TO LEARN A New Way

T O L E A R N

A New Way

Detail from—Going to the Agency to have a Big Talk

White Bear, Cheyenne • April 1885, graphite and colored pencil on paperMontana Historical Society Collection

User Guide

Provided by The Montana Historical Society Education OfficeIn recognition of the students, staff and communities of:

St. Labre Indian School, AshlandSt. Charles School, Pryor

Browning Schools, Browning

(406) 444-4789www.montanahistoricalsociety.org

Funding for the educational materials contained in this trunk were made possible through theirgenerous contributions. The citizens of Montana honor them for their commitment to teaching allof Montana's students about the contributions and heritage of Montana's American Indian tribes.

Linda McCulloch, State Superintendent, January, 2005

Funding also provided by the Office of Public Instruction

2005 The Montana Historical Society

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To Learn a New Way

Table of ContentsI. Introduction

Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Footlocker Use – Some Advice for Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Evaluation Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

MHS Educational Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Primary Sources & How to Use Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Standards and Skills for To Learn a New Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

II. Background InformationTeacher’s Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Teacher’s Narrative on Ledger Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Teacher’s Narrative on Native Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Student Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Student Narrative on Indian Boarding Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Outline for Classroom Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Vocabulary List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Amazing Montanans – Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

III. LessonsLesson 1: What is a Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Lesson 2: Losing the Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Lesson 3: The Land of Seven Reservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

Lesson 4: Sending the Bison Away . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Lesson 5: Away From Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Lesson 6: My Name is Seepeetza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Lesson 7: Drawing From Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

Lesson 8: Clothing and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Lesson 9: Do You Understand What I’m Saying? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Lesson 10: To Learn a New Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

IV. Resources & Reference MaterialsBibliographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

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To Learn a New Way

Borrower: ___________________________________________ Booking Period: ____________________

The borrower is responsible for the safe use of the footlocker and all its contents during thedesignated booking period. Replacement and/or repair for any lost items and/or damage (otherthan normal wear and tear) to the footlocker and its contents while in the borrower’s care will becharged to the borrower’s school. Please have an adult complete the footlocker inventorychecklist below, both when you receive the footlocker and when you repack it forshipping, to ensure that all of the contents are intact. After you inventory the footlockerfor shipping to the next location, please mail or fax this completed form to the Education Office.

Inventory

ITEM BEFORE AFTER CONDITION OF ITEM MHSUSE USE USE

Map - Nat. Geog.North Amer. IndianCultures

Map - Montana Highway Map 03/04

Montana’s Indian Country Informational flyer

(9) MontanaIndian ReservationLand Status Maps

Confederated Kootenai Salish:

(1) 1855

(1) 1908-1909

(1) 1910-1921

(1) 1922-1935

(2) 2004

(continued)

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To Learn a New WayInventory (continued)


(1) Blackfeet

(1) Crow

(1) Sioux-Assiniboine

Salish Culture Committee Flyer - Qeyqay (Buffalo and the Salish & Pend d’Oreille People)

Video - Blackfeet Children’s Games

Instruction Manual -Blackfeet Children’sGames

CD - Children’s Songs in Salish

Accompanying booklet- words in Salish andEnglish

CD - Intro To the Salish Language

Accompanying booklet - “From the Past …For the Future”

DVD - Contemporary Voices Along the Lewis & Clark Trail

DVD - Beyond Boarding Schools

Children’s Bow, Arrows and Quiver set [bow, quiver, 2 arrows]

Hoop and stick set [one hoop, one forkedstick]

Ya Ya doll with beaded necklace

Boy’s boarding school wool pants and jacket

(continued)

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Education Office, Montana Historical Society, PO Box 201201, Helena, MT 59620-1201Fax: 406-444-2696, Phone: 406-444-4789, [email protected]

Teachers Name_____________________________________________ Phone number __________________________________

School_____________________________________________________ Footlocker Reservation Dates ____________________

To Learn a New WayInventory (continued)


