To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasures from the Brooklyn Museum

On view at Joslyn Art Museum February 11-June 3, 2012

MummyMaskofaMan,early1stcenturyCE,Stucco,gildedandpainted,TheBrooklynMuseum

ExhibitionTeacherGuidecourtesyof:

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To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasures from the Brooklyn Museum

Contents

ExhibitionOverview............................................................................................ 3UnderstandingEgyptianDailyLife...................................................................... 3

ThePharaoh............................................................................................ 3TheGovernment..................................................................................... 4LivingwiththeLand................................................................................ 4HomeandFamily .................................................................................... 5PersonalCare.......................................................................................... 7EducationandLearningaCraft............................................................... 9Artists...................................................................................................... 9HieroglyphsandOtherEgyptianScripts ................................................. 11HieroglyphicAlphabet ............................................................................ 12

UnderstandingtheAfterlife................................................................................ 12BodyandSpiritAfterDeath.................................................................... 12Mummification ....................................................................................... 13TheEliteFuneral ..................................................................................... 14TheNetherworld .................................................................................... 16

Multi‐DeityBeliefSystem................................................................................... 19MeettheGods........................................................................................ 19

DynasticChronology........................................................................................... 25Glossary .............................................................................................................. 28ExhibitionThemesandKeyImages .................................................................... 30

Helpfulreference:

• ExhibitionCatalogue:Bleiberg,EdwardandKathlynM.Cooney.ToLiveForever:EgyptianTreasuresfromtheBrooklynMuseum.Brooklyn,NY:BrooklynMuseum,2008.

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Exhibition Overview

ToLiveForever:EgyptianTreasuresfromtheBrooklynMuseumBeliefintheafterlifeandbeliefthatdeathwasanenemythatcouldbevanquishedwasfundamentaltotheancientEgyptians.Aspartoftheirquesttodefeatdeath,Egyptiansmummifiedtheirdeadandperformedavarietyofelaborateritualsinthetombbefore,during,andafterburialtoassistthedeceasedintheirjourneythroughthenetherworld.TheEgyptiansalsodevelopedarichandcomplexvisionofwhattheywouldfindinthisnextworld.Boththewealthyandthepoorparticipatedinthesebeliefsandpractices,andthepoorstrovetoimitatetherichintheirownmorehumblerituals,offerings,andgravegoodsinhopesofensuringthemselvesabetterplaceandfateintheafterlife.PresentingoverahundredobjectsfromtheBrooklynMuseum’sworld‐renownedcollectionsofancientEgyptianart–includingmummies,coffins,stonesculpture,goldjewelry,preciousamulets,andsacredvessels–ToLiveForeverisaspecialandrareopportunitytoviewprecioustreasuresfromoneofhistory’smostintriguingcivilizations,invitingalltoexplorethewaysinwhichtheEgyptiansapproachedthemostmomentousandmysteriousofevents,death.Forthisexhibition,eachgalleryhasadistincttheme.Thepiecestellastory,andallrelatetoareasofbeliefoftheafterlifeforancientEgyptians.

Understanding Egyptian Daily Life

ThePharaohPharaohmeans“GreatHouse”orking’spalaceandhascometobeusedasthetitlegiventothesupremerulersofancientEgypt.ThepeopleofEgyptconsideredthepharaohtobeahalf‐man,half‐god.Essentially,thepharaoh“owned”allofEgypt–thenaturalresources,thepeople,eventheNileRiveritself.Thepharaoh’spowerwasbestowedfromthegodsdirectlytohim,andwasnevertobecountermandedorquestioned.Thecitizensbelievedintheabsolutepowerofthepharaohandgavetheirresourcestothepharaohfreely.Manyfarmersgaveportionsoftheircrops,workersdonatedtheirlabor,andartistscreatedartforthepharaoh.Thismadethepharaohanextremelywealthyperson,andhewasheldinthehighestregard.Grainwasgivenasapayment–similartothetaxeswepaytoday.Thegovernment,carefullydirectedbythepharaoh,builtstorehousestoholdthegrain.Duringtimesofseveredrought,thepharaohwoulddistributethegraintothehungryEgyptians.Thekinggaveoutfoodrationsatalltimesoftheyear.Thepharaoh’smostimportantrolewastoserveasalawmakerandwarrior.Thepharaohchoseviziers,orprimeministers,tohelphim.Theseadvisorswerethepharaoh’sclosestandmosttrustedconfidantes,givingadviceonmattersofgovernment,religion,anddailylife.Pharaohsworeceremonialclothingandwigs,beards,andtails.Thefalsebeardswereusuallyblue,since

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bluehairwasattributedtodeities.Thetailwasintendedtoremindthepeoplethatthepharaohhadmagical,animalpowers.Thepharaohalsocarriedacrook,orshepherd’sstaff,andaflail.Thecrookrepresentedashepherd’sprotection,andtheflailwasaprobablyafly‐whisk,whichkeptpestsawayandwouldthereforesymbolizethepharaoh’sprotectionofEgyptfrominvadingarmiesorevilspirits.Heworeacrownsforceremonies(includingtheWhiteCrownofUpperEgyptandRedCrownofLowerEgypt)andaheaddress,calledaNemes,aseverydaywear.Thepharaohwasusuallysucceededbyhisoldestson.Thesonwouldhavebeentrainedthroughouthislifetotakeovertheroleofpharaohafterhisfather’sdeath.Sometimessiblingrivalriesandsecretplotscausedachangeinthissuccession.Sonsusuallymarriedtheirsisterorhalf‐sistertocentralizepoweranddrawupontheroyallineage,sincethepharaohswereseenasdescendentsofthegods.Pharaohswerenotalwaysmen–therewereverynoteworthywomenpharaohs,includingHatshepsut(c.1508‐1458BCE).Theytookonthesamesymbolicaccoutrementsasmalepharaohs,includingtheheaddress,crowns,beard,andtail.

TheGovernmentEgyptwasnotjustaplaceruledbyapharaoh.Itwasalsoatheocracy–agovernmentcontrolledbythereligiousrulersaswellaspoliticalones.Allofthegovernmentofficialswereappointedbythepharaoh,andtheofficialinthehighestpositionwasthevizier,whowasalmostalwaysalsoapriest.Atthenextlevelofgovernment,belowpharaohandvizier,werethechieftreasurer,thetaxcollector,theministerofpublicworks,andthearmycommanders.Theseofficialsreporteddirectlytothepharaohandoversawhugegroupsofgovernmentworkers.Thelandwasdividedintonomes,orprovinces,andeachnomehadagovernor.Eachnomewasresponsibleforpayingtaxestothepharaoh,inbothgoodsandlabor.Grainandcraftedgoodsweregivenastaxes,butifanEgyptianhadneitheravailable,theygavetheirtime–forcedperiodsoflabor,knownasacorvée,orlabortax.Centrally,thedifferentofficesofthegovernmentkeptrecordsofvariousactivities,includingcrops,trade,andmarketactivities.Anotherdivisiontrainedtroopsandcarriedonwars.Customsofficerskepttrackofwhocameinandoutofthecountry.ThepoliticalstructureofancientEgyptiancivilizationwastheforerunnerofmanycurrentrulinggovernmentstoday.

LivingWiththeLand

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GreekhistorianHerodotus(c.484‐420BCE)calledEgypt“theGiftoftheNile.”Theriverisover4,000miles(6,400km)long,beginningfartothesouthofEgyptandendinginalargedeltainthenorthernpartofEgypt.TheNilewasatthecenteroflifeforancientEgyptians.Theseasonsweredeterminedbyitsregularflooding,andtheriverprovidedthemainmethodoftransportation.TheancientEgyptiansdividedEgypttwoways–bothindicativeoftheNileRiver’simpactontheland.First,EgyptiansdividedtheNileandtheirlandintonorthernandsouthernregions.TheregionsweredeterminedaccordingtothedirectionthattheNileflows,whichisfromtheSouthtowardtheMediterraneanSeaintheNorth.UpperEgyptisthesouthernsectionofEgyptapproximatelyfromAswantoMemphis.LowerEgyptisthenortherndeltaregionofEgyptthatstretchesapproximatelyfromMemphistotheMediterraneanSea.Also,Egyptianssawtheirlandasconsistingoftheblacklandorkemetandtheredlandordeshret.TheblacklandwasthefertilelandalongthebanksoftheNile.TheancientEgyptiansusedthislandforgrowingtheircrops.ThiswastheonlylandinancientEgyptthatcouldbefarmedbecausealayerofrich,blacksiltwasdepositedeveryyearaftertheNileflooded.Farmersfollowedmodernconventionofgrowingaparticularkindoffoodandtradinginthemarketforotherfoodstheydidnotgrowthemselves.TheredlandwasthebarrendesertthatprotectedEgyptontwosides.ThesedesertsseparatedancientEgyptfromneighboringcountriesandinvadingarmies.TheyalsoprovidedtheancientEgyptianswithasourceforpreciousmetalsandsemi‐preciousstones.Theredlandprovidedasourceofnourishmentotherthancrops–hunting.Thiswasasportenjoyedbypeasantsandnoblemenalike.Inthedesert,themendugcamouflagedditchesandusedbows,arrows,boomerangs,daggers,andspearstocatchprey,includinglions,antelopeandgazelle.Theweaponswereoftenmadeofwood,bronzeandcopper.Closertothemarshes,fishermenalsofoundnourishment.Theyusedspearsandtrapstocatchwateranimalsandeventuallymadenetstocatcheel,mullet,carp,perch,andcatfish.Betweentheredandblackland,shepherdslivedinthepastures,onthebordersofthemarshes.Often,theywouldbringmilkandbeeftomarket,totradewiththefishermen,farmers,anddeserthunters.

HomeandFamilyAncientEgyptiansocietywasdividedintofourclasses:

UpperClass–governmentofficials,nobles,priests,andfamilyofthepharaohMiddleClass–scribes,skilledcraftsmen,teachers,artists,andsoldiersLowerClass–peasants,farmers,laborers,andservantsSlaveClass–slaveswhoweremostlycapturedforeigners

Dwellings:ThehomewasatthecenterofallEgyptianlife.Forallclasses,thehousesweremadeofstrawandmud,whichwereformedintobricksandsettocureinthesun.Floorshadanearlyversionofcarpeting–reedswovenintomats.Palmsoftenprovidedsupportfortheceilings.Somemiddleclasshomesweremulti‐storiedtocapitalizeonlimitedgroundspace.Moststructuresweresquareinshapeandhadavarietyofroomssimilartoourmodernhouses–alivingroom,a

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bedroom,andabackyardwherethekitchenwouldhavebeen.Somehomeshadagrindingfloor,usedtogrindgrainforbeerorbread.Cellarswerecommonforstorageandwerelocatedbeneaththehome.Roofswereoftenusedasterracesandbecameanotherlivingspace.

Forallclasses,decorationwasimportantinsidethehome.Shelvesbuiltintothewallsheldstatuesofthegodsandgoddesses.Thesestatueswouldchangedependingontheblessingsthefamilyneededatthattime.Ifyouwerehopingtoexpandyourfamilyandprotectyourhome,astatueofBeswouldbeappropriate(Pictured:StandingFigureofBes).Whenmourningthelossofafamilymember,Osirismightbeprominentlydisplayedandanintegralpartofhouseholdworship.Similartotoday,peopleofreligiousbeliefwouldsurroundthemselveswithremindersofthosewhoprotectthemintheformofsculptureorpaintings.Theupperclasshadsprawlingestatesinthecountryorontheedgesoftown,featuringhighceilingsandpillarsandbrightlycoloredwallpaintings.Gardens,

pools,andlushfoliagewerecommon,andlotusblossomsweretheflowerofchoice.ServantswouldkeepthepoolsstockedwithfishandwildlifefromtheNile.Ashrineforworship,stables,servant’squarters,andstoragehousesforgrainandfoodwereincludedintheestate.Anupperclasshomewouldincludeatypeofbathingroom,whichwouldbesunkenwithaslabofstoneinthecornerwhereservantswouldpourwateroverthefamilymembersothattheycouldcleansetheirbodies.Unlikethelower‐classsleepingrooms,whichhadonlyreedmatsandlinensheetsforabed,anupper‐classbedroomwouldhaveabedmadefromfinewoodandinlaidwithpreciousmetalsandivory.Mattresseswerecoveredinlinenandanimalskins,andpillowswerenotused.Instead,acurvedheadrestofwood,bone,orstonewasused(Pictured:HeadrestwithTwoImagesoftheGodBes).TheseheadrestscontinuetobeusedinpartsofAfrica.FamilyUnit:MostEgyptianfamilieswerelargewithsevenchildrenonaverage.Theroleofeachchildwaslargelydeterminedbygender.Theboyswouldworkinthefarm,inthefields,oratthecraftthattheirfatherpracticed,whilethegirlsstayedinthehomewithmother,learninghowtokeephouseandmaintainfamilylifeuntiltheageof14,whentheywouldmarry.Acombinationofarrangedmarriagesandmarriageforlovewascommon.Therewasnolegalceremonyofmarriage;twopeoplesimplysetupacommonhomeanddeclaredthemselvesunited.Awomanwouldusuallybegivenadowry,andthiswouldremainherpropertythroughtheentiremarriage.Egyptianwomenweretreatedwithgreatrespect.Althoughtheywerenotallowedtoholdgovernmentoffice,theycouldholdjobsatcourtandbepriestesses.Therewerealsomanyskilledcraftswomen.Womencouldownbusinesses,runfarms,andhelptheirhusbands.Theyhadfulllegalrightsandcontrolovertheirproperty.Theycoulddivorceandremarryiftheywished.Egyptianchildrenplayedwithmanytoysthatresembletoysthroughoutthecenturies.Dolls,balls,tops,animaltoys,andboardgameswerepopular,especiallyamongthemiddleclass.Dollsweremadeofclothandclay,andanimaltoysweremadeofstoneorclay.Ballsweremadebywrappinglinenrags

