting to were often closed, autocratic, and frus-trating. By understanding the brain basis of difficult conversa-tions, we can construct checklists as part of coaching protocolsto help leaders have an organized approach to developing anew skill. Understanding brain functions allows us to develop acoaching protocol with different targets than one that lookssolely at behaviors.

More Examples of How Brain Science Concepts EnhanceCoaching When Dealing with Problems and Traps ThatLeaders Face

Problems are overt issues that leaders, managers, coaches, andclients can understand. Traps relate to unforeseen consequences thatexecutives or coaches may face. In both of these situations, brain sci-ence can be very helpful to executives or coaches looking for alternateexplanations and strategies.

The following examples illustrate the business problem, thebrain science concept that relates to the problem, and the specificapplication of this concept to improving productivity in the businessenvironment.

1. The leader is working too much in isolation.

When leaders make unilateral decisions, this can impact the com-pany in very negative ways. It erodes coherence, trust, and productiv-ity. When coaches work with leaders whose social intelligence ischallenged in this manner, they are often faced with the difficulty ofcommunicating the importance of involving as many levels of thecompany as possible in decisions. Leaders see this as too labor inten-sive and often think that they are muddying the waters when they taketoo many opinions into consideration. As a result, they steer awayfrom involving other people. How can you, as a coach or manager, use


the language of neuroscience to communicate why this does notalways work well in the company?

The concept: The neuroscientific concept that can be used here isthe following: Much like the way in which a company works, brains alsohave a hierarchical structure that involves a “top-down” communica-tion of information. In a company, a CEO may communicate informa-tion to a senior manager; in the brain, that executive function is servedby the frontal lobe. That is, the final decision to act makes its way to thefrontal lobe before action occurs. However, prior to this decision beingmade, there are multiple networks in the brain that have to have theirsay. Much like a successful company, the brain relies on the input of itsvarious parts prior to making a decision. That is, the brain acts as a setof collaborating brain regions that operate as a large-scale network.

The application: Coaches can use this information to remindleaders that the company operates due to the brains of all the peoplewho are employed. All of these brains together form “the companybrain.” The leader is that part of the company brain that has to makethe final decision: He or she is the frontal lobe of the company brain.Let’s reflect on how the frontal lobe functions: We know from exten-sive research that if there are insufficient inputs to the frontal lobe, itcannot make the correct decisions. Just as the frontal lobe of anyindividual brain needs inputs from the emotional center in thebrain—the risk register, the reward center, and many other regions—before it can make a decision, the company’s frontal lobe also needsthis information. In the case of the company, these other “inputs” areother people. Coaches and managers can introduce leaders to theimportance of working together by using this metaphor.

Furthermore, CEOs who form these networks prior to becomingleaders are more likely to be successful.4 In the rise to greater respon-sibility, it is important for leaders to conceive of themselves much likethe frontal lobe of the brain in “reaching out” to other “brain regions”within the company during the rise to leadership rather than after theyhave been nominated to that position. These frontal lobe functions in


the business environment may involve bridging, framing, and capaci-tating5—all ideas that are about relating and making the business envi-ronment relatable.

2. The leader believes that emotions have nothing to do with thefinal decision.

The concept: There are two types of reasoning: hot and cold rea-soning. An example of cold reasoning is a straightforward arithmeticoperation—although even this is not as cold as we think! Cold reason-ing usually activates short-term memory centers only, without activat-ing regions involved in “hot” reasoning. Very few thinking process areactually cold. Even reasoning that appears cold is motivated whenpeople have an emotional stake in it. This is almost always the case inbusiness. Hot reasoning, on the other hand, activates the brain’saccountant (the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, or vmPFC), the con-flict detector (the anterior cingulate cortex, or ACC) and the “gutinterpreter” (the insula).6 Activation of these brain regions is criticalto making effective decisions.

Consider, for example, the case of companies who were fearlessabout lending money to people for mortgages. Without this fear, theylacked the information that was necessary to judiciously distributemoney. Fear is an emotion, and it needed to be part of the equationbefore money was lent. On the other hand, if fear dominated thethought of people who invented the airplane, we might never havebeen able to fly. In each case, the emotion of fear is necessary toensure adequate precautions. In the former case, it discourages lend-ing, whereas in the latter case, it encourages innovation with safety.

Scientifically, we know that hot reasoning matters because in anexperiment using deductive reasoning, a group that received logico-emotional training moved from error to logic, whereas the group thatdid not receive the emotional component of this training still mademany errors.7 This training involved teaching people to be in touchwith their emotions and activated the brain’s accountant (vmPFC).


The application: It is not easy to tell most leaders who are opposedto emotions being part of decision-making that they need to be “intouch with their emotions.” Neuroscience can help to provide moreacceptable language. As a coach, you may tell leaders that their brains’accountant relies on emotional data to make the correct decisions andthat experiments have shown that when the accountant corrects forerrors in the brain, it is largely because it makes contact with emotionalcenters in the brain. You may also remind leaders who are sensitive to“emotions” that emotions are really just electrical impulses travellingthrough the emotional centers in the brain. The accountant in theirbrains needs a read on this electricity prior to making a decision.