Girl’s boarding school dress

Boy’s traditional leggings

Girl’s traditional wing dress

(2) pairs of moccasins

Recognition Placque

Books:

As Long as the RiversFlow by Larry Loyie

Blackfoot Indian Reader PAM 1834

Cheyenne Againby Eve Bunting

The Ledgerbook of Thomas Blue Eagleby Matthaei andGrutman

Seepeetza by Shirley Sterling

In a folder:

4 Smithsonian Ledger Art Prints

19 Archival reproductionPhotographs

User Guide

2 padlocks

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To Learn a New Way

Footlocker Contents

Left and below: Archival photos, maps

Right: Ledger art prints, hoop game,ring-the-stick game, bow and arrow set,

Blackfeet Children’s Games video andbook, recognition placque

Above: Books, CD’s, DVD

Right: Traditional girl’s wing dress,moccasins, traditional boys leggings

(not yet pictured), girl’s boardingschool dress, boys boarding school

jacket and pants

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To Learn a New Way

Footlocker Use–Some Advice for Instructors

How do I make the best use of thefootlocker? In this User Guide you will find many toolsfor teaching with objects and primary sources.We have included teacher and student levelnarratives, as well as a classroom outline, toprovide you with background knowledge onthe topic. In section one there are introductoryworksheets on how to look at/read maps,primary documents, photographs, and artifacts.These will provide you and your studentsvaluable tools for future study. Section threecontains lesson plans for exploration of thetopic in your classroom—these lessons utilizethe objects, photographs, and documents inthe footlocker. The “Resources andReference Materials” section contains shortactivities and further exploration activities, aswell as bibliographies.

What do I do when I receive the footlocker? IMMEDIATELY upon receiving thefootlocker, take an inventory form from theenvelope inside and inventory the contents inthe “before use” column. Save the form foryour “after use” inventory. This helps uskeep track of the items in the footlockers,and enables us to trace back and find wherean item might have been lost.

What do I do when it is time to sendthe footlocker on to the next person?Carefully inventory all of the items again asyou put them in the footlocker. If any itemsshow up missing or broken at the next site,your school will be charged for the item(s).Send the inventory form back to:

Education Office, Montana Historical Society,Box 201201, Helena, MT 59620-1201 orfax at (406) 444-2696.

Who do I send the footlocker to?At the beginning of the month you received aconfirmation form from the Education Office.On that form you will find information aboutto whom to send the footlocker, with amailing label to affix to the top of thefootlocker. Please insure the footlocker for$1000 with UPS (we recommend UPS, asthey are easier and more reliable then the USPostal Service) when you mail it. This makescertain that if the footlocker is lost on its wayto the next school, UPS will pay for it andnot your school.

What do I do if something is missingor broken when the footlockerarrives, or is missing or brokenwhen it leaves my classroom? If an item is missing or broken when youinitially inventory the footlocker, CONTACTUS IMMEDIATELY (406-444-4789), inaddition to sending us the completed (beforeand after use) inventory form. This allows usto track down the missing item. It may alsorelease your school from the responsibility ofpaying to replace a missing item. Ifsomething is broken during its time in yourclassroom, please call us and let us know sothat we can have you send us the item forrepair. If an item turns up missing when youinventory before sending it on, please searchyour classroom. If you cannot find it, yourschool will be charged for the missing item.

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To Learn a New Way

Footlocker Evaluation Form____________________________________________________________ ______________________Evaluator’s Name Footlocker Name

____________________________________________________________ ______________________School Name Phone

___________________________________________ ________________ ______________________Address City Zip Code

1. How did you use the material? (choose all that apply)■■ School-wide exhibit ■■ Classroom exhibit ■■ “Hands-on” classroom discussion

■■ Supplement to curriculum ■■ Other___________________________________________

2. How would you describe the audience/viewer? (choose all that apply)■■ Pre-school students ■■ Grade school—Grade____ ■■ High school—Grade____

■■ College students ■■ Seniors ■■ Mixed groups ■■ Special interest

■■ Other____________________________________________________________________________