HeadrestwithTwoImagesoftheGodBes;ca.1539‐1190BCE;Wood;BrooklynMuseum

StandingFigureofBes;664‐30BCE;Gold;BrooklynMuseum

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aroundeachother,tightlyforsmallerversions,andlooserforsofter,largerballs.Toddlersusedpull‐toyssimilartothetoysthatchildrenplaywithtoday.Mostfamilieshadpets,andcatswereafavorite.Notonlydidthecateatunwantedvermin,butthecatgoddess,Bastet,wasaprotectorofthehome.Otherpetsincludedmonkeys,geese,goats,andbirds.Theupperclasshaddogsaspets,whichtheyusedforhunting.Egyptianfamiliesoftenmournedthelossofabelovedpetthesamewaywedotoday,andmanyownersmummifiedorburiedtheirpets,savingthecollar.Whentheownerdied,theywereburiedwiththecollaroftheirbelovedpet,inthehopesthatthepetwouldbereunitedwithitsmasterintheafterlife.PetswereasmuchapartoftheancientEgyptianfamilyastheyarethemodernfamily.WhiletherewereslavesinancientEgypt,thestorieshandeddownaboutthenumberandtreatmentoftheEgyptianslavesisprobablyoverblown.Slaveshadcertainrightsandcouldownproperty.Favoredhouseholdslavescoulddowellandgaintheirfreedom.Food:Unlikeourmoderncustomofeatingthreemealsaday,Egyptiansatetwomeals–thefirstatdawnandthesecondatdusk.Themostcommonfoodanddrinkforallclasseswerebreadandbeer,whichweremadefromthetwomostcommoncrops–wheatandbarley.Recordshavebeenfoundmentioningseventeenkindsofbeerandoverfiftytypesofbread,aswellaspastriesandcakes.Breadwasoftenbakedinacone‐shapedmoldandoftensweetenedwithhoneyandfruit.Thefinestloavesofbreadweregroundwithsand,whichcouldheavilyabradetheEgyptians’teeth.Beerwasthick,nutritious,andlessalcoholicthanbeertoday.SometimestheEgyptiansflavoredtheirbeerwithspices,honeyanddates.OtherstaplesoftheEgyptiandietincludecereals,vegetables,andfruits.Amongthesewerebarley,wheat,lentils,cucumbers,beans,onions,dates,figs,grapes,pomegranates,andcoconuts.Egyptiansusedherbslikedill,mint,cuminandparsleyintheircooking,andfavoredthestrongflavorsofonionsandgarlic,believingtheyweregoodforthehealth.Meatwasexpensiveandrarelyeatenexceptatfeasts.Peoplemighthuntorfishformeats,orkeepafewgoats,pigsorpoultry.Cattlewasthemostvaluabledomesticatedanimal,andwealthierfamiliesmightkeepasmallherdfortheiruse.Athome,foodwasservedinpotterydishesandeatenwithfingers.Wealthyfamilieswouldhaveagreatervarietyofdishesfortheirmealsandwoulddineonmetalplatesmadeofbronze,silverorgold.

PersonalCareClothing:Clothingwasverysimpleandoftenmadeoflinen,whichcomesfromtheflaxthatgrewplentifulinEgyptianfields.Thewealthyworefinelywovencloth,whilethefieldworkersandfarmersworemuchthicker,moredurableversionsoflinen.Clothingwaslight‐weightandlight‐coloredtoaccommodatethehotclimateofEgypt.Mostmalepeasantsworeonlyaloincloth,sincetheyworkedinthesunandminimalclothingkeptthemcooler.Upperclassmenworeskirts,kiltsandmanyaccessories.Womenworesimple,tight‐fittingdressesthatwereheldtogetherattheshouldersbylinenstraps.Upper‐classladiesworeshawls,headdressesofflowers,andbeadedcollarnecklaces.Mostchildrendidnotwearclothinguntiltheywereapproximatelytenyearsold.Ontheirfeet,Egyptianspreferredtowearsandalsmadefromreedsorleather.

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Jewelry:Adornmentwasimportantforindividualswhocouldaffordtoownjewelry.AcommonthemeamongEgyptianjewelrywasthescarabbeetle,asymbolofresurrectionorlifeafterdeath.Amuletsweremaderesemblingscarabbeetles(Seebeetlepicturedtoright)andplacedonmummiesintheirtombs.

Menandwomenalikeworeearrings,bracelets,rings,necklacesandcollar‐likejeweledpieces.Mostjewelrywasmadefromgoldminedinthenearbydesert.Preciousstonesincludingcarnelian,feldspar,andamethystwerecommonlyusedinjewelry,aswereturquoiseandlapislazuli.Cosmetics:TheuseofmakeupandcosmeticswereafunctionalandimportantpartofEgyptianlifeforbothmenandwomenofallclasses.Eyemakeup,orkohl,wasoneofthemostsignificantfacialornamentations.Usedtolineandshadowtheeyelids,tinttheeyelashesandhighlightthebrows,kohlwasnotonlyapplied

formattersofappearance,butalsoforitscurativeandprotectivequalities.Kohlprotectedtheeyesfromtheglareoftheintensesun,keptinsectsawayfromtheeyes,andinsomecaseshadmilddisinfectantproperties.Egyptiansusedbothgreenmalachitepowdermadeofcoppercarbonateandblackgalenapowderfromleadsulfideaseyemakeup.ManyEgyptiansbelievedthatmakeuphadmagicalandhealingpower,andsomewassoexpensivethatonlythewealthycouldwearit.Creamsandoilswerecreatedandkeptinsmallpotsandusedoften(Pictured:Pear‐ShapedKohlPot).Makeuptrays,palettes,andapplicatorswerecarvedfromstone,ivory,wood,andclay,andwereoftenfoundineventhelowerclasshouseholds.Makeuppalettesofthewealthyclasswereembellishedwithanimals,symbols,andgoddessesforprotectionandsafety(Pictured:PalettewithTwoStylizedBirdHeads).Haircare:Goodhaircareandafashionablestylewereimportanttomen,womenandchildren.Childrenhadshavedheads,exceptforalockofhairaboveoneearthatwassometimesbraided.Girls,whoremainedmostlyinthehome,woretheirhairlonginbraidsorpigtails.Grownwomenworetheirhairlooseandbraided,andoftenhadservantscurlandstyletheirhairforthem(Pictured:SunkReliefofQueenNeferu).Mostoftheupperclassworewigs.Aconeoffragrantoilswasoftensetonthetopofthewigforfestiveoccasions.Astheeventprogressed,theconewouldmelt,trickledownoverthebody,givingaglistening,richglowtothebodyandexudingalovely,perfumedscent.

SunkReliefofQueenNeferu;ca.2008‐1957BCE;Limestone,painted;BrooklynMuseum

Pear‐ShapedKohlPot;ca.1938‐1630BCE;Alabaster;BrooklynMuseum

PalettewithTwoStylizedBirdHeads;ca.3500‐3100BCE;Slateorschist;BrooklynMuseum

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EducationandLearningaCraftBoysweretheprimaryrecipientsofformaleducationataschool,whichwasquiteexpensive.Attendancefromtheageoffiveuntiltheirteenageyearswascommon.Thosewhocouldnotattendschoolforacademicpursuitslearnedaskillorcraftatthehandsoftheirfatheroramastercraftsman.Schools:Mostschoolswereattachedtoagoverningbody–atempleorofficeofthegovernment.ChildrenweretaughtbythepriestsandlearnedtowriteinEgyptianscript.Theywouldpracticeonbrokenpiecesofpotteryorwood,aspapyruswouldhavebeentooexpensivetopracticehieroglyphs.Themoreadvancedstudentsalsostudiedmathematics,history,geography,astronomy,andlaw.Physicalfitnessandimpeccablemannerswerealsotaughtandexpectedtobemastered.Ceramics:Potterscreatedbowls,platters,jugs,jars,andsmallcosmeticpots.Vesselswereoftenmadeofclayandwerethrownonawheelsimilartomodernpotterywheels.Basketry:Weaverscreatedbasketsoutofmarshstalks.Papyrusreedsmadethebestbaskets;usuallytheouterrindoftheplantwasused.Otherwovenmaterialsincludedropes,clothes,bedding,floormats,sandalsandcombs.Carpentry:Woodworkerswouldutilizecedar,cypress,juniper,andbambootobuildawidevarietyofobjects.Furniture,boats,andcoffinswereinhighdemand.Carpentersknewhowtoinlaystonesandivoryintochestsandcaskets.StrongerwoodswouldbeimportedfromSyriaandLebanonforthefurnitureoftheupperclass,especiallyfortheirlivingrooms,bedrooms,anddiningareas.PaperMaking:Skilledlaborerswerechargedwithtransformingpapyrusstemsintoflatpaper.Thestemswerecutlengthwiseintoverynarrowstrips,andthenflattenedwithawoodenmallet.Thestripswerethenlaidoverlappingside‐by‐sidehorizontally.Asecondlayerwouldbeaddedvertically.Then,alayeroflinenwaslaidoverthepapyrusstrips,andallpieceswerepoundedtogether.Atthispoint,thesapfrominsidethepapyrusstalkswouldseepout,creatingagluetobindallthestripstogether.Aftercuringinthesun,thepieceswouldbegluedtoothersheetswithresin,andalongsheetofpapyruscouldberolledintoascroll(Seethetwoimagesbelow:papyrusformedintoscrolls,andacloseviewofthefibersofapapyrus).Thewordpaperisderivedfrom“papyrus.”

ArtistsThecreationofallartinAncientEgypthadapurpose.Theirleveloftrainingandprofessionalismwasunparalleled,andtheyusedthelatesttechnologyavailable.Artfortombsandtempleswasmeanttobeeternal–supportingtheEgyptians’beliefintheafterlife.Therefore,manyoftheartisticconventionsdidnotalterdramaticallyoverthe3,000yearsofEgyptiancivilization.

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Drawing:Incompletingapaintinginatomb,thefirststepwouldbethecreationofoutlines,whichweredrawnbyoutlinescribeswiththeassistanceofagridsystemtoensurethattheirdrawings’proportionswereaccurate.Aftertheoutlinewascompleted,painterswouldaddcolortotheforms.Finally,theoutlinescribeswouldcomebackin,relinethepaintingswithoutlines,andcompleteanyotherfinishingtouches.Thesesketcheswereaneffectivewayofensuringthatallrequirementsfortombartweremet,consistently,throughoutallroomsofthestructure.Occasionally,thefinalstagesofpaintingwerenotcompletedforonereasonoranother,buttheinitialdrawingbytheoutlinescribewouldremainasymbolforwhathadbeenintended.(Pictured:adrawingfromtheTombofHoremheb,ValleyoftheKings,Egypt–notinexhibition)

InEgyptianart,therewerespecificrulesforrepresentingthehumanfigure.Theheadwasalwaysdrawninprofile,showingoneeyeandeyebrow,halfamouth,andthenose.Shoulderswerealwaysshownfullwidth,buttheremainingtorsowasinprofile.Twolegswereshown,usuallyslightlyapartinastaticupside‐down“v.”Thepurposeofthetombpaintingswastoprovideinformation–inthiscase,torecorddirectionsforthejourneytotheafterlifeinassistancetothedeceased.Scalealsoplayedanimportantpart–thelargerafigurewaspainted,themoreimportanthewasinreallife.Sculpture:SculptorswereintegralinEgyptiansocietyandcouldworkdeftlyincopperandbronze.Theywerealsoadeptincuttingstoneforreliefs.Basictoolswereoftencraftedofwood,flint,stone,copperandbronze.Manyofthesculptureswereofmassivesize,representinggods,goddesses,andpharaohs.Painting:Painterswereresponsiblefortransformingtheinsidesoftombs,templesandhomes.Often,statueswerealsopaintedaftercarving.Thepaintsthemselveswerecreatedfromnaturalpigments,mademostlyofgroundmineralsmixedwithvegetablegumsandformedintocakesofpaint.Anothermediumwouldhavebeenusedtoapplythepaint,somethingsimilartoegg,sizing,orgum.TheprimarycolorsofEgyptianpaintingareeasilyidentifiedasfollows:

Black–madefromcarbon,soot,orburnedbonesWhite–createdfromcalciumsulphateorchalkBlue–formedfromacompoundofsilica,calciumandcopperYellow–usuallyyellowochre,butsometimesmadeoforpimentGreen–madeofmostlycopperoreormalachiteRed–craftedfromoxidesofironandredochre

Painterscouldblendthesepigmentstocreatesubtlecolors,earthtones,tintsandshades.Theydidnotpaintintowetplasterorstone,sothesetombpaintingsarenotfrescoes.Mostsimilartomoderntemperaorgouachepaint,thesethick,opaque,powderypaintswouldbelightfastandnotasfugitiveasthinner,oil‐basedpaints.Varnishesandnaturalresinprotectivelayerswereappliedafterpainting,especiallyonwood.(Pictured:ThePrivateTombofSennefer,TheWestBankatLuxor–notinexhibition)