Following acceptance of this explanation, you will have created alogical permission for the leader to be more open to your subse-quent emotional and social intelligence development initiatives. Infact, a leader’s emotions may play a very important role in leadershipeffectiveness.8

3. The leader is not comfortable making a necessary change.

The concept: When leaders say, “I am just not comfortable withthat,” when they resist moving in the direction of new decisions, theyneed to be finely attuned to this sense of discomfort when makingdecisions, even when they can’t account for it. However, in certain sit-uations, this discomfort may not indicate that a decision is wrong, butthat it is different. Recent research has shown that this discomfort,also called cognitive dissonance (details are explained in Chapter 6,“From Action Orientation to Change: How Brain Science Can BringManagers and Leaders from Action Orientation to Action”), is essen-tial to sticking to a new action. Brain imaging research has shown thatto remain committed to a new decision, the left frontal cortex of thebrain has to activate. This part of the brain will not activate withoutcognitive dissonance.

The application: When leaders are uncomfortable about a newdecision, ask them to hold onto the discomfort while you take a look


at the issue. To help them actually do this, you can tell them thatbrain imaging studies have shown that maximal discomfort is a nec-essary initial step to stimulate that part of the brain that willincrease commitment to a new decision. Paying attention to vari-ables such as “cognitive dissonance” has been recognized as funda-mental to the field of behavioral finance.9

4. The leader is too anxious.

The concept: Anxiety activates the amygdala—the fear and anxi-ety center in the brain.10 This part of the brain is connected to thethinking parts of the brain: in particular, the prefrontal cortex11 andACC (see Figure 1.1).

There are two major subdivisions of the prefrontal cortex:

• The DLPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex)—This is theshort-term memory store.12, 13 New information coming into thebrain is registered here and stored before it can be sent to long-term memory. Thus, excessive anxiety disrupts the integration ofincoming information and short-term memory is compromised.

• The mPFC (medial prefrontal cortex)14—The inner partsof the PFC (mPFC), shown in Figure 1.2, are responsible forvarious functions such as calculations of risks and rewards,15

motivation,16 memory retrieval,17 and other very importantfunctions in decision-making.

DLPFCDLPFC

Hippocampus Amygdala

ACC

OFC

Figure 1.1 DLPFC connections to anterior cingulate cortex (ACC),orbitofrontal (OFC) cortex, amygdala and hippocampus


Among its many other functions, the ACC is the error monitor inthe human brain. It is useful to think of it as a flashlight that is con-stantly searching for conflicts in priorities. Aside from error detection,it is also involved in anticipation of tasks, motivation, and modulationof emotional responses. It shares rich connections with the amygdala,reward pathways, and the rest of the frontal cortex. When the amyg-dala is chaotic, the ACC also becomes chaotic, and attention to things

MPFC

MPFC

Figure 1.2 The medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC)


both internal and external becomes chaotic.18 Figure 1.3 shows theamygdala connections to the anterior cingulate cortex.

The application: When leaders are anxious, coaches can tell themthat it is important to be aware that anxiety centers in the brain con-nect to thinking centers, including the PFC and ACC. The prefrontalcortex allows a person to differentiate among conflicting thoughts aswell as determine good and bad,19 better and best, same and different,and future consequences of current activities, thus working toward adefined goal and prediction of outcomes.20–24 Therefore, when thesefunctions are disrupted, thinking is disrupted. Effectively, by remem-bering that the amygdala is connected to the DLPFC, mPFC, andACC, coaches can inform leaders that short-term memory, risk-bene-fit assessment, and attention are also disrupted by anxiety.

5. The leader has conflicts of interest.

The concept: Leaders may not be willing to face the fact that theirconflicts of interest are affecting their decision-making. When thereis a conflict of interest, one issue may cloud another because theseinternal conflicts may generate too much anxiety for the leader.25 Thismay, for example, be very relevant in the merger and acquisition

ACC

Amygdala

Figure 1.3 The cingulate gyrus and amygdala connection


process. The ACC, being the conflict detector, overactivates whenthis occurs, and action is stopped when this information is fed to thebrain’s accountant (vmPFC). The accountant has to take its time deal-ing with conflicting information. An overt example of this (which isprohibited by the Securities and Exchange Commission) is whenleaders have a personal investment in a company and their companiesalso have an investment in that same company. Thus, doing the bestfor the company may conflict with doing the best for that leader.

The application: When detecting conflicts of interest (one of themain reasons that good leaders make bad decisions), coaches maytake a less judgmental road to alerting leaders to this by pointing outthat the decision-making centers in the brain usually stop all action indealing with conflicting information and that the leader would bene-fit from facing this conflict so that there is more conscious control ofthe outcome. Here, coaches can also integrate the science of “hot rea-soning” when leaders insist that they can separate out these kinds ofconflicts by pointing out that brain research shows that emotionalinput is commonplace, even in deductive logic, and that the braincannot truly be as objective as we think it can be. Similarly, leaders ormanagers themselves may communicate with people who report tothem using the same principles.