2a. How many people viewed/used the footlocker?______

3. Which of the footlocker materials were most engaging?■■ Artifacts ■■ Documents ■■ Photographs ■■ Lessons ■■ Video

■■ Audio Cassette ■■ Books ■■ Slides ■■ Other______________________

4. Which of the User Guide materials were most useful?■■ Narratives ■■ Lessons ■■ Resource Materials ■■ Biographies/Vocabulary■■ Other____________________________________________________________________________

5. How many class periods did you devote to using the footlocker?■■ 1-3 ■■ 4-6 ■■ More than 6 ■■ Other________

6. What activities or materials would you like to see added to this footlocker?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

(continued)

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7. Would you request this footlocker again? If not, why?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. What subject areas do you think should be addressed in future footlockers?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. What were the least useful aspects of the footlocker/User Guide?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Other comments.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

To Learn a New WayFootlocker Evaluation Form (continued)

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To Learn a New Way

Montana Historical Society Educational ResourcesFootlockers, Slides, and Videos

FootlockersArchitecture: It’s All Around You—Explores the different architectural styles and elements ofbuildings, urban and rural, plus ways in which we can preserve buildings for future generations.

Cavalry and Infantry: The U.S. Military on the Montana Frontier—Illustrates the functionof the U.S. military and the life of an enlisted man on Montana’s frontier, 1860 to 1890.

Coming to Montana: Immigrants from Around the World—Showcases the culture,countries, traditions, and foodways of Montana’s immigrants through reproduction clothing, toys,and activities.

Contemorary American Indians in Montana—Highlights the renaissance of Montana’sIndian cultures and their efforts to maintain their identities and traditions.

Discover the Corps of Discovery: The Lewis and Clark Expedition in Montana—Tracesthe Corps’ journey through Montana and their encounters with American Indians. Includes bisonhide, trade goods, books, and more!

East Meets West: The Chinese Experience in Montana—Explores the lives of the Chinesewho came to Montana, the customs that they brought with them to America, how theycontributed to Montana communities, and why they left.

From Traps to Caps: The Montana Fur Trade—Gives students a glimpse at how fur traderslived and made their living along the creeks and valleys of Montana, 1810-1860.

Gold, Silver, and Coal—Oh My!: Mining Montana’s Wealth—Chronicles the discoveriesthat drew people to Montana in the late 19th century and how the mining industry developedand declined.

Inside and Outside the Home: Homesteading in Montana 1900-1920—Focuses on thethousands of people who came to Montana’s plains in the early 20th century in hope of make aliving through dry-land farming.

Lifeways of Montana’s First People—Emphasizes the various tribal lifeways of the peoplewho utilized the land we now know as Montana in the years around 1800.

(continued)

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Prehistoric Life in Montana—Exposes Montana prehistory (10,000-12,000 years ago) andarchaeology through a study of the Pictograph Cave prehistoric site.

Stones and Bones: Prehistoric Tools from Montana’s Past—Uncovers Montana’sprehistory and archaeology through a study of reproduction stone and bone tools. Contains castsand reproductions from the Anzick collection found in Wilsall, Montana.

The Cowboy Artist: A View of Montana History—Presents over 40 Charles M. Russellprints and hands-on artifacts that open a window into Montana history by discussing Russell’s artand how he interpreted aspects of Montana history.

The Home Fires: Montana and World War II—Describes aspects of everyday life inMontana life during the 1941-1945 war years. Illustrates the little-known government projectssuch as the Fort Missoula Alien Detention Center and Civilian Public Service Camps.

The Treasure Chest: A Look at the Montana State Symbols—Provides hands-oneducational activities that foster a greater appreciation of our state’s symbols and their meanings.

To Learn a New Way—Through a child's voice, as much as possible, this footlocker exploresthe late 1800’s and early 1900’s time in which Montana Indians were moved to reservations,experienced allotment and and boarding schools - all of which resulted in dramatic changes intheir lands, languages, and way of life.

Tools of the Trade: Montana Industry and Technology—Surveys the evolution of tools andtechnology in Montana from late 1700s to the present.