DrawingfromtheTombofHoremheb;ValleyoftheKings,Egypt;notinexhibition

TombofSennefer;WestBankatLuxor,Egypt;notinexhibition

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HieroglyphsandOtherEgyptianScriptsTheEgyptiansbelievedthatitwasimportanttorecordandcommunicateinformationaboutreligionandgovernment.Thus,theyinventedwrittenscriptsthatcouldbeusedtorecordthisinformation.ThemostfamousofallancientEgyptianscriptsiscalledhieroglyphicwriting.However,throughout3,000yearsofancientEgyptiancivilization,atleast3otherscriptswereusedfordifferentpurposes.TheformsofwrittenancientEgyptian:Hieroglyphs–“sacredcarvings;”formal,religiousandgovernmentalinscriptionsonmonuments.Usesapproximately700individualsymbols.Ingeneral,onlythepharaoh,priestsandscribescouldreadandwritehieroglyphs.Note:Transliteratinghieroglyphsresultsinmanydifferentspellings–i.e.ReandRa.Hieratic–ashorthandor“cursive”formofhieroglyphs,usedmostlyforreligiouspurposes.Allowedscribestowritequicklybyhandwithouthavingtoformeachhieroglyph.Demotic–derivedfromhieratic.Evenmorecursivethanhieratic.Usedinsecularandeverydaywriting.Coptic–alaterdevelopment.EgyptianwrittenwiththeGreekalphabet.StillusedintheCopticOrthodoxChristianchurches.Whenpicturewritingfirstbegan,thepicturesrepresentedtheactualobjecttheydepicted.Thesewerecalledpictograms.Forexample,apictureofasunwithinapictogramtextsignifiedthatthesunitselfwasreferenced.Later,picturescametorepresentideas,sothatifyousawasuninatext,itmightsymbolizedaytime,warmth,orlight.Thesewereknownasideograms.Finally,thepicturesbegantorepresentnotonlytheappearanceofanobject,butalsothesoundoftheword.Forexample,“sun”mightalsomean“son”orbepartoftheword“Sunday.”Readinghieroglyphscanbecomplicatedanddifficult.Infact,untilthenineteenthcenturytheabilitytoreadandwriteinhieroglyphshadbeenlost,andtheinnumerabletextsandinscriptionsonEgyptianmonumentsandpapyriwereimpenetrable.Forinstance,actualEgyptianhieroglyphscontainnovowels,andthe700individualhieroglyphicsymbolsmaybeusedtostandforasound,anideaoranactualobjectdependingoncontext.Accordingtothedirectionthattheanimalhieroglyphsface,hieroglyphscanbereadlefttoright,righttoleft,ortoptobottom.In1799,however,abreakthroughindecipheringhieroglyphicsoccurred.Alargeslabofstone,carvedin196BCE,wasfoundbyFrenchsoldiersinthefoundationsofafortneartheEgyptiancityofRashid(Rosetta)intheNileDelta.Thisremarkablediscovery–theRosettaStone–wasdividedintothreetextswritteninthreelanguages–Greek,DemoticandHieroglyphs.Egyptianscholarspositedthatthethreewritingsweretranslations–thatallthree,indifferentscripts,gavethesameinformation.In1822,FrenchlinguistJean‐FrançoisChampolliondecipheredthedemoticandhieroglyphicscripts.ChampollioncouldreadbothGreekandCoptic,whichhasitsrootsindemotic–sohewasabletousetheGreektodecipherboththedemoticandthehieroglyphs.Hieroglyphicwritingwasinuseuntilthelate4thCentury.Itwasusedextensivelywithrelativelylittlechangeinformforsome3,000yearsonpaper,wood,wallsoftombsandtemples,sculpturesandsarcophagi(Pictured:CoffinoftheLadyoftheHouseWeretwahset,ReinscribedforBensuipet,ContainsaMummyPresumablyofBensuipet).ThescriptpersistedwellintotheChristianera,withthelastknowndatablehieroglyphicinscriptioncarvedon24thAugust,394CE,onthegateofHadrianatPhilae.

CoffinoftheLadyoftheHouse,Weretwahset,ReinscribedforBensuipetContainingFaceMaskandOpenworkBodyCovering;ca.1292‐1190BCE;Wood,paintedandcartonnage;BrooklynMuseum

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Hieroglyphic Alphabet

Understanding the Afterl ife ForEgyptians,deathwasnottheend.ItwasmerelyatransitionaltimefromtheearthlyexistenceintotheNetherworld,wheretheEgyptiansbelievedtheywouldspendtherestoftheireternity.InordertomakethejourneytotheNetherworldsafely,andtolivethesamelifetherethattheylivedonearth,veryspecificritualprocessesweresetintoplace.

BodyandSpiritAfterDeathTheWesterntraditionconsiderstheindividualtobecomposedoftwoparts–abodyandasoul.TheancientEgyptians,however,sawthehumanbeingascomprisedofmultipleelementsthatcouldworkinharmonyorcouldchallengeeachother.Thebodyismadeofthefollowing:

• KhatorIru–thelivingbody• Sah–themummy,orbodyafterdeath,isaphysicalcontainerforallofthecomponentsofan

individual,anditspreservationandprotectionisthereforeofcentralimportance• Heart–controlsthoughtandemotion,buthasanindependentexistenceafterdeath• Shadow–seenaspartofthephysicalbody,andispresentwhenthedeceasedstandsbefore

Osiris,thegodoftheunderworld,forjudgment

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Thespiritismadeofthefollowing:• Ka–theindividual’slifeforceorcreativeandsustainingpoweroflife.Itisbelievedthatthegod

KhnumcreatedboththeKaandthephysicalbodyonapotter’swheelatthebirthofeachperson.

• Ba–theindividual’ssoulorpersonality,representedasabirdwiththefaceofthedeceased.TheBacanspeaktotheindividualwhilethey’realiveonearthandafterdeath.TheBacouldmovefreelyafterdeath.IftheBaisnotabletoreturntothetomb,thedeceasedwouldnolongerbewhole.

• Ren–thenameoftheperson.TheRencontrolledtheperson’sfateeitherthroughitsuseinmagicorthroughtheprotectionofthegodinvokedinthename.

Inordertoliveforever,eachofthesebodilyandspiritualcomponentshadtobepreservedandintegratedintoanAkh,theeffectivespiritoftheperson,whichcouldeat,sleep,useweapons,receiveprotection,andcouldleavethecoffinandmoveaboutasneeded.AllitemsforatombweresuppliedsotheAkhcouldbeunifiedandstrong.

MummificationTheprocessofmummificationisadetailedandspecificone(Pictured:MummyofDemetrios).TheancientEgyptiansbelievedthattojourneytotheafterlife,theymusthaveanintact,mummifiedbody.DependingonanEgyptian’sstationinsociety,themummificationprocesswaseitherelaborateorverysimple,butbothachievedtheprimarypurposeofremovingtheorgans,dryingoutthebody,andwrappingitforfinalrestinatomb.MuchofourknowledgeofmummificationcomesfromtheGreekhistorianHerodotus,whoobservedandwroteabouttheprocessesduringthemid‐5thcenturyBCE.Ifadeceasedpersonwasamemberoftheupperclass,the“MostPerfect”methodwouldlikelybechosen,whichwouldtakeatotalof70days:

1. Firstisexcerebration,ortheremovalofthebrainfromheadthroughthenoseusingahook.Egyptiansdidnotseethememoryorintelligenceofhumansasbeingconnectedwiththisorgan,andsimplydiscardedit.

2. Theskullwasrinsedwithasolutionofliquiddrugstoremoveallbrainresidueandkillbacteria.3. Anincisionwasmadealongtheflankofthebodytoremoveabdominalorgansexceptforthe

heart.(Seebelow.)4. Theabdominalcavitywasrinsedoutwithpalmwineandherbedinfusions.5. Thecavitywasfilledwithmyrrh,cassiaandotherherbs.6. Toremoveallmoisturefromthebody,itwasplacedintonatron(asaltmixture)for70days.

Anylessandtherewouldstillbemoistureinthebody.Anymore,itwouldbetoostiffforwrapping.

7. Thebodyisremovedfromthenatron,washed,andwrappedinlinen.Amuletsareplacedbetweenlayersofbandages.Thewrappingsarecoveredwithagumsolutiontosealthem.

8. Thebodyisreturnedtothefamily,readyforburial.

TheMummyofDemetrios;50‐100CE;Paintedcloth,gold,humanremains,wood,encaustic,gilding;BrooklynMuseum

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Withthechoosingofthe“MostPerfect”method,thevitalorganswereremovedandpreparedforburialinthetomb.Certainorgansweretreatedspecifically.Theheartremainedinthebodytotestifyafterdeathduringthejudgmentceremony,calledthe“WeighingoftheHeart,”toentertheNetherworld.Itwastheorganbelievedtohaveknownalltheperson’sactionsinlife–bothgoodandbad.Ifthedeadperson’sheartwaslighterthanafeather,theycouldmoveontotheAfterlife.Often,afterthehearthadbeenremovedandwrapped,itwasplacedbackintothechestcavitywithaScarabBeetleamuletuponit.Theamulethadinscriptionsonit,instructingtheheartnottorevealcompromisinginformationaboutthedeceasedduringthetrial.Othervitalorgansweremummifiedandplacedintocanopicjarsandthenplacedinthetomb.Eachjarrepresentedagodwhosejobitwastoprotectaspecificorganfortheafterlife.ThefourgodsaretheFourSonsofHorus.Duamutef–Jackalhead;protectedthestomach[Pictured:CanopicJarandLid(DepictingaJackal)]Hapi–Baboonhead;protectedthelungsImsety–Man;protectedtheliverQebehsenuef–Falconhead;protectedtheintestinesForthosewithlessfinancialresources,anamendedversionofmummificationwasavailable,forthosewho“WishToAvoidExpense.”

1. Toremovetheinternalorgans,buttosavemoney,thebodyisnotopened.Instead,asolutionofoilfromcedartreesisinjectedbysyringeintothebody,whichliquefiestheinternalorgans.

2. Toremoveallmoisturefromthebody,itwasnowplacedintonatron(asaltmixture)for70days.

3. Thebodyisremovedfromthenatron,andthecedaroilisdrainedouttherectum.4. Sometimesthebodyiswrappedinlinen.5. Thebodyisreturnedtothefamily,readyforburial.

Thefinalmethod,termedthe“InexpensiveMethod,”wasmostoftenusedformembersofthelowerclass.

1. Acleansingliquidisinjectedintothebodyasanenema.2. Thebodysoaksinnatronfor70days.3. Thebodyisreturnedtothefamilyforburial.

TheEliteFuneralOncethebodyhasbeensuitablyprepared,theupperclasswouldhavebegunanelaborateprocessofburial.This“proper”burial,calledQersetNeferet,wasreservedforthemiddleandupperclasses,andhadatleastsevendistinctsteps.Thejourney’sutilitarianfunctionwassimple–movingthebodytoitsfinalrestingplace–yetthereweremanyritualsperformedalongthewaytoassurethatthetransitiontotheafterlifewouldbesmooth.Thecoffinwasmovedbyaboatorasledgepulledbyoxen.Thefuneraltookthebodyandmournerspastaseriesofmanyaltarstoitsfinalrestingplace(Pictured:AnthropoidCoffinoftheServantoftheGreatPlace,Teti).

CanopicJarandLid(DepictingaJackal);664‐525BCEorlater;Limestone;BrooklynMuseum

AnthropoidCoffinoftheServantoftheGreatPlace,Teti;ca.1339BCE‐1307BCE;Wood,painted;BrooklynMuseum

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• TheprocessbeginsasthefamilytransportsthecorpsefromthehometotheHallofEmbalming.

Professionalmournersandpriestsarepresenttousherinthedeceased.Asecondprocessionbroughtacoffinintothehall.ThepriestswoulddressastheSoulsofPe,Sais,Hermopolis,orHutwerihu,theearlykingsofEgypt,andwouldwearmasksintheformofthefalcon‐godHorusandthejackal‐godAnubis.Theactualmummificationprocess,lastingfor70days(describedabove),began.Oncemummified,thefinalritualperformedonthebodywasmadeinthesectionoftheHallofEmbalmingcalledtheHallofAnubis.

• Afterbeingplacedinitscoffin,themummyproceededontheJourneytoSais.Professionalmournersandpriestsaccompaniedtheprocession,whichpausedatanaltar,orwabet,tomakeofferings.TheycontinuedontothealtarofSais,wherepriestswouldmakeofferingsoffoodandreciteprayersandthecoffinwouldbedecoratedwithjackalskins(asymbolofAnubis),symbolsofthelong‐worshippedgoddessNeith(twobowswithoutarrows),andthehieroglyphicsymbolforthedivine(anaxorflagcallednetjer).

• Thenextphase,theJourneytoButo,isperhapsthemostimportantphaseandisthemostcommonlydepictedsceneintombrepresentationsoffunerals.Thejourneybeganintherivervalleyandendedinthenecropolisinthedesert.Twowomen,impersonatingthegoddessesIsisandNephthys,accompaniedapriestwearinganAnubismaskandseverallectorpriests,followedbyprofessionalmourners,dignitaries,andofficials.

• Thenextphaseisknownas“LandingattheHalloftheMuuoftheDoubleGateoftheHolyDistrict.”Thisphase,emphasizingtheparticipationofmourningdancerscalledMuu,isillustratedinmanytombs.ThepriestscalledfortheMuudancerstojointheprocession.TheMuuworedistinctclothesandcrowns,andthedancewasawayofwelcomingthedeceasedintotheNecropolis.

• Thenextstepwouldoccuronlyifthedeceasedwasaking.Afterthereceptionintothenecropolis,theking’sprocessionwouldcontinuewiththeJourneytoHeliopolis,whereritualsassociatingthekingwiththesungodRewouldtakeplace.

• AttheTombEntrance,themummyinitscoffinwassetuprightwhileapriestheldtwosmallcontainerscallednemset‐jars.Apriestwearingpantherskinsperformedtheritualknownasthe“OpeningoftheMouth”withaPesesh‐kef(Pictured:Pesesh‐kef).Thisceremonysymbolicallyallowedthemummytobreathe,speak,andreanimate.Aseparateprocessionthenbroughtthecanopicjarsintothetombentrance.

• TheofferingritualsattheFalseDoorofthetomboccurrednext.Thefalsedooriswherepriestsandrelativescouldleaveofferingsoffoodanddrinkfortheuseofthedeceasedinthenextworld.Itisasymbolicdooranddoesnotopenorclose.Duringtheofferingrituals,thepriestsgatheredthemummyinthecoffinandthecanopicjarsinfrontofthefalsedoor.Theybroughtfoodtothedoorthatallowedthebaandkaofthedeceasedtosurvive.Thefurnishingsthatthedeceasedwouldneedintheafterlifearealsobroughtintothetomb.Objectsincludedstatues,shabties(clayfigureswhowillserveanddotheworkforthedeceased),boxespackedwithasistrum(musicalinstrument),scepters,furniture,jewelry,amulets,weapons,salves,oils,andflowers(Pictured:ShabtiesofMuthotep).Oftenacowwasslaughteredhereasafinaloffering.