6. The leader is attached to people, places, and things that areaffecting his or her decisions.

The concept: When leaders become attached to people, places, orthings, decision-making is affected.25 Humans are reluctant to let go oftheir attachments, but in businesses, leaders who cannot access thisflexibility in thinking can make poor decisions. Being attached is a com-plex phenomenon that can impact the brain in various ways (seeChapter 3, “The Neuroscience of Social Intelligence: Guiding Leadersand Managers to Effective Relationships,” for details). One importantway is that attachment engages the reward system in the brain, andwhen people are rewarded, they may not be open to other rewards. As


a result, they are stuck in the same old patterns. When leaders areattached to old ideas, they are being served by these ideas, and this acti-vates the reward center in the brain. If a new plan involves giving upthese attachments (old computer systems, organizational hierarchy),the reward center in the brain “complains” and stops activating. As aresult, the leader may feel as though he or she is on the wrong path. Inaddition to leaders forming attachments, companies also have attach-ments and often strive for a state of congruence between the differentparts through their attachments.26

The application: When coaches are coaching leaders, it may helpto remind leaders that there are two reward centers that need to beacknowledged: the reward center in the leader’s brain and the rewardcenter in the organization’s brain. When a leader questions a pathbecause something “does not feel right,” a coach may ask the leaderwhose reward system is talking: the leader’s or the organization’s?

7. The leader has misleading memories.

The concept: When leaders’ decisions are affected by misleadingmemories, this can have a powerful impact on a company.25 The wayin which we remember things often feels certain, even when it isincorrect. Forgetting things that just happened is common whenshort-term memory is overloaded or when anxiety disrupts DLPFCfunctioning. Thus, vital memories of what just happened may be lost.An easy-to-relate-to idea here is dieting. People often forget aboutsticking to diets or an exercise regime when they are anxious or theyreceive too much information. Also, studies show that the right hemi-sphere of the brain is involved when we generate false memories thatwe may be convinced are actually true.27 Furthermore, when we areconfident about our memories, these memories may either be true orfalse.28 When they are true, the medial temporal lobe is activated;when they are false, the fronto-parietal cortex is activated. The higherour confidence, the more these regions will activate based on whetherwe are truly remembering past events or falsely remembering them.


The application: Because misleading memories are one of the mainreasons that good leaders make bad decisions, it is important to havelanguage to describe that (1) false recollections are possible, even inhighly intelligent people, and that (2) confidence does not always cor-relate with accuracy of memory. When coaches are looking to workwith leaders who are high in confidence, they may let leaders know thatconfidence itself impacts the brain differently depending on whetherthe things that leaders are remembering are true or false. Even whenmemories are false, the brain can produce a sense of confidence, butfor true and false memories, confidence impacts the brain in differentbrain regions. This will be helpful in alerting leaders to verify what theythink they remember regardless of how confident they are.

8. The leader falls into a psychological trap.

The concept: Leaders may fall into one of many psychologicaltraps.29 For example, leaders may overemphasize recent events in adecision (anchoring trap), think that they are changing when theyreally are not because they lack sufficient flexibility in thinking andaction (status quo trap), be overly cautious or prudent (prudence trap),or be trapped within a certain frame of thinking (framing trap). Foreach of these traps, there are biological correlates that relate: for theanchoring trap, short-term memory is involved but long-term memoryis left out; for the status-quo trap, the brain region for flexibility inthinking needs to be exercised; for the prudence trap, the amygdala isoveractivated; and for the framing trap, the ACC is stagnant and needsto be reengaged.

The application: Coaches can justify approaches in coaching byusing these biological substrates in the language of describing thetraps. For example, coaches may say, “We need to involve short- andlong-term memory in this reflection,” or “I would like to ask you someopen-ended questions to encourage thinking flexibility,” or “Yourbrain’s fear detector may be applying the brakes on your strategy toomuch,” or “Your brain’s framing center is stuck, and we have coaching


interventions that can help it become unstuck.” Each of these lan-guage excerpts is just one of many examples of how the language ofbrain science can add to a coaching intervention.

This then outlines some of the assumptions that leaders maymake about decisions and how brain science can help coaches undothese assumptions. Remember that although I am using the term“coaches” here, these principles apply equally to when the manageror leader has to act as a coach or communicator. Table 1.2 summa-rizes these assumptions and how coaches can use the difference thatbrain science can make in our understanding to dispel with theseassumptions.

TABLE 1.2 The Brain Science Behind Common Leadership Errors

AssumptionBrain Science Fact That Coaches Can Useto Dispel Assumption

It is better to make major deci-sions alone.

The brain makes decisions based on input fromvarious centers. To maximize this input, gettingopinions of various people is optimal.