Woolies and Whinnies: The Sheep and Cattle Industry in Montana—Reveals thefascinating stories of cattle, horse, and sheep ranching in Montana, 1870 to 1920.

(continued)

To Learn a New WayEducational Resources Footlockers, Slides, and Videos (continued)

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SLIDE UNITS

Children in Montana—Presents life in Montana through photographic images of children.

Fight for Statehood and Montana’s Capital—Outlines how Montana struggled to become astate and to select its capital city.

Frontier Towns—Illustrates the development, character, and design of early Montanacommunities.

Jeannette Rankin: Woman of Peace—Portrays the life and political influence of the firstwoman elected to Congress.

Native Americans Lose Their Lands—Examines the painful transition for native peoples toreservations.

Power Politics in Montana—Covers the period when the copper industry influenced statepolitics.

The Depression in Montana—Examines the Depression and federal project successes inMontana.

The Energy Industry—Discusses the history and future of the energy industry in Montana.

Transportation—Describes the development and influence of transportation in the state.

(continued)


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VIDEOS Bella Vista—Reveals the story of 1,000 Italian detainees at Fort Missoula’s Alien DetentionCenter between 1941 and 1943.

For This and Future Generations—Tells the compelling story of 100 grassroots delegatesand a staff of some of the best and brightest young people under the Big Sky, who gathered inHelena in 1972 for what many would recall as the proudest time of their lives. Their task: tore-write the lumbering, old state constitution. Two months later, all 100 delegates unanimouslysigned a document that would affect the lives of generations of Montanans to come.

Hands-On History!—Teaches how history can be fun through the experiences of ten Montanakids as they pan for gold, go on an architectural scavenger hunt, and commune with formerresidents in Virginia City. Accompanied by lesson plans.

“I’ll ride that horse!” Montana Women Bronc Riders—Captures the exciting skills anddaring exploits of Montana’s rich tradition of women bronc riders who learned to rope, break,and ride wild horses, told in their own words.

Montana: 1492—Describes the lifeways of Montana’s first people through the words of theirdescendants.

Montana Defined by Images: An Artist’s Impression—Surveys Montana’s artisticlandscape over the last 30 years and looks at the work of contemporary Montana artists and theways in which they explore issues of transition and conflicting needs in a changing physical andcultural landscape.

Montana State Capitol Restoration—Captures the history, art, and architecture ofMontana’s State Capitol prior to the 1999 restoration. Created by students at Capital HighSchool in Helena.

People of the Hearth—Features the role of the hearth in the lives of southwestern Montana’sPaleoindians.

Russell and His Work—Depicts the life and art of Montana’s cowboy artist, Charles M.Russell.

Sacagawea of the Northern Shoshoni—Traces the amazing life story of Sacagawea andher experiences with Lewis and Clark Expedition. Created by students at Sacajawea MiddleSchool in Bozeman.

The Sheepeaters: Keepers of the Past—Documents the lifeways of a group of reclusiveShoshone-speaking Indians known as the Sheepeaters. Modern archaeology and anthropology,along with firsthand accounts of trappers and explorers, help to tell their story.


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To Learn a New Way

Primary Sources and How to Use Them

The Montana Historical Society Education Office has prepared a series of worksheets tointroduce you and your students to the techniques of investigating historical items: artifacts,documents, maps, and photographs. The worksheets introduce students to the common practiceof using artifacts, documents, maps, and photographs to reveal historical information. Throughthe use of these worksheets, students will acquire skills that will help them better understand thelessons in the User Guide. Students will also be able to take these skills with them to futurelearning, i.e. research and museum visits. These worksheets help unveil the secrets of artifacts,documents, maps, and photographs.

See the examples below for insight into using theseworksheets.

ArtifactsPictured at left is an elk-handled spoon, one of 50,000 artifactspreserved by the Montana Historical Society Museum. Here are somethings we can decipher just by observing it: It was hand-carved from ananimal horn. It looks very delicate.