Pesesh‐kef(RitualImplement);ca.3300‐3100BCE;Obsidian;BrooklynMuseum

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Themuralsonthewallswouldhaveassistedintheafterlife,astheywouldrelatehowthispersonlived,worked,andplayed.

• ThecoffinwasthendepositedintotheBurialChamberbyninefriendsorfamilymembersofthedeceased.Onceeveryoneexitedthechamberanditwasclosed,thepriestswouldperformfinalprotectiveritesattheentrance,ensuringthesafetyofthetombanditscontents.

TheNetherworldNowdepositedintohisorhertomb,thedeceasedwouldbeginthejourneytotheduat,orfinalrestingplaceintheNetherworld.Everyonewasnotguaranteedentry,however.Good,faithfulEgyptianswouldhavebeenpreparingforthejourneytotheNetherworldformanyyears.Training:Intheirearthlyexistence,theancientEgyptianswouldhavelearnedstoriesofthegodsthatwouldpreparethemfortheirfinaljudgment.Thesestoriesinclude:

OsirisandRebirthAncientEgyptianunderstandingoftheneedformummificationandtheafterlifeisreflectedinthestoryofthegodOsiris.Osirisandhiswife/sisterIsiswereEgypt’sbelovedfirstrulers.Osiris’sjealousbrother,Seth,invitedthekingtoapartyonlytotraphiminaspecialhuman‐formbox—ananthropoidcoffin—whichhehadconstructedexactlytoOsiris’sdimensions.SeththrewtheboxintotheNile,Osirisdrowned,andSethclaimedthethrone.Afteralongsearch,IsisretrievedOsiris’sbody,shemagicallyrevivedhimforabrieftime,andtheyconceivedachild.Osirisdiedagain,andIsishidhisbodyinthedesert.Sethfoundthebodyand,enraged,toreitintofourteenpieces.Isissearchedandgatheredthirteenofthepiecestogether.Thelastpiece,thephallus,hadbeeneatenbyafish,soIsisfashionedareplacementandboundallofthepiecestogetherforburial.Isisalsobuilttemplesforhimwherehecouldreceivefoodofferingsafterdeath,establishingtheprecursorofthetomb.Osirisbecamelordoftheafterlife,mercifuljudgeofthedead,andasymbolofrebirth.IsisraisedtheirsonHorus,wholaterdefeatedhisuncleSethandregainedhisfather’sthroneasKingofEgypt.

EgyptianswantedtofollowOsirisupontheirdeathbybeingrebornintotheafterlife.AswithOsiris,itbecameimperativethatthebodyshouldnotdecayandthatitshouldsurvivedeathintact.Thecoffindevelopedtobecomeananthropoidcoffin,thebodywasmade“whole”(apersonwhohadlostabodypart,likeaneye,finger,orlegwasgivenareplicaasareplacement),thebodywaswrappedinbandages,theindividualwasrituallymourned,themummywasgivenofferingsafterburial,andthemummywasplacedsecurelyinatombforeternity.

TheVoyageoftheGodReThesungodReheldgreatimportanceasagodofthelivingandthedead–herepresentstheendlesssolarcycleofdeathandrebirth.EarlyinEgyptianhistory,thekingofEgyptwasknownasthe“SonofRe.”Retookdifferentformswithdifferentnamesduringeachpartofthedayandnight.Hetraveledinaboatacrosstheskyfromeasttowest,andthenatnighthetraveledacrosstheskyintheunderworldfromwesttoeast.Onearth,RewasKhepri(“onewhobecomes,”thescarabbeetle)atsunrise,hewasRe(“thesun”)atnoon,andAtum(“thecompletedone”)atsunset.

ShabtiesofMuthotep;ca.945‐712BCE;Faience,glazed;BrooklynMuseum

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OntheeasternandwesternhorizonshewasRe‐Hor‐Akhty(“Re‐Horus‐of‐the‐Horizon”).Thegodcouldtakemanymoreformsatnightinhisjourneythroughtheunderworld,whichwasrifewithstrugglesanddangers.Atthetwelfthhourofnight,RebecomesKhepriagain,andthecyclebeginsagain.

OsirisisKingoftheNetherworld,HorusisKingofEgypt,andRebindsthetworealmstogether.ThestoriesofOsirisandRe,otherEgyptianmyths,andalsoaseriesofmagicspellsthatprotectedthedeceasedfromdangerprovidedtheknowledgeanancientEgyptianneededtoenterandenjoytheafterlife.BookoftheDeadandOtherTextsDependingonanEgyptian’sstationinlife,theymayhavebeengiventextstostudy,whichwouldprovidethemwiththeknowledgenecessarytocompletethejourneyfromthelivingworldtotheNetherworldsuccessfully.Thesetextswereincludedinthetombssothatthedeceasedcouldeasilyrefertotheirmagicalspellsandadvice.Intheverybeginning,thetextswereavailableonlytotheKing,butslowlycertaintextsweredisseminateddownthroughtheclasssystem.SomeofthesetextsincludeCoffinTexts(writtenonthecoffinsforreference),TheBookoftheTwoWays,whichrecordedthepathsanddangersofthepathtotheNetherworld,TheBookoftheDead,andvariousotherbooksoftheNetherworld.IftheEgyptianwereroyalty,theywouldhaveaccesstorestrictedbooks,someofwhichwouldhavebeencreatedjustforthem.TheseincludeKingTutankhamun’sTheEnigmaticBookoftheNetherworld,theNewKingdomroyaltextTheBookoftheHeavenlyCow,andthePtolemaictextusedbyhighofficialsTheBookofTraversingEternity.Judgment:Withthisknowledgefirmlyinhandandreinforcedthroughhieroglyphsonthetombwallsandinaccompanyingpapyri,thedeceasedwouldbegintheprocessofJudgment.Ifthedeceasedpassedthroughthisphasesuccessfully,theywouldthenspendeternityintheduat.EverypotentialentranttotheNetherworldunderwentafinaltesttodeterminewhethertheyhadlivedalifeinaccordancewiththeconceptofjusticeorproperorder(calledma’at).Passingthetestallowedthedeceasedtoenterthesectionoftheduatreservedfortheblesseddead;failuremeanteithertotalobliterationoraneternalexistencewitnessingtheunderworldstruggleofReandthedragon‐likedemonApophis.Thejudgmentceremonyiscalledthe“WeighingoftheHeart,”anditisdescribedintheBookoftheDead.Anubisleadsthedeceasedtostandbeforethegods,whereheorshewouldrecitethetextfromChapter125oftheBookoftheDead,recitethewennofer(35statementsofhowtoliveagoodlife),andgivedeclarationsofpurity.Thegodsweighedthedeceased’sheart,theseatoftheperson’sintellect,emotions,andactionsonearth,onthescalesofMa’at,thegoddessofjusticeandorder.Iftheheartwaslighterthanafeather,thehieroglyphicsymbolforma’at,thentheperson’sactionsonearthhadbeengood.Iftheheartwasheavierthanafeather,theperson’sactionshadnotbeenjust,andthedemongoddessAmmitdevouredtheheart.Ifthepersonwasdeclaredashavingleadajustlife,thentheywerepresentedtoOsirisandallowedtoentertheduat.Eternity:Ifapersonpassedthe“WeighingoftheHeart”judgmentceremony,theyenteredtheduat,whichresembledearth.Intheduat,everyonehadthesamepositionthattheyheldintheirearthlylife,andtheywouldspentalleternitythere,surroundedbytheobjectsintheirtomb.Overtime,thesetombobjectschangedandevolved.Inearlyperiods,burialwithbowlsforfoodofferingswerecommon,aswerestatuesandjars.Men’stombsheldweaponsandwomen’sheld

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cosmeticpalettesandapplicators.IntheEarlyDynasticperiod,thoseofferingsexpandedtofurniture,jewelry,andgames.Stelestoneswerealsocarvedasinformationalmarkerstodescribewhohadbeenburied.BeginningattheendoftheOldKingdom,mummymasksweremadeoutofmaterialsincludingcartonnage,whichisconstructedoflinensoakedinplaster,modeledandpainted(Pictured:MummyCartonnageofaWoman).Alsobeginningatthistime,falsedoorswereincludedintombs.Soonafter,wadjeteyesbegantoadorncoffins.Thefirstcanopicjarsarefoundinthe11thand12thDynasties.Faiencemodelswerethepredecessorsofshabties.DuringtheNewKingdom’s18thDynasty,weseeeverydayobjectsdisappearingfromtheburialfurnishingslist.Lifesizepaintingsofthepersoninciviliandress,calledMummyboards,wereaddedduringtheNewKingdom.DuringRomanrule,ablendofEgyptianandRomanstylesbegantotakeovertombsanddécor,resultinginportraitsofthedeceasedinsidethetombs.

MummyCartonnageofaWoman;1stcenturyCE;Linen,gildedgesso,glassandfaience;BrooklynMuseum

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Multi-Deity Belief System TheEgyptianshadstrongreligiousbeliefs,andtheybelievedinmanygods.Worshippingmorethanonegodorgoddessisreferredtoasamulti‐deitybeliefsystem.Thesemultiplegodsandgoddessesallhadspecificspecialtiesorareasofprotectionandpower.Thereweresomegodsandgoddessesthateveryonewouldworship–figuressuchasRe,Osiris,andIsis.Additionally,eachcityhaditsowngodorgoddess.Theselocalgodsprovidedassistancetoindividualsoftheareawhomadeofferingstothegod.Forexample,ifyouwantedyourcropstogroworwantedtohealanillness,youwouldtakefoodorclothingtothelocalgod’stemple.Thepriestwouldtaketheofferingandprayinaspeciallanguagetothegods.

MeettheGodsUnderstandinghowthemajordeitiesrelatetooneanotherandwhattheyoverseeishelpfulinlearningmoreabouttheEgyptiansandtheirartwork.KeepinmindthefollowingasyouexploreEgyptiangodsandgoddesses:

• Spellingsmayappearslightlydifferentfromonesourcetoanother• OverthethousandsofyearsofEgyptianhistory,godsfromonelocalareamightbeadopted

withslightlydifferentmythologyinanotherarea.Astheyareadopted,theymaybeconflatedwithanothergod.

• Familyrelationshipsappeardifferentinmanysources• Somegodsandgoddesseswerebrotherandsisterandwerealsomarried• Therearemanymoregodsandgoddessesthanrepresentedhere–keepdoingmoreresearchto

learnthemall• Therearemanysystemsoforganizationthatplacethegodsandgoddessesinfamilies,eachof

themlocal,andmanywereinconflictwitheachotherThebestwaytolearnaboutthegodsandgoddessesistoidentifytheirattributesandtheirmythology.Toaideinthis,analphabeticallistingisincludedbelow.Itisnotacomprehensivelistofallgodsandgoddesses,butitincludesgodsandgoddessesrepresentedintheexhibitionorrelatedtotheexhibition. Ammit

Ammitisagoddesswiththeheadofacrocodile,theforequartersofalion,andthehindquartersofahippopotamus.Duringthe“WeighingoftheHeart”ceremony,AmmitwaitstoseeiftheheartofthedeceasedisheavierthanthefeatherofMa’at.Ifitis,shedevourstheheart,andthedeceasedpersoncannotproceedtotheNetherworldorduat.

AmunAmun’snamemeans“TheHiddenOne.”AmunwasthepatrondeityofthecityofThebesandwasviewed(alongwithhisconsortAmunet)asaprimordialcreation‐deity.Hissacredanimalswerethegooseandtheram.UptotheMiddleKingdomAmunwasmerelyalocalgodinThebes;butwhentheThebanshadestablishedtheirsovereigntyinEgypt,Amunbecameaprominentdeity,andbyDynasty18wastermedtheKingoftheGods.Hisfamoustemple,Karnak,isthelargestreligiousstructureeverbuiltbyman.

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AnubisDependingonthetradition,AnubiswasthesonofSethorOsiris.Anubiswasdepictedasajackalorjackal‐headedman.Probablybecauseofthejackal’stendencytoprowlaroundcemeteries,hebecameassociatedwiththedead,andbytheOldKingdom,AnubiswasworshippedastheinventorofembalmingandtheembalmerofOsiris.Histaskbecametoglorifyandpreserveallthedead.AnubisalsoconductedthesoulsofthedeadtotheirjudgmentandmonitoredtheScalesofTruthtoprotectthedeadfromtheseconddeathintheunderworld.

AtenAtenisthesun‐diskitself,wasrecognizedfirstintheMiddleKingdom,andlaterbecameanaspectofthesungod.InthereignofAmunhotepIV(Akhenaten),Atenwasdepictedasadiskwithrays,eachrayterminatinginahumanhandandbestowingsymbolsof“life.”Atenwasdeclaredtheonlytruedeityduringthisperiod,buttheworshipofAmunandtheotherdeitieswasrestoredbyAmunhotepIV’ssuccessors,includingTutankhamun.

BastetAcat‐goddessworshippedintheDeltacityofBubastis.Aprotectressofcatsandthosewhocaredforcats.Asaresult,shewasanimportantdeityinthehome(sincecatswereprizedpets).Bastetwasalsoseenasasacredanimalofthesungod,assheconqueredApophis,asnakedemonintheunderworld.Bastetisthegentleformofthelion‐headedgoddessSekhmet.InlaterEgyptianmythology,Bastetisalsoapatronessofluxuryandpleasures.

BesAdeityofeitherAfricanorSemiticorigin;integratedintoEgyptsocietybyDynasty12.Depictedasabearded,savage‐lookingyetcomicaldwarf,shownfull‐faceinimagery,whichishighlyunusualbyEgyptianartisticconventions.Reveredasadeityofhouseholdpleasuressuchasmusic,goodfood,andrelaxation.Alsoaprotectorofpregnantwomenandchildrenandentertainerofchildren.