Emotions should be removedfrom reasoning.

Studies show that even for purely deductivelogic, it is important to connect with emotionsbecause this will provide optimal activation ofthe brain’s accountant, which is critical for deci-sion making.

The leader feels that a newdecision is wrong because he orshe is not comfortable.

The left frontal cortex requires discomfort in cer-tain situations to remain committed to newdecisions.

The leader does not believethat his or her anxiety impactshis or her decision-making.

Anxiety centers in the brain are connected toshort-term memory, risk-benefit analysis, andattention. When leaders are anxious, their deci-sions may be impacted.

The leader believes that he orshe can discern conflicts ofinterest and still make gooddecisions.

Conflicts of interest create brain discomfort inregions critical for decision-making, includingthe brain’s attention center and risk-benefit cen-ter. The brain may exclude important informa-tion in its calculations in order to decrease thisdiscomfort without the leader knowing. Thus,conflicts of interest should be addressed overtly.


A Map of Where the Book Is Going andWhat the Coach Will Take Away from It

Coaching involves establishing a reliable alliance with the clientso as to create a context for change. Although the eventual goal ischange, this change has to occur within the context of relationships.Brain science underlies both the relationships and actions necessaryto create and maintain the change. The book is therefore broadlydivided into the parts shown in Figure 1.4.

TABLE 1.2 The Brain Science Behind Common Leadership Errors

AssumptionBrain Science Fact That Coaches Can Useto Dispel Assumption

The leader believes that his orher attachments to old ways ofthinking do not impact the newdecisions.

Giving up old attachments may decrease activa-tion in the brain’s reward center. Leaders shoulddistinguish between their reward centers andthose of the company.

Leaders believe that their con-fidence is evidence that a deci-sion is correct.

The brain can generate confidence about trueand false memories. They are just in differentbrain regions.

Leaders fall into traps. “The brain’s braking system may need to be reex-amined” or “Let’s get your brain’s framing centerunstuck” is the type of language coaches can usein dealing with these traps.

Introduction

• Chapter 1: Relevance of Brain Science to Coaching

TheRelationship

• Chapter 2: Positive Psychology

• Chapter 3: Effective Relationships

• Chapter 4: Intangibles

TheInterventions

• Chapter 5: From Idea to Action Orientation

• Chapter 6: From Action Orientation to Change

Conclusion

• Chapter 7: Regional Brain Interventions

• Chapter 8 Functional Brain Interventions

Figure 1.4 Structural outline of Your Brain and Business:The Neuroscience of Great Leaders


In the introduction, the executive or coach learns the broad prin-ciples of how brain science applies to coaching and communicatingwith specific examples for each principle. In the “Relationship” sec-tion, the coach will learn about how brain science justifies theapproach of positive psychology in coaching and about how knowl-edge of the brain helps coaches develop effective relationships withtheir leaders. In addition, we will review how this knowledge canalso help leaders develop effective relationships with their followers.Also in this section is a special chapter on the intangibles withinsights from brain science. This chapter reviews concepts such asinnovation, intuition, and resilience. With this background, the nextsection then describes the brain science behind the actual interven-tions. In the first chapter in this section, we will review how brain sci-ence can bring people to commitment to change as well as how tomove from this commitment to action. In the last section, we willreview the interventions described throughout the book. Here wewill review the specific interventions that target different brainregions, and then specific interventions that target brain processesrelevant to communicating in the executive environment. At the endof this book, the coach or executive will have a good idea of severalconcepts in brain science that can be applied to his or her own coach-ing relationships and interventions so as to add to the available toolsfor coaching.

Conclusion

Neuroscience is highly relevant to the language and process ofcoaching in the executive environment. This applies to executivecoaches and to managers or leaders who act as coaches. Although it isimportant to avoid the use of jargon and alienating concepts in brainscience, neuroscience can be used in practical and effective ways toenhance the execution of strategies. Furthermore, because the brainis universal, the language of brain science is also universal. I havetaught these concepts in the U.S., Brazil, Greece, and Switzerland,


for example. In teaching these concepts, I have confirmed that brainscience is indeed a useful tool for cross-cultural coaching too. Thus, itallows the coach to use a more “neutral” language to facilitate thecoaching process.

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INDEXA

ABP (alternative brain probing),184, 249-250

ACC (anterior cingulate cortex)advice-giving, 113change and, 124expert performance, 112explained, 8, 172, 187imagery versus observation, 142impact of optimism on, 42-46in inequity, 68intuitive reasoning, 99managing breach of trust, 242managing emotions, 235-236motivated reasoning, 134social isolation, 77targeted interventions, 198-204

reassessing, 202-203reengaging, 202refocusing, 201-202reframing, 203-204resolving conflict, 200-201

vicarious reward, 76accuracy in intuition, 99-100

255

actionaction orientation, 139-141action-oriented questions,

144-147actions promoting change,

170-179advice-giving, 113-114Albrecht, Karl, 59alternative brain probing (ABP),

184, 249-250ambiguity, 244-249amygdala

attachment responses, 81change and, 124contextual conditioning, 132expert performance, 112explained, 188, 204-207fear response in people with

cortical blindness, 31impact of optimism on, 42-46intuition, 99managing breach of trust, 243managing emotions, 237response to conscious fears,

28-29

256 INDEX

response to unconscious fears,30-31

in trustworthiness assessments,73-75

analogical reasoning, 94anchoring trap, 18anger, 34angular gyrus, 95Ankiel, Rick, 167anterior cingulate cortex.