From these observations, we might conclude that the spoon wasprobably not for everyday use, but for special occasions. Furtherresearch has told us that it was made by a Sioux Indian around 1900.This artifact tells us that the Sioux people carved ornamental items, theyused spoons, and they had a spiritual relationship with elk.

PhotographsThis photograph is one of 350,000 in the MontanaHistorical Society Photographic Archives. After looking atthe photograph, some of the small “secrets” that we canfind in it include: the shadow of the photographer, therough fence in the background, the belt on the woman’sskirt, and the English-style riding saddle.

Questions that might be asked of the woman in the photoare: Does it take a lot of balance to stand on a horse, is ithard? Was it a hot day? Why are you using an English-style riding saddle?

MO

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(continued)

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Documents

This document is part of the MontanaHistorical Society’s archival collection.Reading the document can give us a lot ofinformation: It is an oath pledging to catchthieves. It was signed by 23 men inDecember of 1863. It mentions secrecy, soobviously this document was only meant tobe read by the signers.

Further investigation tell us that this is theoriginal Vigilante Oath signed by the VirginiaCity Vigilantes in 1863. The two things thisdocument tell us about life in Montana in the1860s are: there were lots of thieves inVirginia City and that traditional lawenforcement was not enough, so citizens tookto vigilance to clean up their community.

MapsThis map is part of the map collection of the Library of Congress. Information that can begathered from observing the map includes: The subject of the map is the northwestern region ofthe United States—west of the Mississippi River. The map is dated 1810 and was drawn byWilliam Clark. The three things that are important about this map are: it shows that there is noall-water route to the Pacific Ocean, it documents the Rocky Mountains, and it shows the manytributaries of the Missouri River.

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To Learn a New WayPrimary Sources and How to Use Them (continued)

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To Learn a New Way

How to Look at an Artifact(Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Artifact Analysis Worksheet.)

Artifact: An object produced or shaped by human workmanship of archaeological orhistorical interest.

1. What materials were used to make this artifact?

■■ Bone

■■ Pottery

■■ Metal

■■ Wood

■■ Stone

■■ Leather

■■ Glass

■■ Paper

■■ Cardboard

■■ Cotton

■■ Plastic

2. Describe how it looks and feels:

Shape ____________________________________

Color _____________________________________

Texture ___________________________________

Size ______________________________________

Weight____________________________________

Moveable Parts ____________________________

Anything written, printed, or stamped on it

__________________________________________

■■ Other_______________________

Draw and color pictures of the object from the top, bottom, and side views.

Top Bottom Side

(continued)

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3. Uses of the Artifacts.

A. How was this artifact used? __________________________________________________________

B. Who might have used it?_____________________________________________________________

C. When might it have been used?_______________________________________________________

D. Can you name a similar item used today? _____________________________________________

4. Sketch the object you listed in question 3.D.

5. Classroom DiscussionA. What does the artifact tell us about technology of the time in which it was

made and used?

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

B. What does the artifact tell us about the life and times of the people who made and used it?

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

To Learn a New WayHow to Look at an Artifact (continued)

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To Learn a New Way

How to Look at a Photograph(Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Photograph Analysis Worksheet.)

Photograph: an image recorded by a camera and reproduced on a photosensitive surface.

1. Spend some time looking at the whole photograph. Now look at the smallest thing in the photograph that you can find.

What secrets do you see? ____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Can you find people, objects, or activities in the photograph? List them below.

People _____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Objects_____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Activities ___________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

3. What questions would you like to ask of one of the people in the photograph?

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

4. Where could you find the answers to your questions?

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

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To Learn a New Way

■■ Stamps

■■ Other _________________________

■■ Letterhead

■■ Handwriting

■■ Typed Letters

■■ Seal

2. Which of the following is on the document:

How to Look at a Written Document(Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Written Analysis Worksheet.)

Document: A written paper bearing the original, official, or legal form of something and which can beused to furnish decisive evidence or information.