FourSonsofHorus(Imsety,Hapi,Duamutef,Qebehsenuef)ThefoursonsofHorusweretheprotectorsofthepartsofthebodyofOsiris,andfromthis,becametheprotectorsofthebodyofthedeceased,andtheirheadsoftenappearedoncanopicjars.Duamutef–Jackalhead;stomach;protectedbythegoddessNeithHapi–Baboonhead;lungs;protectedbythegoddessNephthysImsety–Man;liver;protectedbythegoddessIsisQebehsenuef–Falconhead;intestines;protectedbythegoddessSelket

HathorAnancientgoddessofEgypt,Hathorisacowgoddess.Thename“Hathor”istheGreekcorruptionoftheEgyptiannamesHet‐Hert(“theHouseAbove”)orHet‐Heru(“theHouseofHorus”).Bothtermsrefertoherasaskygoddess,andthelatterindicatesshewasaconsortofHorus.InlatertimessheisoftenconnectedwithIsis.Hathorwasusuallyshownwithasolardiskflankedbycowhornsonherhead.AtThebes,shewasconsideredagoddessofthedead,andworethehieroglyphfor“West”(amenta)onherhead.Shewasalsothepatronoflove,joy,dance,alcohol,andforeignlands.

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HorusOneofthemostimportantdeitiesofEgypt.Asanancientdeity,Horushasmanyforms,myths,attributesandlayers.HorusisthesonofOsirisandIsis.Uponreachingadulthood,Horusavengeshisfather’sdeathbydefeatinghiseviluncleSeth.HethenbecamethedivineprototypeofthePharaoh.Afalcongod,Horusisthegodofthesky,godofwar,andagodofprotection.Thesunishisrighteyeandthemoonishisleft.DuringhisbattlewithSeth,hislefteyewasgougedout,andwasthereforemuchweakerthantheright–whichexplainswhythemoonisweakerthanthesun.HorusisthepatrondeityofUpper(Southern)Egypt.AformofHorusisthesolardiskflankedbyagreatpairofwings.

IsisIsisisperhapsthemostimportantgoddessofEgyptianmythology.Althoughshehasmanyattributes,hermostimportantfunctionswerethoseofmotherhood,maritaldevotion,healingthesick,andtheworkingofmagicalspellsandcharms.Shewasbelievedtobethemostpowerfulmagicianintheuniverse,owingtothefactthatshelearnedtheSecretNameofRefromthegodhimself.IsiswasthesisterandwifeofOsiris,sisterofSethandNephthys.ShewasthemotherofHorusandtheprotectivegoddessofHorus’ssonImsety,whoprotectedthedeceasedperson’sliver.Isisisapersonificationoflight.Isismeans“Throne”or“SheoftheThrone,”andsheisdepictedwithathroneonherhead.

KhepriThecreator‐godaccordingtoearlyHeliopolitancosmology;assimilatedwithRe.Khepriisrepresentedbythescarabordungbeetle(kheper),whichrolledballsofdungacrosstheground,justasthesunrolledacrosstheheavens.KheprithereforebecameassociatedwiththesunandistheformofReatsunrise.Thescarabalsolaiditseggsinthedungballs,sothebeetlefurtherbecameassociatedwithrebirth,renewalandresurrection.

Ma’atMa’atisconsideredtobethewifeofThothandthedaughterofRebyvarioustraditions.Ma’atmeans“truth,”“justice”andeven“cosmicorder,”butthereisnoclearEnglishequivalent.Sheisananthropomorphicpersonificationoftheconceptofma’at.Ma’atwasrepresentedasawomanwithanostrichfeather(theglyphforhername)inherhair.Shewaspresentatthejudgmentofthedead;herfeatherwasbalancedagainsttheheartofthedeceasedtodeterminewhetherheorshehadledapureandhonestlife.

NephthysNephthysmeans“LadyoftheHouse.”ShewastheyoungestchildofGebandNut,thesisterandwifeofSeth,thesisterofIsisandOsiris,andthemotherofAnubis.AlthoughthewifeofSeth,Nephthysisaprotectorgoddess,andsheassistedIsisinthecareofHorusandtheresurrectionofOsiris.Shewasconsidered,alongwithhersisterIsis,thespecialprotectorofthedead,andshewastheguardianofHapi,theprotectorofthelungs.Sheisgiventhetitle“FriendoftheDead”andisseenasapersonificationofdarkness(inanon‐evilsense).

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NutandGeb(picturedwithShuinthemiddle)ChildrenofShu(Air)andTefnut(Moisture),andparentsofIsis,Osiris,NephthysandSeth.Nut–thegoddessofthesky,Nutisgenerallydepictedasawomanwithblueskinandcoveredwithstars.Shestandsonallfours,leaningoverherhusband,torepresenttheskyarchedovertheearth.Geb–thegodoftheearth,Gebisgenerallyrepresentedasamanwithgreenorblackskin(thecoloroflivingthingsandthecolorofthefertileNilemud,respectively).NotethatGebismasculine,contrastingwithmanyotherreligioustraditionsinwhichEarthisfeminine.

OsirisOsirisisthegodofthedeadandresurrectionintoeternallife.Heisruler,protector,andjudgeofthedeceased.WheninEnglishsomeonemightusetheeuphemism“thedeceased”or“thelate(name),”Egyptiansreferredto“theOsiris.”ThecultofOsirisoriginatedinAbydos,wherehistombwassaidtobelocated.OsiriswasthefirstchildofNutandGeb,andthebrotherofSeth,Nephthys,andIsis,whowasalsohiswife.WithIsis,OsiriswasthefatherofHorus.Accordingtosomestories,NephthysassumedtheformofIsis,seducedhim,andfromtheirunionwasbornAnubis.OsirisruledtheworldofmenafterRehadabandonedtheworldtoruletheskies,buthewasmurderedbyhisbrotherSeth.ThroughthemagicofIsis,hewasresurrected.Beingthefirstpersontodie,hesubsequentlybecamelordofthedead.HisdeathwasavengedbyhissonHorus,whodefeatedSethandcasthimoutintothedeserttotheWestofEgypt(theSahara).PrayersandspellswereaddressedtoOsiristhroughoutEgyptianhistoryinhopestosecurehisblessingandentertheafterlifethatheruled.HispopularitysteadilyincreasedthroughtheMiddleKingdom,andbyDynasty18hewasprobablythemostwidelyworshippedgodinEgypt.Osirisisrepresentedasamummifiedmanwithgreenskin,wearingtheAtefcrown(theWhiteCrownofUpperEgyptwithfeathersaddedtoeachside),andcarryingthecrookandflail.

PtahPtahisacreatorgod,alongwithReandAmun.Hewasassociatedwiththeprimordialmound,hecalledtheworldintobeing,andhecreatedthingsjustbyspeakingtheirnames.Ptahinventedtheartsandbecamethegodofcraftsmen.PtahwasthelocalgodofthecapitalMemphis.InthePtolemaicPeriod,hewasregardedastheEgyptianequivalentoftheGreekHephaestus.Ptahwasdepictedasamummifiedmanwearingaskullcap.

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Re(Ra)RewasthegodofthesunduringdynasticEgypt;thenameisthoughttohavemeant“creativepower”andasapropername“Creator.”IndynasticEgypt,Re’scultcenterwasAnnu(Greek“Heliopolis,”nearmodern‐dayCairo).InDynasty5,thekingUserkafaddedthetermSa‐Re“SonofRe”tothetitlesofthepharaohs.VeryearlyinEgyptianhistory,RewasidentifiedwithHorus,whoasahawkorfalcon‐godrepresentedtheloftinessoftheskies.Insomestories,RewasfatherofShuandTefnut.Inlaterperiods(aboutDynasty18on)OsirisandIsissurpassedhiminpopularity,butheremained“Re,theGreatGod,LordofHeaven”whetherworshipedinhisownrightor,inlatertimes,asoneaspectoftheLordoftheUniverse,Amun‐Re.Reisrepresentedeitherasahawk‐headedmanorasahawk.

SekhmetAwarriorgoddess,Sekhmetisdepictedasalionessorawomanwiththeheadofalioness.ThewifeofPtah,shewasworshippedinMemphis.ShewascreatedbyRefromthefireofhiseyesasacreatureofvengeancetopunishmortalsfortheirsins.Afiercegoddess,herbreathwassaidtohavecreatedthedesert.Sheprotectedthepharaohsandledtheminbattle.SekhmetiscloselyassociatedwithBastet,hergentleform,andHathor.

SelketAscorpion‐goddess,Selketisshownasabeautifulwomanwithascorpiononherhead.Herscorpionstruckdeathtothewicked,butSelketwaspetitionedtosavethelivesofinnocentpeoplestungbyscorpions.Shehelpedwomeninchildbirth,boundupdemonsthatwouldotherwisethreatenRe,andsentsevenofherscorpionstoprotectIsisfromSeth.ShealsoprotectsQebehsenuef,thesonofHoruswhoguardedtheintestinesofthedeceased.

Seth(orSet)Sethisthegodofchaos,darkness,andevil.Inearliesttimes,SethwasthepatrondeityofLower(Northern)Egypt,andrepresentedthefiercestormsofthedesertthattheLowerEgyptianssoughttoappease.However,whenUpperEgyptconqueredLowerEgyptinthe1stDynasty,SethbecameknownastheevilenemyofHorus(UpperEgypt’sdynasticgod).SethwasthebrotherofOsiris,Isis,andNephthys,andhusbandofthelatter;accordingtosomeversionsofthemythsheisalsofatherofAnubis.SethisbestknownformurderinghisbrotherOsirisandattemptingtokillhisnephewHorus;Horus,however,managedtosurviveandgrewuptoavengehisfather’sdeathbyestablishinghisruleoverallEgypt,castratingSeth,andcastinghimoutintothedesertforalltime.SethisdepictedwiththebodyofamanandtheheadofthemysteriousSethanimal,whichhadacurvedsnoutandsquareears.Pharaohs,godsandpriestscarrytheWasscepter,whichsymbolizestheSethanimal.

ShuShuisthegodoftheatmosphereandofdrywinds,sonofRe,brotherandhusbandofTefnut,fatherofGebandNut.Representedinhieroglyphsbyanostrichfeather(similartoMa’at),whichheisusuallyshownwearingonhishead.HeisusuallyshownstandingontherecumbentGeb,holdinguphisdaughterNut,separatingthetwo.Shucanalsobeapersonificationofthesun’slight.ShuandTefnutweresaidtobetwohalvesofonesoul,perhapstheearliestrecordedexampleof“soulmates.”

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SobekThecrocodilegodSobekwasworshippedatthecityofArsinoë,whichwasalsocalledCrocodilopolisbytheGreeks.Sobekwasdepictedwiththebodyofamanandtheheadofacrocodile.Crocodileswerefearedcreatures,andSobekwasworshippedtoappeasethem.Accordingtosomeevidence,Sobekwasconsideredafourfolddeitywhorepresentedthefourelementalgods(Reoffire,Shuofair,Gebofearth,andOsirisofwater).IntheBookoftheDead,SobekassistsinthebirthofHorus;hefetchesIsisandNephthystoprotectthedeceased;andheaidsinthedestructionofSeth.

TaweretDepictedasahippopotamuswiththearmsandlegsofalion,thebackandtailofacrocodile,afullpregnantabdomen,andpendulousbreasts,Taweretwasthe“GreatOne.”LikeBes,Taweretwasadeitythatwasworshippedinthehome,andshewasespeciallyimportantforprotectingwomenandtheirchildren.Taweretprotectedwomenthroughoutthepregnancyandthenactedasadivinemidwifewhendeliverycame.Womenwouldeitherwearanamuletinhershapeorhaveasmallstatueofherlikenessintheirhomes,anditwasverycommontoalsoseeTaweretontheheadrestsofbedsandoncosmeticarticles.

TefnutTefnutisthegoddessofmoistureandclouds,daughterofRe,sisterandwifeofShu,motherofGebandNut.Sheisdepictedasawomanwiththeheadofalioness,whichwashersacredanimal.Thename“Tefnut”probablyderivesfromtherootteftef,signifying“tospit,tomoisten”andtherootnumeaning“waters,sky.”

ThothThegodofwisdom,Thothwassaidtobeself‐createdatthebeginningoftimealongwithhisconsortMa’at(truth),orperhapscreatedbyRe.ItwassaidthatThothproducedeightchildren,ofwhichthemostimportantwasAmun,“TheHiddenOne,”whowasworshipedinThebesastheLordoftheUniverse.Thothwasdepictedasamanwiththeheadofanibis,andhecarriedapenandscrollsuponwhichherecordedallthings.Hewasshownasattendantinalmostallmajorscenesinvolvingthegods,butespeciallyatthejudgmentofthedeceased.Heservedasthemessengerofthegods,andwasthusequatedbytheGreekswithHermes.ThothservedinOsirianmythsasthevizier(chiefadvisorandminister)ofOsiris.Heisagodofthemoon,time,magic,andwriting,sincehewasconsideredtobetheinventorofthehieroglyphs.

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Dynastic Chronology ThischronologyoutlinesthedevelopmentofEgyptiancivilizationthroughitselevenmajorperiods.Overthecenturies,periodsofstrongcentralgovernment,orkingdoms,generallyalternatewithintermediateerasofweakercentralauthorityandrelianceonlocalrule.

PrehistoricPeriodNeolithicPeriod;OmariCulture,MaadiCulturecirca5000−4400B.C.E.

Peoplelivedprimarilyinfarmingsettlements.Nearlynothingisknownofthepoliticalsystem.

PredynasticPeriodBadarianPeriod,NaqadaPeriodsI‐III,andDynasty0circa4400–3000B.C.E.

ThePredynasticPeriodrevealstraitsthatanticipateclassicalEgyptiancultureandcustoms.WeseetheearliestvillagesinEgyptinprehistorictimes,andtheystretchtotheverybeginningsofrecordedhistoryinDynasty0about1,400yearslater.ArchaeologicalevidenceindicatesthebeginningsofinternationaltradewiththeNearEastandNubiaandthefirstwritinginDynasty0.