See ACCanterior insula

advice-giving, 113intuition, 99in trustworthiness, 75

anticipatory behavior, 99anxiety. See fearanxious attachment, 81approach phase (summit

syndrome), 107assessing potential losses, 197associations, 94attachments to people/

places/things that affectdecisions, 16-17, 80-82

avoidance, 34, 81

B

backward masking, 30basal ganglia

change and, 124expert performance, 112imagery versus observation, 142

behavioral commitment, 138benchmarking, 148beta-gamma activity, 49

bilateral dorsolateral prefrontalcortex, 111

bilateral inferior parietal cortex, 100

bilateral primary somatosensorycortex, 111

Blass, Steve, 167body language, 101-103boredom, 107-109brain plasticity, 192brain processes, coaching

ABP (alternative brain probing),249-250

cognitive perspective-taking,223-227

Impostor Syndrome, 230-232increasing innovation, 227-230managing ambiguity, 244-249managing breach of trust,

241-244managing cognitive flexibility,

238-241managing emotions, 233-237mirror neuron interventions,

218-222brain science

change andactions promoting change,

170-179brain plasticity, 158-159cognitive dissonance,

171-172emotions and change,

175-176ironic process theory,

167-169

INDEX 257

memory consolidation, 165-170

model of relevance of brainscience to change, 157-158

task switching, 160-165defined, 3-4development of, 4enhancing executive

environment withdecreasing threat, 6developing coaching

protocols and tools, 8providing insights and

evidence, 8providing system for

targeted interventions, 8repackaging, 5uncovering myths, 6-7

leadership errors andanxiety, 13-15attachments to people/

places/things that affectdecisions, 16-17

cold reasoning, 11-12conflicts of interest, 15-16discomfort with change,

12-13isolation, 9, 11misleading memories, 17-18psychological traps, 18-19table of common

assumptions, 19-20negative emotions, impact

on brainconscious fear, 28-29displacing fear as primary

emotion being processed,32-33

effect on decision making,31-32

explained, 27-28fear response in people with

cortical blindness, 31recognizing effects of fear

and anxiety, 33-35unconscious fear, 30-31

negative thinking, impact onbrain, 35-40

decreasing “brain pain” byfocusing attentionelsewhere, 36-37

focusing on support ratherthan social pain, 37-38

negative mood states andincrease in pain, 39

worry, impact on decisionmaking, 39-40

relevance to personal,managerial, and organizationproblems, 5

breach of trust, 241-244

C

caudate nucleus, 127“CEOs and Cognitive

Dissonance” (Stibel), 192cerebellar hemispheres, imagery

versus observation, 142cerebral cortex

ACC (anterior cingulate cortex)advice-giving, 113change and, 124expert performance, 112explained, 8, 172, 187

258 INDEX

imagery versus observation, 142

impact of optimism on, 42-46

in inequity, 68intuitive reasoning, 99managing breach of

trust, 242managing emotions, 235-236motivated reasoning, 134social isolation, 77targeted interventions,

198-204vicarious reward, 76

DLPFC (dorsolateral PFC), 13, 165-167

change and, 124emotions affecting, 149-150expert performance, 112explained, 186managing emotions, 234mirror neurons, 79noise reduction, 147in perspective-taking, 66short-term memory, 129,

148-149targeted interventions,

193-195explained, 185vmPFC (ventromedial

PFC), 108change and, 124explained, 186managing breach of

trust, 244managing emotions, 234-235motivated reasoning, 134

targeted interventions, 195-197

in trustworthiness, 74-75Chakravarty, Ambar, 93change

actions promoting change, 170-179

brain plasticity, 158-159challenges to, 136-137cognitive dissonance, 171-172commitment, 126-128

action-oriented questions,144-147

emotions affecting, 149-150imagery versus observation,

142-144neuroscience of, 139-141noise reduction, 147stimulating short-term

memory, 148-149conditioning, 128-130

context in, 132-134long-term potentiation

(LTP), 130-131context for, 121discomfort with, 12-13emotions and, 175-176ironic process theory, 167-169memory consolidation, 165-170model for, 137-139, 157-158motivated reasoning, 134-136neuroscience of, 122-126organizational context for, 156task switching, 160-165

changingperspective, 206timeframe, 196

INDEX 259

citizenship, 77-78coaching

brain processesABP (alternative brain

probing), 249-250cognitive perspective-taking,

223-227Impostor Syndrome,

230-232increasing innovation,

227-230managing ambiguity,

244-249managing breach of trust,

241-244managing cognitive

flexibility, 238-241managing emotions, 233-237mirror neuron interventions,

218-222protocols and tools, 8regional brain interventions

amygdala, 204-207anterior cingulate cortex

(ACC), 198-204dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC),

193-195hippocampus, 207-208insula, 211-214motor cortex, 210-211ventral striatum, 209-210ventromedial PFC (vmPFC),