1. Type of document:

■■ Newspaper

■■ Letter

■■ Patent

■■ Journal

■■ Map

■■ Telegram

■■ Press Release

■■ Advertisement

■■ Diary

■■ Census Record

■■ Other__________________________

3. Date or dates of document: ________________________________________________

4. Author or creator:__________________________________________________________

5. Who was supposed to read the document? ________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. List two things the author said that you think are important:

1. __________________________________________________________________________

2. __________________________________________________________________________

7. List two things this document tells you about life in Montana at the

time it was written:

1. __________________________________________________________________________

2. __________________________________________________________________________

8. Write a question to the author left unanswered by the document:

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

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To Learn a New Way

How to Look at a Map(Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Map Analysis Worksheet.)

Map: A representation of a region of the earth or stars.

1. What is the subject of the map?

3. Date of map: _______________________________________________________________

4. Mapmaker: _________________________________________________________________

5. Where was the map made: _________________________________________________

6. List three things on this map that you think are important: ______________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Why do you think this map was drawn? ___________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Write a question to the mapmaker that is left unanswered by the map.

_____________________________________________________________________________

■■ Compass

■■ Date

■■ Notes

■■ Scale

■■ Key

■■ Title

■■ Name of mapmaker

■■ Other ______________________________

2. Which of the following items is on the map?

■■ River

■■ Prairie

■■ Stars/Sky

■■ Town

■■ Mountains

■■ Other ________________________________

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To Learn a New Way

Standards and Skills

State 4th Grade Social Studies Standards

Lesson Number: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Students access, synthesize, andevaluate information to communicateand apply social studies knowledge toreal world situations.

Students analyze how people createand change structures of power,authority, and governance tounderstand the operation ofgovernment and to demonstrate civicresponsibility.

Students apply geographic knowledgeand skill (e.g., location, place,human/environment interactions,movement, and regions).

Students demonstrate anunderstanding of the effects of time,continuity, and change on historicaland future perspectives andrelationships.

Students make informed decisionsbased on an understanding of theeconomic principles of production,distribution, exchange, andconsumption.

Students demonstrate anunderstanding of the impact of humaninteraction and cultural diversity onsocieties.

(continued)

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Skill Areas

Lesson Number: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔

✔

✔

Using primary documents

Using objects

Using photographs

Art

Science

Math

Reading/writing

Map Skills

Drama, performance, re-creation

Group work

Research

Music

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Field Trip

To Learn a New WayStandards and Skills (continued)

— 22 —

When newcomers to this country first arrived,they began settling in the coastal areas neartheir places of arrival. Indian people watchedthem and at times made contact with them.Initially, there was no formal agreement fortaking lands to occupy. “Early in the periodof discovery of the New World, the papacyarticulated the Doctrine of Discovery, whichannounced that Christian princes discoveringnew lands had a recognized title to them,subject to the willingness of the originalinhabitants to sell their lands to thediscoverer.” (The Nations Within, Deloria &Lytle, p.2)

As more strangers began to not only occupytribal lands but also to displace Indianpeople, conflicts arose which sometimes ledto physical resistance. Parallel to theconflicts between invading Europeancountries and Indian Nations, was the powerstruggle among the European Nations.France, Spain, and England were all trying togain dominance of North America. “WiseIndian leaders sensed the danger of beingswept into this power struggle. ‘Why do notyou and the French fight in the old countryand the sea?’ the Deleware Chief Shingasasked the British in 1758. ‘Why do youcome to fight on our land? This makeseverybody believe you want to take the landfrom us by force and settle it.’ ” (NativeAmerican Testimony, Nabokov, p.91) Tribeswere persuaded to take sides betweenEngland and France and then later betweenEngland and the colonists. All the while,increasing settlement required negotiatingmore formal agreements for land acquisitionto avoid dispute or war. Consequently,European monarchs began to enter intotreaties with tribes through theirrepresentatives among their colonizing

populations. Treaty Law can be traced backto Spain, and treaties with American IndianNations were based on three fundamentalprinciples:

1. That both parties to treaties weresovereign powers

2. That Indian Tribes had some form oftransferable title to the land

3. That acquisition of Indian lands wassolely a government matter not to beleft to individual colonists.

As the new nation of America evolved, thesethree principles continued as a young UnitedStates government developed. The firsttreaty made between an Indian nation andthe new United States government was in1778. Later, “In the Northwest Ordinance of1787, Congress set forth principles forgoverning its landholdings west of theAppalachian Mountains, the United Statespromised that ‘the utmost good faith shallalways be observed towards the Indians; theirland and property shall never be taken fromthem without their consent.’ But after 1800,treaties were contracted more in haste thangood faith. Between 1800 and 1812, forinstance, William Henry Harrison,superintendent of the Northwest Indians andgovernor of Indiana Territory, negotiated andspeedily signed fifteen treaties with tribeswho thereby yielded all of present-dayIndiana, Illinois, a sizable chunk of Ohio, andportions of Michigan and Wisconsin – at theprice of about a penny an acre.” (NativeAmerican Testimony, Peter Nabokov, p.119)

“Our land is more valuable than yourmoney. It will last forever. It will not evenperish by the flames of fire. As long as thesun shines and the waters flow, this land

Teacher Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment

(continued)

To Learn a New Way

— 23 —

To Learn a New WayTeacher Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment (continued)

will be here to give life to men andanimals. We cannot sell this land. It wasput here by the Great Spirit and we cannotsell it because it does not belong to us.You can count your money and burn itwithin the nod of a buffalo’s head, but onlythe Great Spirit can count the grains ofsand and the blades of grass of theseplains. As a present to you, we will giveyou anything we have that you can takewith you; but the land, never.”

—Chief of the Black feet Tribe on being askedto sign a treaty ceding land. (American Indian

Tribal Governments, Sharon O’Brien, p. 70)

The Treaty Period with American Indiansformally ended in 1871. Three hundred andseventy-four treaties had been entered into assolemn obligations between American IndianNations and the United States government.Treaty Law was identified in the United StatesConstitution as the Supreme Law of the Land.This Supremacy Clause recognized that thestatus of agreements between nations wasabove that of state laws and jurisdictions.Defining the status of treaty law is critical toTribes today as they exercise their right toself-govern.

At the end of the treaty period in 1871, there

were six Indian reservations that had beenestablished in the state of Montana. TheRocky Boy Reservation was established byExecutive Order in 1916. It is a commonmisconception that Tribes were given land bythe government through treaties. On thecontrary, Tribes actually ceded large tracts oftheir homelands in exchange for landsreserved within their treaties with the UnitedStates government. Some Tribes were able toreserve lands that were part of theiraboriginal homelands. Other Tribes hadalready been displaced from their ancestralhomelands at the time of the treaty period,and reserved lands in place of their home thatthey had been exiled from. A list of thestate’s reservations and Tribes are shownbelow.

Reservation Tribal Group/s

Flathead Salish, Pend d’Oreille, Kootenai

Blackfeet Blackfeet

Rocky Boy Chippewa, Cree

Fort Belknap Gros Ventres, Assiniboine

Fort Peck Assiniboine, Sioux

Northern Cheyenne Northern Cheyenne

Crow Crow

Blackfeet Reservation

Rocky Boy’s Reservation

Flathead Reservation

Fort Belknap Reservation

Fort Peck Reservation

Crow Reservation

Northern Cheyenne Reservation

Glacier

National

Park

Yellowstone National Park

Kalispell

Great Falls

Helena

Missoula

Butte

Bozeman

(continued)

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The Tribes in Montana had enjoyed expansiveTribal territories that supported a hunting andgathering lifestyle. Many of the Tribesdepended on bison and big game animals forthe bulk of their economy. Confinement tomuch smaller reservation lands greatlyimpacted Tribes’ abilities to provide for theircommunities through their traditionalsubsistence lifestyles. While the reservationsystem imposed an impoverished economyupon many Tribes, Tribal cultures andlanguages persisted in spite of the hardships.The persistence of Indian traditions, customsand religious practices troubled the settlersand the government. Native beliefs,languages, and lifestyles were consideredinferior and uncivilized by the Europeanimmigrants. Moving Indian people toreservations did not resolve what came to becalled the “Indian problem”. “Inasmuch asthe Indian refused to fade out, but multipliedunder the sheltering care of reservationlife…either he must be endured as a lawlesssavage, a constant menace to civilized life, orhe must be fitted to become part of that lifeand be absorbed into it.” (Senator HenryDawes).