EarlyDynasticPeriodDynasties1and2circa3000−2675B.C.E.

TheEarlyDynasticPeriodwitnessedthefirstcentralizedgovernmentinEgypt.UpperandLowerEgypt(SouthernandNorthernEgypt)wereunifiedduringtheFirstandSecondDynastiesunderKingNarmer/Menes.Monumentalarchitectureappearedintombs,andthenationalcapitalwasatMemphis.

OldKingdomDynasties3through6circa2675–2130B.C.E.

Thenextperiod,theOldKingdom,isoftencalledthePyramidAgeandproducedthebest‐knownmonumentsofancientEgypt.TheOldKingdomwitnessedthecentralizationofpoliticalpowerinMemphis,thenationalcapital.KingDjosercompletedconstructionofhistory’sfirststonebuildings,atSaqqara.ThepeakofthiscentralizedpowercameinthereignsofKhufu,Khafre,andMenkaure,FourthDynastykingswhobuilttheirPyramidsatGiza.FifthandSixthDynastykingsallowedpowertodevolvegraduallytotheprovinces,resultinginanewperiodoflocalizedpoliticalcontrol.Centralizedgovernmentbegantodissolveattheendofthisperiod.

FirstIntermediatePeriodDynasty7throughfirsthalfofDynasty11circa2170–2008B.C.E.

TheFirstIntermediatePeriodwasatransitionalerathatexisted“betweenkingdoms,”andwasmarkedbylocalrule.Disorder,socialandpoliticaldeclineanddissolutionarekeyfactorsofthisunsettledtime.Abreakdownofcentralizedgovernmentoccurs,withmanykingshavingoverlappingreigns.ThiswasfinallybroughtundercontrolbyastronglineofThebanprinces,andthereunificationofEgyptbyMentuhotepII.Thistimeincludedthelastyearsofthe

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MemphisroyalhouseandtheriseofrivalkingsoftheNinthandTenthDynastiesinHerakleopolis,southwestofmodernCairo,andoftheEleventhDynastyinThebes.Localcontrolwasstrongerthancentralgovernmentinfluence.

MiddleKingdomLatterhalfofDynasty11throughDynasty13circa2008–after1630B.C.E.

TheMiddleKingdomwasaperiodofhighachievementinthearts,architecture,andletters.Atimeofforeigntradeandenormousbuildingprojects,theMiddleKingdommarkedalong,successful,andprosperousperiod.Elegantandsophisticatedcraftsmanship,andafeelingofa“renaissance”waspresent.IntheEleventhDynasty,politicalpowerremainedinThebes,thehomeoftherulingdynasty.IntheTwelfthDynasty,theseatofpowershiftednorthwardtoLisht,locatedsouthwestofmodernCairo.TheTwelfthDynastywastheapexofcentralizedpowerintheMiddleKingdom.TheThirteenthDynastywitnessedthegradualinfiltrationofWestSemitic‐speakingpeoplesintotheeasternNileDeltaandincreasedlocalcontrol.

SecondIntermediatePeriodDynasties14through171630–1539/1523B.C.E.

AsecondgradualbreakdownofcentralgovernmentledtotheSecondIntermediatePeriod,whichwasdominatedbytheHyksos,WestSemitic‐speakingforeignersrulinginthenorthofEgyptwhilelocalprincesofThebescontrolledthesouth.Manyofthesedynastiesoverlapwitheachotherintime.

NewKingdomDynasties18through20circa1539−1075B.C.E.

TheNewKingdomisprobablythebestknownperiodofEgyptianantiquity.Itwasasuccessfulandprosperoustime,withresurgenceinartandmonumentalbuildingprojects.EgyptbegantolookoutwardwiththebeginningoftheNewKingdom,whenastrong,wealthycentralgovernmentheldswayovertheancientnortheastAfricanandNearEasternworld.ThebanprincesreassertedcontroloverEgypt,foundingtheEighteenthDynasty.FurtherexpansionofEgyptianbordersalsooccurredsouthwardinAfricaintomodern‐daySudan.Kingsgrewrichandpatronizedvastarchitecturalandartisticprojects.Forseventeenyearsneartheendoftheeighteenthdynasty,areligiousrevolutionaryandkingnamedAmenhotepIVorAkhenaten,togetherwithhiswifeNefertiti,worshippedonlythesundisk,whichtheycalledtheAten.Thiswasindirectconflictwiththemulti‐deitysystemEgyptianshadcometoknow.ThisbrieftimespaniscalledtheAmarnaPeriod.Afterrestorationofreligioustraditions,theEighteenthDynastyfamilywasreplacedbytheNineteenthandTwentiethDynastyfamilyofkingscalledRamesses.ThesekingsmaintainedforeignpossessionsuntiltheinvasionofforeignersknownasSeaPeoples.UnfortunatelybytheendoftheNineteenthDynasty,theincreasingpowerofthepriesthoodcorruptedthecentralgovernment.TheTwentiethDynastysawmanytombsrobbedbyofficials,andthepriesthoodbecamehereditaryandassumedsecularpower.Thegovernmentfinallybreaksdown.

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ThirdIntermediatePeriodDynasties21through25circa1075−656B.C.E.

ThisperiodwitnessedoverlappinglocaldynastiesandkingsofforeignoriginfrombothLibyaandNubia.Theartsflourished.

LatePeriodDynasties26through31664−332B.C.E.

ThecentralizedgovernmentledbyLibyansintroducedtheLatePeriod,whenforeignrulebyPersiansaddedtotherichmixofpeoplelivinginEgypt.LibyansandPersiansalternatedrulewithnativeEgyptians,buttraditionalEgyptianconventionscontinuedinthearts.

PtolemaicPeriodMacedonianandPtolemaicDynasties332−30B.C.E.

AlexandertheGreat’sinvasionresultedinthePtolemaicPeriod,whichsawtheblendingofEgyptianandGreekculture.AlexanderconqueredEgyptin332BCE,andfollowinghisdeath,hisgeneralPtolemyestablishedafamilydynastythatruleduntilthedeathofCleopatraVIIafterthebattleofActiumin31BCE.EgyptmaintainedadualcultureencompassingbothnativeEgyptianandGreekelements.

RomanandByzantinePeriods30B.C.E.–642C.E.

DuringtheearlyyearsofRomanrulethecountrywasdirectlyadministeredasthepropertyoftheemperor.InthefourthcenturyCE,theRomanEmpiresplitintotwohalvesandEgyptwaspartoftheEasternRomanEmpire,ruledfromByzantium(modernIstanbul).EgyptiansincreasinglyconvertedtoChristianityandcreatedartthatreflectedtheinfluenceofthenewreligion.

IslamicPeriod642C.E.toPresent

MuslimArabsconqueredEgyptin642CE,defeatingtheByzantinearmies.TraditionalEgyptianbeliefs,CopticChristianbeliefsandMuslimbeliefsexistedtogether.Slowly,thetraditionalbeliefsbegantofadeandMuslimreligionexpanded.AncientEgyptianlanguagecontinuedthroughtheCopticChurch.MuslimrulersnominatedbytheIslamicCaliphateheldcontroluntiltheOttomanTurksconqueredEgyptin1517,afterwhichtimeitbecameaprovinceoftheOttomanEmpire.NapoleonBonaparteinvadedEgyptin1798,fightingtheOttomanandMamlukforces.AcommanderofanAlbanianforce,MuhammadAliPasha,becameadominatefigureandestablishedadynastythatruledEgyptuntiltherevolutionin1952.

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Glossary Writing/Language/Texts:BookoftheDead:ThenamegivenbyearlyEgyptologiststoacollectionofreligiousspellswhichwere

thoughttobehelpfultothedeceasedintheafterlife.TheBookoftheDeadwasmostlywrittenonpapyributextractsfromitalsoappearontombwallsandvariousfuneraryitemssuchassarcophagi,coffins,shabties,headrestsandscarabs.

Imi‐duat:Literallythebookof“ThatwhichisintheUnderworld,”oneofthecompilationsofreligioustextsoftenfoundonthewallsofNewKingdomroyaltombs,butwhichalsoappearsonpapyri.TheImi‐duatdescribesindetailvariouspartsoftheunderworldanditsinhabitantswhoareencounteredbythesungodReinhisnightlyjourney.

Cartouche:Thenamegivenbythescholarstoanornamental,butalsosymbolic,frameusedtosurroundthetwomostimportantnamesofEgyptiankings.Theovalorroundframe,whichoriginallytooktheformofaropeenclosingthename,probablyindicatedthatthekingwasplacedundertheprotectionofthesungodRe.Cartoucheswerealsousedtoindicatethenamesofothermembersortheroyalfamilyandalsosomedeities.

Hieroglyphs:ThesignsoftheEgyptianwritingsystemalwaysremainedrecognizablepicturesofpeople,animalsandobjects(althoughEgyptianscriptwasnottruepicturewriting).Somesevenhundredsignswerecommonlyusedbutmanymoreexisted.

Scribe:Non‐nobleupperrankofEgyptiansociety,generallyalearnedmanfluentinreadingandwritingtheancientEgyptianlanguage.

Vizier:AworldusedtodescribeachiefofficialoftheEgyptianstatewhohadsupremeexecutivecontroloverallaspectsofadministration.Thevizierwasdirectlyresponsibletotheking.

ObjectsandMaterials:Canopicjars:Vesselsinwhichtheinternalorgansofthedeceasedwereplacedafterbeingremovedin

themummificationprocess.Canopicjarsweremadeofalabasterorlimestoneandweredistinguishedbydifferentlids.Theywereplacedintheburialchambernexttothecoffin.

Cartonnage:Materialconsistingmainlyoflinenorpapyrusstiffenedwithplaster.Itwasusedinthemanufactureofanthropoidcoffinsandotherfuneraryobjects.InEgyptologicalterminology,theword‘cartonnage’isoftenusedtomeanananthropoidcoffinmadeofcartonnage.

Electrum:Analloyofgoldandsilver.Faience:Amaterial,usuallywithaglassyblueorgreensurface,manufacturedbyheatingpowdered

quartzwithingredientssuchasnatron(anaturallyoccurringcompoundofsodiumcarbonateandsodiumbicarbonate).

FalseDoor:Anon‐functioningstonesculptureofadoorintoatomb,foundeitherinsidethechapelorontheoutsideofthemastaba.Itservedasaplacetomakeofferingsandreciteprayersforthedeceased.

Mummification:Aprocesstopreservethebodyofthedeceasedpersonbyartificialmeans.Mummificationwasbasicallydehydrationanddesiccationachievedbymeansofthenaturallyoccurringdehydratingsubstancenatron(amixtureofsodiumsalts).Mummificationinvolvedtheremovalofmostoftheinternalorgansandsometimesalsothebrain,butnottheheart,whichwastheplacewhereEgyptiansbelievedallthoughtsandemotionsresided.

Palette:Aflatslabofstoneusedforthegrindingofeyepaint.Somepalettesbecamehighlydecorativeandlosttheiroriginal,purelypracticalpurposeandwereturnedintovotiveobjectstobedonatedtoatemplegod.

Sarcophagus:Astonecontainerforthebodyofthedeceasedperson,eitherrectangularoranthropoid.Thesarcophagusconsistsoftwoparts,thecaseandthelid.

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Scarab(Khepri):Thedungbeetlewasthoughttobeconnectedwiththesungodbecauseitshabitofrollingaballofdungacrossthegroundwasreminiscentofthejourneyofthesunacrossthesky.Theliteraltranslationis“onewhobecomes.”KhepriwasalsothenameofthesungodReatsunrise,whenhecameintobeingontheeasternhorizoneachmorning.

Shabty:Asmallstatuette,usuallyrepresentingthedeceasedpersonasamummiformfigureholdingagriculturalimplements.Thesestatuetteswereexpectedtoanswerthecalltoworkintheunderworld.Shabtiesweremadeofstone,wood,faienceorevenbronze,andwereinscribedwithoneofthespellsfromtheBookoftheDead.

Stela(Stele):Aflatslabofstone,agravestone.

PartsoftheIndividual:Ka:Oneoftheelementsofeachperson(butalsoofthegods)wastheirka,oftentranslatedas‘spirit,’

butbetterrenderedas‘lifeforce’orcreativeandsustainingpoweroflife.Thekawasessentialfortheperson’sexistenceonearthaswellasintheafterlifebecauseitanimatedthebody.Thebodyhadtobepreservedifthepersonwastocontinuetoexistafterdeath.Thisideagaverisetomummificationandsculpture(providingthekawithasubstitutebody).

Heart:Theheartcontrolledboththoughtandemotionandhadanindependentexistenceafterdeath,stemmingfromitsknowledgeofanindividual’sactivitiesandthoughtsduringlifeonearth.TheheartwasactuallyweighedandjudgedaccordingtoMa’at,determiningtheindividual’sfateintheafterworld.

Ba:TheBaofanindividualwasusuallydepictedasahuman‐headedbirdandrepresentedtheperson’spersonalityorsoul.

Ren:TheRen,orindividual’sname,controlledanindividual’sfateeitherthroughitsuseinmagicorthroughtheprotectionofthegodinvokedinthename.

Shadow:Theshadowofanindividualwasconsideredtobeaphysicalpartofanindividualonearth,andthereforeneededtobeintegratedintothewholepersonintheunderworld.

Akh:Akh,literallytranslated,means“effectivespirit.”Itrepresentedtheunifiedmanifestationofallfivepartsofanindividualandintegraltothecontinuationoftheindividualintheafterlife.Thisentitycouldmoveabouttheuniverseasneeded.

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Exhibition Themes and Key Images

ToLiveForever:EgyptianTreasuresfromtheBrooklynMuseumAllancientEgyptiansdesiredtoliveafterdeath.ToLiveForever:EgyptianTreasuresfromtheBrooklynMuseumillustratesEgyptianfunerarybeliefsandcustomsobservedovernearlyfourthousandyearsbyboththerichandthepoor.Theexhibitionanswersquestionsoftenaskedabouttheafterlife,mummies,funerals,andtombs,asitillustratesthevarietyofstrategiesusedtoevadedeathand,ultimately,toliveforever.