195-197cognitive dissonance, 12, 171-172cognitive flexibility, 238-239, 241cognitive perspective-taking,

223-227

coiled-spring approach (tochange), 137

cold reasoning, 11-12commitment

action-oriented questions, 144-147

behavioral commitment, 138to change, 126-128emotions affecting, 149-150imagery versus observation,

142-144neuroscience of, 139-141noise reduction, 147stimulating short-term memory,

148-149community, 77-78compassion, 51-52conditioning, 128-130

context in, 132-134long-term potentiation (LTP),

130-131conflict resolution, 200-201conflicting priorities, reducing,

200-201conflicts of interest, 15-16conscious fear, impact on brain,

28-29consolidating memory, 165-170contextual conditioning, 132-134corpus callosum, 124cortical blindness and fear

response, 31cortisol, 110counter-mirroring training,

220-222creativity. See innovation

260 INDEX

crisis, planning for, 205cross-modal abstraction, 96customer service, perspective-

taking and, 65-67

D

debunking myths, 6-7decision making

effect of fear on, 31-32positive emotions and, 46-48worry and, 39-40

decisionscommitment to, 126-128defined, 140

decreasing threat, 6deliberative reasoning, 99depression, 149-150developing coaching protocols

and tools, 8development of brain science, 4diet, 195discomfort with change, 12-13displacing fear as primary

emotion being processed, 32-33divergent thinking (DT), 96DLPFC (dorsolateral PFC), 13,

165-167change and, 124emotions affecting, 149-150expert performance, 112explained, 186managing emotions, 234mirror neurons, 79noise reduction, 147in perspective-taking, 66short-term memory, 129,

148-149targeted interventions, 193-195

dorso, 124dorsolateral PFC. See DLPFCDT (divergent thinking), 96Dyer, Jeffrey, 92

E

early detection in intuition, 99-100

eating habits, 195efficiency, 112egalitarian social relations,

preference for, 68embodied cognition, 102emotions

affecting DLPFC, 149-150change and, 126, 175-176compassion, 51-52contextual conditioning, 133decision-making and, 11-12,

31-32, 46-48emotional stake, 208expert performance and, 112imagery versus observation, 143managing, 233-237memory consolidation, 168mirroring, 63-65motivated reasoning, 134-136negative emotions

conscious fear, 28-29displacing fear as primary




cortical blindness, 31

INDEX 261

recognizing effects of fearand anxiety, 33-35

unconscious fear, 30-31optimism

benefits of, 40-41correlation with placebo

response, 41-42impact on amygdala and

ACC, 42-46positive emotions, 46-48resilience and, 110worry, 39-40

empathyfairness and, 68neuroscience of, 61-65perspective-taking versus, 65-67

enrollment, 138errors. See leadership errorsexecutive environment,

enhancing with brain sciencedecreasing threat, 6developing coaching protocols

and tools, 8providing insights and

evidence, 8providing system for targeted

interventions, 8repackaging, 5uncovering myth, 6-7

expert performance, 79-80, 111-113

F

failure, fear of, 28fairness, 67-71fear, 13-15, 75

conscious fear, 28-29in contextual conditioning, 133

displacing as primary emotionbeing processed, 32-33

effect on decision making, 31-32effect on memory

consolidation, 168of failure, 28fear response in people with

cortical blindness, 31neuroscience of, 104-105recognizing effects of, 33-35unconscious fear, 30-31

flexibility, 238-241fMRI, 4, 142focusing on positive, 201-202framing trap, 18fronto-parietal cortex, 112

G

geographic control, 219glia, 109goals, breaking into component

parts, 210Goleman, Daniel, 59

H

Habermacher, Andy, 1habit memory systems, 128-130Hamel, Gary, 77, 92heteromodal association

areas, 100hierarchical social relations,

preference for, 68hippocampus

change and, 124contextual conditioning, 132explained, 188imagery versus observation, 142