AftersurveyingEgyptianbeliefsthroughpapyriandworksofart,theexhibitionaddressesmanyofthepracticalconsiderationsanancientEgyptianfacedwhenpreparingforburial.Noteveryonehadaccesstotheelaboratefuneralequipmentmadeforaking.Theexhibitionthereforeillustrateshowmiddle‐classartisansandsomepoorerpeoplemadeuseofcheapermaterialsandsecondhanditemsinprovidingfortheirtombs.Inplaceofvastwealth,theysubstitutedtheirowncreativitytoreachtheafterlife.Objectsbelongingtothemiddleandpoorerclassesareshownneartheluxuriousgoodsusedbytherichtoguaranteetheireternallives,ofteninside‐by‐sidecomparisons.

Sarcophagi

SarcophagusLidofPa‐di‐Djehuti;Fromcemeteryatel‐Tarmakiya,nearHardai(Kynopolis),EgyptPtolemaicPeriod,circa305−30B.C.E.LimestoneCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,34.1221ThesetwolargestonesarcophaguslidsweremadeforawealthyroyalscribeandpriestnamedPa‐di‐InpuandhissonPa‐di‐Djehuty.TheyareexamplesoftheexpensivetombequipmentweexpectforallEgyptians.Yetonlyalimitedgroupofpeoplecouldaffordburialinsuchelaboratestonecoffins.Membersofless‐wealthyfamiliesmadecoffinsfromlow‐qualitywoodoreventerracotta.

BeliefsabouttheAfterlife

OsirisandRebirthAncientEgyptianunderstandingoftheafterlifeisreflectedinthestoryofthegodOsiris.ThestoryalsoexplainswhycertainobjectsweredesiredinanEgyptiantomb.

OsirisandhiswifeIsiswereEgypt’sbelovedfirstrulers.Osiris’sjealousbrother,Seth,invitedthekingtoapartyonlytotraphiminaspecialhuman‐formbox—likeacoffin—exactlyinOsiris’sdimensions.Sethandhisco‐conspiratorsthrewtheboxintotheNile,andOsirisdrowned.Sethclaimedthethrone.IsisretrievedOsiris’sbodyandmagicallyrevivedhimlongenoughsothattheycouldconceiveachild.Shealsobuilttemplesforhimwherehecouldreceivefoodofferingsafterdeath,establishingtheprecursorofthetomb.

OsirisbecamekingoftheafterlifewhileIsisraisedtheirsonHorus.HoruslaterdefeatedhisuncleSethandbecamekingofEgypt.ButallEgyptianswantedtoimitatehisfather,Osiris,attheirdeathbybeingrebornintotheafterlife.ManyoftheobjectsinanEgyptiantombhelpedthedeceasedachievethisgoal.

TheVoyageoftheGodReEgyptiansbelievedthatthesungodRetraveledinaboatacrosstheskyfromeasttowestintheworldoftheliving.Reachingthewest,heenteredtheafterlifeandthentraveledacrosstheskyoftheunderworldgoingeastward.EachhourthatthegodtraveledintheunderworldhewasattackedbyApophis,adragon‐likedemon.OnlyduringthefifthhourofhisjourneywasResafeintherealmofOsiris.Attheendofthetwelfthhourofhisunderworldjourney,Rewasrebornintotheeasternhorizonofourworld.ManyofthedecorationsinroyaltombsandonpapyrusrevealthatEgyptiansalsodesiredtotravelwithReinhisboatafterdeath.

ThestoriesaboutReandaboutOsiris,plusaseriesofmagicspellsthatprotectedthedeceasedfromdanger,providedtheknowledgeanancientEgyptianneededtoenter,andthrivein,theafterlife.

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AnthropoidCoffinoftheServantoftheGreatPlace,Teti;FromThebes,EgyptNewKingdom,mid‐tolateDynasty18,circa1339−1307B.C.E.Wood,paintedCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.14EAllEgyptiansaftertheNewKingdomdesiredacoffinrepresentingthemasOsiris.AlthoughthecoffinstandsfortheboxthatSethusedtotrapOsiris,inthetombthecoffinprotectsthepersonwhowillbecomeOsiris.ThiscoffinwasmadeforTeti,a“ServantoftheGreatPlace.”ThistitlewasusedbyartisanswhopaintedtombsintheValleyoftheKingsandlivedinDeirel‐Medina.Asamiddle‐classartisan,hepaidnearlyayear’ssalaryforacoffinofthisquality.Hewasabletousefivedifferentpaintcolorstodecoratehiswoodencoffin,includingblue,yellow,red,black,andwhite.Hepaidseparatelyforeachpaintcolor.Theyellowbackgroundpaintwithredstreaksisusedtoimitatethegildedcoffinsofthewealthy.

GamingBoardInscribedforAmenhotepIIIwithSeparateSlidingDrawerandaSetofThirteenGamingPieces;FromEgyptNewKingdom,Dynasty18,reignofAmenhotepIII,circa1390−1353B.C.E.Faience,glazedCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,49.56a−b(board)49.57.1−.13(pieces)ThisboardandthesegamingpieceswereusedtoplaythegametheEgyptianscalledsenet,or“passing.”Twoplayerseachusedsevengamingpiecestoadvanceaccordingtotherollofstick‐likedice,jumpovertheotherplayer’spieces,andfinallyremoveallpiecesfromtheboard.Thefirstplayertoremoveallpieceswonrebirthintotheafterlife.ThisgamewasplayedforoverthreethousandyearsinEgypt,anditsboardandpieceswereoftenincludedinthetomb.

MummiformFigureofOsiris;FromEgyptLatePeriod,664−332B.C.E.Wood,paintedCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.1481ETheinscriptionidentifiesthisfigureasOsiris.Hewearsthecrownofostrichfeathers,asun‐disk,andtheram’shornsthatidentifyhimasaking.Yetheisalsointheformofamummywiththecurledbeardwornbythedead.Thefigurestandsonahollowbase.Originally,apapyruswithaspellwrittenonitwasstoredinthebase.Whenthisfigureandpapyruswereplacedinthetomb,thedeceasedenjoyedtheprotectionofOsirisandofthespell.

SeatedStatueoftheSuperintendentoftheGranaryIrukaptah;FromSaqqara,EgyptOldKingdom,lateDynasty5,circa2425−2350B.C.E.LimestoneCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.20EThisstatuefunctionedasaplaceforIrukaptahtoreceiveofferingsfromthisworldtoconveytothenextworld.TheEgyptian’sbelievedthattheka‐soulcouldinhabitastatuelikethis.Scenesofofferingcarvedonthesidesofthischairshowmenofferingfowl,linen,andfoodincontainers.Ontheback,twowomenofferobjectsinachestandperhapsbread.Thesescenessubstitutefororaugmentscenesofofferingsthatwerecarvedonthewallsofthetomb.

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TheMummyandtheFuneral

TheMummyTheEgyptiansbelievedthatthebodymustbepreservedinordertoensureeternallife.TheGreekhistorianHerodotus,whovisitedEgyptinthefifthcenturyB.C.E.,describedthreedifferentmummificationprocessesavailabledependingonthedeceased’sbudget.

Themostexpensiveprocessinvolvedsurgicalremovalofthebrainandinternalorgans.Embalmersusednatron,anaturallyoccurringsalt,todehydratethebodyoverthecourseofseventydays.Thenpriestspouredanexpensivecombinationofimportedanddomesticresinsinsidethebodytopreserveit.Thepreservativeingredientsthatmodernscientistshaveidentifiedinmummiesensuredthatthebodywasbothwaterproofandresisteddamagecausedbymicroorganismsandinsects;theEgyptiansconnectedtheefficacyoftheseingredientswithreligiousbeliefs.Thebodywasthenwrappedinlinenandplacedinacoffin,nowreadyforthefuneralservice.

Alessexpensivemethodofmummificationsubstitutedanabdominalinjectionofcedarresinforthesurgicalprocess.Thisresinliquefiedtheinternalorgans,whichweredrainedthroughtherectum.Dehydrationwithnatronfollowed,alongwithwrappinginlinen.

Finally,inthecheapestmethodofmummification,anenemaallowedembalmerstoremovetheinternalorgansthroughtherectum.Herodotusgivesnofurtherdetailsofthecheapestmethod.

TheFuneralOnlyelitefuneralsarewell‐enoughdocumentedthatmodernscholarscanreconstructthem.However,objectsfoundinpoorerpeople’sgravessuggestthatallEgyptianssharedthegoalsofthebetter‐knownfunerals:tomakethejourneytotheafterlifeandlivethereforeternity.TheEgyptianfuneralwasaseriesofritualsthatequatedthedeceasedwiththegodOsiris,theprototypeofabeingwhodied,wasrevivified,andwasrebornintotheafterlife.Theritualsincludeddance,music,animalsacrifice,recitation,andritualizedmourningalongaroutethatledfromtheembalminghousetothetomb.Thefinalritualperformedatthetombitselfwasthe“OpeningoftheMouth,”whichactivatedthemummy,allowingittobepartoftheongoingrituals,justbeforeplacingitthetomb.

MummyandPortraitofDemetrios;FromHawara,EgyptRomanPeriod.95−100C.E.Paintedcloth,gold,humanremains,encausticonwoodpanelCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,11.600a−bWhentheRomansruledEgypt(30B.C.E.–642C.E.),somewealthyGreeksthereweremummified.Thismummywasmadewithexpensiveimportedmaterials.Itiswrappedinaredlinenshroudoverthemummybandages.TheredpigmentusedtopainttheshroudwasmadewithleadimportedfromSpain.ThemummyincludesaRoman‐styleportraitofDemetriospaintedonawoodenpanelinthemediumofencaustic,orwaxpluspigment.(CompareittothelesscostlyportraitpainteddirectlyonNeferhotep’sshroud,alsoshowninthissectionoftheexhibition.)ArtistsaddedEgyptiandivinesymbolstoDemetrios’smummyshroudandthedeceased’snameandageatdeath,recordedasfifty‐nineyears,allingoldleaf.ThematerialsusedinthisprocessshowthewealthDemetrioscommandedinlife.ArecentCTscanofthismummyrevealsthattheindividualsufferedfromgallstonesduringhislife.

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CanopicJarandLid(DepictingaJackal);FromEgyptLatePeriod,Dynasty26(orlater),664−525B.C.E.orlaterLimestoneCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.894Ea−bCanopicjarsfirstappearedinthetombofHetepheres,themotherofKhufu,builderoftheGreatPyramid.Theywereintendedtoholdtheseparatelymummifiedinternalorgans.Themiddle‐classexamplesofcanopicjars,whichfirstappearedsevenhundredyearslater,areoftendummieslikethese,neverhollowedouttoholdtheorgans,butstillincludedinthetomb.Canopicjarsdemonstratethedevelopmentofacustomataroyalcemeterythatwasthenadoptedinacheaperformbythemiddleclass.

ElaboratelyPaintedShroudofNeferhotep,SonofHerrotiou;FromDeirel‐Medina,EgyptRomanPeriod,100–225C.E.Linen,paintedCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,75.114Neferhotep’sshroudbearsaRoman‐styleportrait,similartothepanelportraitfoundonDemetrios’smummy.NeferhotepthusavoidedthecostofthewoodenpanelthatDemetriosused,insteadinstructingtheartiststopaintdirectlyontheshroud.Inaddition,Neferhotep’sartistsusedless‐expensivetemperaratherthantheencausticpaintfoundinDemetrios’sportrait.WhenNeferhotep’sshroudwasexcavatedbyBernardBruyèrein1948,partsofitweremissing.Theultravioletphotographreproducedhereindicatesdarkerareasofrestorationdoneabout1970.TheshroudenteredtheBrooklynMuseum’scollectionin1975.

Non‐RoyalElite

Thenon‐royaleliteincludedpeoplewhowereliterateandworkedashighofficialsinthegovernmentbureaucracyorinthetemplesaspriests.Thisgroupcouldaffordtombsandalltheircontentsratherthansimplerburialsingravesdugintothedesertsand,thefateofpoorerEgyptians.Theeliteeitherbuiltstonetombsassmall,freestandingbuildingsorexcavatedtombsinthesideofamountain.Butevenwithinthisgroup,thereweredegreesofwealth.Whentheycommissionedstatuesfortheirtombs,theyoftenhadtomakechoicesbetweenmoreorlessexpensivematerialsinordertomakethemostoftheirresources.Limestoneissoftandeasiertocarvethanblackgraniteorgranodiorite.LimestoneisalsorelativelyplentifulinEgyptwhileblackgraniteandgranodioritearemorerareandthusmoreexpensive.ThestatuesinthissectiondemonstratesomeofthechoiceswealthierEgyptiansmadeinstatuary.

StatueoftheScribeDjehuti;FromThebes,EgyptNewKingdom,earlyDynasty18,circa1539−1390B.C.E.LimestoneCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.30ENearlyallmembersofthenon‐royalelitewereablebothtoreadandwritehieroglyphsandthecursiveformofwritingcalledhieratic.Meninthisgroupoftencommissionedstatuesofthemselvesintheactofreadingorwriting.Here,Djehutiappearstobereadingaprayer,whichperhapshehasjustfinishedwriting.Thehieroglyphsarearrangedsothatthestatuecan“see”themrightsideup.

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TheMeaningofAmulets

Amuletswereworninlifeorattachedtothemummyafterdeathasameansofprotection.Theycouldbemadeofgoldorpreciousstones,fortheelite,orfromsimplefaienceforlesswealthyEgyptians.Thefollowingkindsofamuletsarefoundintheexhibition.

BaAmulets:Theseamuletswereplacedonthechestofthemummy.Theyensuredthereturnoftheba‐soul,whichcouldtravelfromthetombtothisworldandtotheafterlife.Thoughthemummywastheba’shome,TheBookoftheDead,Spell89,suggeststhatEgyptiansfeareditwouldnotalwaysreturn.Theymightalsohavebelievedthatthisamuletcouldactasasubstituteifthetruebarefusedtoreturntothemummy.Theseamuletsareknownnotonlyinpreciousmaterialsincludinglapislazuli,butalsoincheaperonessuchasfaienceandglass.

BesAmulets:Theseamuletswerewornsuspendedfromachainaroundtheneck.Beswasthedeitywhoprotectedwomeninchildbirthandchildrenduringlifeandinthetomb.Hehadalion’sfaceandtail,adwarf’slegs,andworeplumesonhishead.Besaidedrebirthintothenextlifejustasheaidedbirthintothisworld.Besamuletsweremadeofmanydifferentmaterials,butthemostprizedweremadeofgold.

WadjetorEyeAmulets:Thewadjet‐eyeisfoundingreaternumbersthananyotheramulet.ItrepresentstheeyeofthegodHorus,whichtheancientEgyptiansbelievedwasthemoon.Justasthemoonwaxesandwanes,theeyeofHoruscanbeinjuredbutalsoheals.TheamuletcanbemadeofalmostallthematerialsknowntotheEgyptians.Theseexamplesshowtherangefromthemostexpensive(gold)totheleastexpensive(faience).

DjedAmulets:Theseamuletsareintheshapeofthehieroglyphthatmeans“enduring.”ThesymbolprobablyoriginallyrepresentedatreetrunkthatwasliftedduringaceremonyreenactingOsiris’sresurrection.TheBookoftheDead,Spell155,referstothedjedasthebackboneofOsiris,whichallowshimtoriseuponceagainintheafterlife.

HollowCylindricalAmulets:Amuletslikethisweresuspendedfromacordandwornaroundtheneck.Theycontainedapieceofpapyruswithawrittenspellthatofferedprotectiontowomenandchildren.TheyareknownonlyfromtheMiddleandNewKingdomsandbelongedtoroyaltyandhigh‐rankingmembersofsociety.

HeartScarabs:Aheartscarabisaspecializedamuletintheformofadungbeetle.Whenthesebeetlespushedsmallpelletsofdung,itremindedEgyptiansofonewaytheythoughtthesuntraveledacrossthesky.Aheartscarabwasplacedoverthemummy’sheart.ThescarabwasinscribedwithTheBookoftheDead,Spell30B,whichimplorestheheartnottotestifyagainstthedeceasedatthejudgmentofthedead.Theheartwasweighedduringthejudgmenttoproveithadthesameweightas“truth.”Theheartscarabguaranteedthesuccessofthisoperation.

NefertumAmulets:Nefertumwearsaroyalkiltand,onhishead,alotuswithtwotallfeathers,andhestandsonarestinglion,hissacredanimal.NefertumwasthesonofthegreatgodsofMemphis,PtahandSekhmet.ThesethreegodsformanalternativedivinefamilyparalleltoOsiris,Isis,andHorus.LikeamuletsofHorus,amuletsofNefertumwereworntoprotectayoungpersoninthislifeandinthenext.

TytAmulets:AccordingtoTheBookoftheDead,Spell156,aredjaspertytamuletwastobeplacedontheneckofthemummy.TheamuletintheshapeofthegoddessIsis’beltguaranteedherprotectionofthemummy.

EyeAmulet;FromSaqqara,EgyptPersianPeriod,525−404B.C.E.GoldCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.795E

HeartScarab;FromSaqqara,EgyptLatePeriod,Dynasty26,664–525B.C.E.SteatiteandsheetgoldCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.717E

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Substitute,Imitate,Combine,Reuse

FurnishingatombwasthebiggestexpenseinanancientEgyptian’slife.Thecoffinalonecouldcostmorethanoneyear’ssalaryforanartisan.Atleastfourstrategieswereavailabletothoseplanningtofurnishatombonabudget:theycouldsubstitute,imitate,combine,orreuse.Oftenevidenceofmorethanoneofthesestrategiesisvisibleinthesameobject.

Substitutioninvolvedchoosingacheapermaterialwheretheeliteownerwoulduseapreciousone.Substitutionsincludedfaience,mademostlyfromsand,inplaceofgoldorahard,rarestone.Orterracottacouldsubstituteforstone,withoutanyattempttodisguisethesubstitution.

Imitationmeantdecoratingonematerialasifitweresomethingmoreexpensive.Thus,aterracottajarcouldbepaintedtoimitateamorecostlygranitevessel.Inasimilarway,aterracottamummymaskcouldbepaintedyellowtoimitategold.Inonecase,awhitelimestonestatuebasewaspaintedblacktoimitateschist,ahard,blackstone,andwasthenusedtosupportarecycledschiststatue.

Combiningcouldbefollowedinthecaseofcoffinsets.Withexpensivecoffins,therewasbothaseparatelidand,insidethecoffin,amummyboard—aboardshapedintoalife‐sizefigureofthedeceaseddressedineverydayclothingandplaceddirectlyonthemummy.Buttosavemoney,thetypicalmummyboarddecorationcouldbeusedonthelid,combiningthetwo.

Finally,reuseincludedremovingthenameofapreviousownerandreinscribinganobjectforanewuser.AgovernmentprogramofrecyclingtombobjectsisknownfromtheendoftheNewKingdom,around1070B.C.E.Coffins,statues,andshabties,thefigurinesthatmagicallyactedasworkersinthenextworld,couldallbereused.

Oftenthesefourtechniqueswereusedtogether.Thesemethodsofeconomizingrevealtremendouscreativityamongthosewhodidnothavethemeanstofurnishatombaccordingtoelitestandards.

MummyMaskofaMan.FromEgypt,RomanPeriod,early1stcenturyCE.Gildedandpaintedstucco,201/4x13x77/8in.BrooklynMuseum,CharlesEdwinWilbourFund,72.57Thewealthycouldaffordgildedmummymasks,whilepoorerpeoplemodeledmummymasksfromclay.Thegildedmaskshownhereisprotectedbythewingedscarabonhishead,symbolofrebirthintothenextworld.Imagesofthedeceased’smummybeforeOsirisonthelappetsofhisheadcoveringsuggestapositivejudgmentonhisentrancetotheafterlife.Theclaymaskispaintedyellowtoimitategold,whiletheeyesarepaintedwhitewithblueoutlinestoimitateinlay.

CoffinoftheLadyoftheHouse,Weretwahset,ReinscribedforBensuipet,ContainingFaceMaskandOpenworkBodyCovering.FromDeirel‐medina,Egypt.NewKingdom,earlyDynasty19,ca.1292–1190BCE.Paintedwood(fragmentsa,b);Cartonnageandwood(fragmentc);cartonnage(fragmentd),253/8x1911/16x763/16in.

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CoffinoftheLadyoftheHouse,Weretwahset,ReinscribedforBensuipet,ContainingFaceMaskandOpenworkBodyCovering.FromDeirel‐medina,Egypt.NewKingdom,earlyDynasty19,ca.1292–1190BCE.Paintedwood(fragmentsa,b);Cartonnageandwood(fragmentc);cartonnage(fragmentd),253/8x1911/16x763/16in.BrooklynMuseum,CharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.47Ea–bInthiscoffinset,Weretwahsetcombinedthelidwiththeusuallyseparatepiececalledthemummyboard.AcoffinlidisgenerallydecoratedtopresentthedeceasedasOsiris.Here,instead,thedeceasedwearsadressshewouldhaveworninlife—animagethatmoreoftenformedthedecorationforthemummyboard,whichwouldhaverestedinsidethecoffinandontopofthemummy.BensuipeterasedWeretwahset’snamefromthecoffinandaddedherown,abouttwohundredyearsafterWeretwahsetdied.Bensuipetalsoaddedthemaskandbodycover,perhapsfromanothercoffinset.

InscriptionsonFuneraryObjects:TheStandardOfferingFormulaThestandardofferingformulaisthemostcommonofallthehieroglyphicinscriptionsontheobjectsfoundinToLiveForever.TheformulaiscomposedinMiddleEgyptian,thespokendialectinEgyptfromabout2000B.C.E.tothemid‐sixteenthcenturyB.C.E.,butalsousedasthestandardwrittenlanguageaslateastheRomanPeriod,whenthelastknowninscriptionwascomposedin395C.E.

TheEnglishtranslationofthestandardofferingformulaisasfollows: AnofferingwhichthekingandOsirisgive:mayhegiveavoiceofferingconsistingofbread,beer,oxen,fowl,

linen,andointmenttothesoulof[DECEASED’SNAME].Additionalofferingscouldbeincludedspecifyingkindsofbread,oraddingwine,andmanyotherpossibilities.Sometimes,specificnumbersofofferingsarestated,butoftentheexpression“thousandsof”isusedtodescribethenumberofofferingsgiven.Additionally,thenameofalocalgodcanoftenbesubstitutedforOsiris,thegodofthelandofthedead.

Theformulabeginswithfourhieroglyphicsigns:

Thesesignsreadhetepdinesu,or“agiftwhichthekinggives.”Theycanbearrangedfromrighttoleft,lefttoright,ortoptobottom,dependingonthelayoutoftheinscription.Readerscoulddeterminethebeginningoftheinscriptionbecausetheanimalandhumansignsfacedtowardthestartingpoint.Therepetitionofthesefoursignsmakesiteasytorecognizethestandardofferingformula.

ThefollowingistheinscriptiononthenearbyStatueofIpepiA) Anofferingwhichtheking,SobekofShedet,andHoruswhoisinShedetgive:mayhegive1,000ofbread,

beer,cattle,fowl,andointmentsforthesoul(ka)ofIpepi,engenderedbyKyku.B) 1,000bread,beer,beef,fowl,ointment,linen,divineofferingsofbreadandbeer.C) Asforanyonewhowillseethisstatue,mayyousay(theprayercalled),“Anofferingwhichthekinggives”

fortheMajor‐domo,Ipepi,engenderedbyKyku,justified[i.e.,successfullyenteredintotheafterlife].Ifyouloveyourlocalgods,mayyougivethecontentsofyourvesselsandtheliquidofyourjugs,sayingoverthem“forthesoul(ka)ofIpepi,justified.”

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Anofferingwhichtheking,SobekofShedet,andHoruswhoisinShedetgive:mayhegiveavoiceoffering[i.e.,saytheprayeroutloud]ofbread,beer,cattle,fowl,ointment,linen,everygood,purethingonwhichagodlivesforthesoul(ka)oftheMajor‐domo,Ipepi,engenderedbyKyku.

UpperPartofaFalseDoorofSethew;FromGiza,EgyptOldKingdom,Dynasty5,circa2500–2350B.C.E.Limestone,paintedCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,37.34EFalsedoorsinthetombledtotheafterlife.Theywereasuitableplaceforofferings.Sethew,averyhighpalaceofficial,heresitsbeforeanofferingtablestackedwithloavesofbreadintheshapeofthehieroglyphfortheword“field,”thesourceoffoodforofferings.Thesurroundinginscriptionpromiseshimverylargequantitiesoffood,beverages,clothing,cosmetics,andritualoilsneededintheafterlife.

ShabtyofNesi‐ta‐nebet‐Isheru,DaughterofPinezemII;FromDeirel‐Bahri,EgyptThirdIntermediatePeriod,Dynasty21,circa1075−945B.C.E.Faience,glazedandpaintedGiftofEvangelineWilbourBlashfield,TheodoraWilbour,andVictorWilbourhonoringthewishesoftheirmother,CharlotteBeebeWilbour,asamemorialtotheirfather,CharlesEdwinWilbour,16.183

Shabtieswereincludedintombstoperformagriculturalworkinplaceofthedeceasedintheafterlife.ManyofthemareinscribedwithChapter6ofTheBookoftheDead,whichsaystheywilldigirrigationditches,cultivatecrops,andcarrysand.Othersonlybearthenameandtitleoftheowner.Theearlierexamplesincludedhereareinscribedininkwhileinthelaterexamplesthetextispartofthemold,whichclearlysavedlabor.Shabtiesandscarabs,beetle‐shapedamuletsassociatedwithrebirthandthesungod,arethemostcommonEgyptianantiquitiestosurvivetomoderntimes.

TheTomb

TheancientEgyptiansconstructedthetombasahomeforthemummyandasanaidtothedeceased’srebirthintotheafterlife.Inadditiontotheindividual’smummifiedremains,thetombcontainedobjectsfromthedeceased’slifeonearthforuseinthenextlife.Theseobjectsincludedsuchgender‐specificitemsasweapons,formen,andcosmeticcontainers,mirrors,andgroomingaccessoriesforwomen.Otherobjectsinthetomb,suchascoffins,shabties,andstatues,wereexclusivelyforthenextworld.

Tombswerealsothemeansforconveyingfoodfromthisworldtotheafterlife.Thiswasachievedbymakingofferingsofactualfoodtostatues,orbyofferingrepresentationsoffood,drink,clothing,andothernecessitiesintombwallimages.Tombscontainedavarietyofvesselsforfoodanddrinkprovidedtothedeceased.

LargeOuterSarcophagusoftheRoyalPrince,CountofThebes,Pa‐seba‐khai‐en‐ipet;FromThebes,nearDeirel‐Bahri,Egypt;ThirdIntermediatePeriod,Dynasty21,circa1075−945B.C.E.;Wood,gessoedandpaintedCharlesEdwinWilbourFund,08.480.1a‐bIntheTwenty‐firstDynasty,theEgyptianelitesstoppedbuildingelaboratetombs.Instead,theytransferredthescenesnormallypaintedontombwallstothecoffin.Pa‐seba‐khai‐en‐ipet’soutercoffinshowsmultiplescenesofthegodsandthedeceasedworshippingthem.NotonlydoesthecoffinpresentthedeceasedasOsiris,butitalsoillustratesthemanygodshewillconfrontintheafterlife.Thedamagetothepaintedsurfaceontheleftsideofthecoffinhasbeenleftunrepairedtorevealhowthecarpenterspinnedsmallerpiecesofwoodtogetherwithwoodenpegstomakeacoffin.Artiststhenplasteredandpaintedthesurfacetomakeitappearsmooth.

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