262 INDEX

long-term memory, 129-130novelty seeking, 108targeted interventions, 207-208

Hippocrates, 4honeymoon-hangover effect, 128hot reasoning, 11-12HPA (hypothalamic-

pituitary-adrenal) axisattachment anxiety, 81resilience, 110

I

imagery, 142-144Impostor Syndrome, 104-105,

230-232increasing innovation, 227-230inequity, 67-71 inferior frontal gyrus, 113inferior parietal cortex

deliberative reasoning, 99in perspective-taking, 66voice training, 111

information overload, 123inhibition, 93innovation

increasing, 227-230neuroscience of, 92-98processes in, 92

insecure attachment, 80-82insights, providing with brain

science, 8insula

explained, 190in inequity, 68intuitive reasoning, 99insula mapping, 212-214

motivated reasoning, 134targeted interventions, 211-214

intangibles, coachinginterventions on, 114-115

intentions, mirroring, 63-65intraparietal sulcus

advice-giving, 113imagery versus observation, 142

intuitionin mathematical ability, 111neuroscience of, 98-101

ironic process theory, 167-169isolated leaders, 9-11isolation, 34

K-L

Katzenbach, Jon, 61Knoblauch, Chuck, 167

language, action-oriented, 144-147

lateral, 125lateral orbital cortex, 134layoffs, fear of, 28leadership errors

anxiety, 13-15attachments to people/

places/things that affectdecisions, 16-17

cold reasoning, 11-12conflicts of interest, 15-16discomfort with change, 12-13isolation, 9-11misleading memories, 17-18psychological traps, 18-19table of common assumptions,

19-20

INDEX 263

left angular gyrus, 112left anterior insula, 68left frontal cortex

action-oriented questions, 144-147

commitment to change, 140semantic distance, 94

left inferior frontal gyrus, 146left lateral orbital cortex, 95lingual gyrus, 95loneliness, 77-78long-term memory, 123, 129-130LTP (long-term potentiation),

130-131

M

Mackey, John, 175managerial problems, relevance

of brain science to, 5managing

ambiguity, 244-249breach of trust, 241-244cognitive flexibility, 238-241emotions, 233-237

mathematical ability, 111Mayer, Marissa, 175medial, 125medial occipital gyrus, 113medial posterior cortex, 66medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC),

13, 62median OFC, 99memory

consolidation, 165-170misleading memories, 17-18

short-term memory centerexplained, 186managing emotions, 234targeted interventions,

193-195short-term memory training, 194

Mendonca, Lenny, 175middle frontal gyrus, 99middle temporal gyrus, 113mindfulness, 48-51mirror neurons

body language, 101-103in empathy, 62-65intuition, 101mirror neuron interventions,

218-222in persuasion, 79

mirrored self-misidentification,105-106

misleading memories, 17-18monetary incentives, 68, 209motivated reasoning, 134-136motor cortex

change and, 124explained, 189managing emotions, 236targeted interventions, 210-211

movement, thought and, 102-103mPFC (medial prefrontal cortex),

13, 62MRI, 4myths, debunking, 6-7

N

NA (nucleus accumbens), 188naps, 168Navar, Vineet, 176

264 INDEX

negative emotions, impact onbrainconscious fear, 28-29displacing fear as primary

emotion being processed, 32-33

effect on decision making, 31-32explained, 27-28fear response in people with

cortical blindness, 31recognizing effects of fear and

anxiety, 33-35unconscious fear, 30-31

negative thinkingdecreasing “brain pain” by

focusing attention elsewhere,36-37

focusing on support rather thansocial pain, 37-38

impact on brain, 35-40negative mood states and

increase in pain, 39worry, impact on decision

making, 39-40neurons

defined, 130relationship to brain change,

158-159neuroplasticity, 158-159, 192neuroscience, 1-3. See also brain

sciencenoise reduction, 147, 194novelty-seeking people, 108-109nucleus accumbens (NA), 188

O

observation, 142-144occipital area, 112optimism, 206

benefits of, 40-41correlation with placebo

response, 41-42impact on amygdala and ACC,

42-46organizational context for

change, 156organizational problems,

relevance of brain science to, 5oxytocin, 73

P

PAG (periaqueductal gray), 196pain

decreasing by focusing attentionelsewhere, 36-37

focusing on support rather thansocial pain, 37-38


paracingulate cortex, trustactivation of, 73

parietal cortex, 98pasticity of brain, 158-159pattern recognition, 98periaqueductal gray (PAG), 196personal problems, relevance of

brain science to, 5perspective

changing, 206cognitive perspective-taking,

65-67, 223-227

INDEX 265

persuasion, 79-80pessimism. See negative thinkingPFC (prefrontal cortex), 31-32placebo response, 41-42place attachments that impact

decisions, 16-17planning for crisis, 205plasticity of brain, 192plateau phase (summit

syndrome), 107Plato, 4positive psychology

compassion, 51-52explained, 25-26importance of, 26-27mindfulness, 48-51negative emotions, impact

on brainconscious fear, 28-29displacing fear as primary




cortical blindness, 31recognizing effects of fear

and anxiety, 33-35unconscious fear, 30-31

negative thinking, impact onbrain, 35-40

decreasing “brain pain” byfocusing attentionelsewhere, 36-37

focusing on support ratherthan social pain, 37-38


worry, impact on decisionmaking, 39-40

optimismbenefits of, 40-41correlation with placebo

response, 41-42impact on amygdala and

ACC, 42-46positive emotions, impact on

decision making, 46-48strengths-based approach of, 25summary of concepts and

relevance to coaches, 53-54posterior parietal cortex. See PPCposterior insula, 142posterior superior temporal

sulcus (pSTS), 62, 79potential losses, assessing, 197power naps, 168PPC (posterior parietal cortex),

66, 160advice-giving, 113expert performance, 112motivated reasoning, 134

precuneusadvice-giving, 113deliberative reasoning, 99

preemptive perception, 98prefrontal cortex

DLPFC (dorsolateral PFC), 13,165-167

change and, 124emotions affecting, 149-150expert performance, 112explained, 186

266 INDEX

managing emotions, 234mirror neurons, 79noise reduction, 147in perspective-taking, 66short-term memory, 129,

148-149targeted interventions,

193-195and fear response, 31-32mPFC (medial prefrontal

cortex), 13in perspective-taking, 66vmPFC (ventromedial

PFC), 108change and, 124explained, 186managing breach of

trust, 244managing emotions, 234-235motivated reasoning, 134targeted interventions,

195-197in trustworthiness, 74-75

social isolation, 77premotor cortex, 142primary motor cortex, 142prior techniques, reviewing, 208probability weighting, 113productivity, social isolation and,

77-78pSTS (posterior superior

temporal sulcus), 62, 79psychological traps, 18-19

R

rational thinking, 134-136reasoning, hot versus cold, 11-12reassessing, 202-203

recession, fear of, 28reciprocal altruism, 69-71recognizing effects of fear and

anxiety, 33-35reducing

conflicting priorities, 200-201noise, 194

reengaging, 202refocusing, 201-202reframing, 203-204regional brain interventions

amygdala, 204-207anterior cingulate cortex (ACC),

198-204reassessing, 202-203reengaging, 202refocusing, 201-202reframing, 203-204resolving conflict, 200-201

dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC),193-195

hippocampus, 207-208insula, 211-214motor cortex, 210-211ventral striatum, 209-210ventromedial PFC (vmPFC),

195-197repackaging, 5resilience, 109-111resolving conflict, 200-201resting state networks (RSNs), 49reward center of brain

explained, 188managing breach of trust,

243-244managing emotions, 237targeted interventions, 209-210

reward-dependent people, 108

INDEX 267

right posterior cingulate gyrus, 95right primary sensorimotor

cortex, 111right superior temporal

cortex, 100risk taking, 197RSNs (resting state networks), 49

S

secure attachment, 80self-criticism, 51self-limiting beliefs, 34, 134-136self-perception, 105-106self-reassurance, 51self-transcending, 49-50semantic coherence systems, 100semantic distance, 94septal area, trust activation of, 73short-term memory center

explained, 129, 147, 186managing emotions, 234short-term memory training, 194stimulating, 148-149targeted interventions, 193-195

SMA (supplementary motor area),142, 173

Smith, Douglas, 61social intelligence

attachment, 80-82community and citizenship,

77-78definitions of, 59effect on teamwork, 60-61empathy, 61-65fairness, 67-71neuroscience of, 82-84perspective-taking, 65-67

persuasion, 79-80trust, 71-76vicarious reward, 76-77

social isolation, 77-78social rewards, 209social support, 110status quo trap, 18Stibel, Jeff, 192strengths-based approach, 25stress, 109success, fear of, 28summit syndrome, 107-109superior parietal lobe

expert performance, 112imagery versus observation, 142

supplementary motor area (SMA),142, 173

support, focusing on, 37-38switch-cost, 161-165synapses, 130

T

targeted interventions, providingsystem for, 8

task switching, 160-165teamwork, 60-61temporal gyrus, 112temporal pole, 62, 79temporoparietal junction

(TPJ), 62terminal descending phase

(summit syndrome), 107thalamus, 113theta activity, 49Thorndike, Edward, 59threat, decreasing, 6360 feedback forms, 220

268 INDEX

timeframe, changing, 196TPJ (temporoparietal

junction), 62transformation, 138trust

managing breach of trust, 241-244

neuroscience of, 71-76

U-V

unconscious fear, 30-31uncovering myth, 6-7

ventral occipito-temporal regions, 100

ventral striatumexplained, 188managing breach of trust,

243-244targeted interventions, 209-210vicarious reward, 76

ventral tegmental area. See VTAventro, 124ventromedial PFC. See vmPFC

verbal insight solutions, 112verbs, processing, 146vicarious reward, 76-77vmPFC (ventromedial PFC), 108

change and, 124explained, 186managing breach of trust, 244managing emotions, 234-235motivated reasoning, 134targeted interventions, 195-197in trustworthiness, 74-75

voice training, 111de Vries, Manfred F.R. Kets, 104VTA (ventral tegmental area)

attachment responses, 82trust activation of, 73

W-X-Y-Z

Watson, Thomas Sr., 27worry, impact on decision

making, 39-40

Yantian International ContainerTerminals Limited (YICT), 50

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