The government began to search for newways to change the life ways of AmericanIndians and assimilate them into mainstreamAmerica. “In our intercourse with the Indiansit must always be borne in mind that we arethe most powerful party…we assume that it isour duty to coerce them if necessary, into theadoption and practice of our habits andcustoms.” (Secretary of the Interior ColumbusDelando, 1872 as cited in Spicer, 1982, p.182) This duty became a legislative strategyas outlined in the Dawes Act of 1887.Provisions of the Act called for the survey anddivision of reservation lands into individualallotments for tribal members. It was hopedthat Indian people would adapt more quicklyto an agricultural lifestyle if families andadults had their own property. Heads of

households received 160 acres and unmarriedtribal members over the age of 18 received80 acres. These allotments were held in trustby the government for 25 years. At the end ofthis time period, if the owner weredetermined to be competent, they wouldreceive title to the land to keep it or sell it asdesired. When allotted lands passed out oftrust, they began to incur property taxes.Some tribal members utilized their lands toacquire bank loans or store credit. Indianpeople often lost their land to taxes or debtor both.

On reservations with desirable agriculturalacreage, lands that were not allotted weredeclared “surplus” and opened up to whitesettlement, despite treaty guarantees such asthe following one in the 1855 Treaty of HellGate with the Salish, Pend d’Oreille andKootenai Tribes:

“All which tract shall be set apart, and so faras necessary, surveyed and marked out forthe exclusive use and benefit of saidconfederated tribes as an Indian reservation.Nor shall any white man, excepting those inthe employment of the Indian department, bepermitted to reside upon the reservationwithout permission of the confederated tribes,and the superintendent and the agent.”Treaty of Hell Gate Article II

Within the first three years of openingreservation lands to white settlers, 1889-1891, twelve million acres were lost. By1934 over two-thirds of reservation lands inthe United States left Tribal control. On theFlathead Indian Reservation, 70% of theTribes’ reserved land passed out of tribalownership. Much of the good agriculturalland was put in a lottery for homesteaders.Some lands were set aside for town sites,utilities, reservoirs, and 18,521 acres weresurveyed for a national bison range. FlatheadReservation lands were sold for $1.25 anacre for grazing, $2.50 for second-class


(continued)

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agricultural, and $5.00 an acre for first-classagricultural tracts. Much of the revenue fromthese “surplus” land sales went to building anirrigation system, which, ironically ended upproviding water to more non-Indians than totribal members.

The original intent of the Dawes Act was toencourage Indian people to make thetransition to a farming or ranching lifestyle.However, prior to allotment andhomesteading, many Tribes were making adecent living at farming and ranching. IndianAgent Richard Lansdale remarked on thePend d’Oreille’s farming efforts. “Their cropsin 1856 were so abundant as to supply muchof their food.” Additionally, they had a horseherd of approximately 3,000 and fourhundred head of cattle. From 1875 to 1904the number of cultivated acres increased from2,000 acres to 20,000. So while the originalintention of the Dawes Act had already beenrealized without allotment, there were anumber of people who were alreadyspeculating lands within reservationboundaries. “The opening of the FlatheadIndian Reservation will do more to stimulatebusiness in Western Montana than anythingelse possibly can.” (C.H. McLeod 1904)

“It begins to look as if there were a fairprospect of this immense reservation beingthrown open in spite of the obstinacy of theCrows in refusing to treat with the IndianCommission last summer. A wellauthenticated report comes that SecretaryTeller, will recommend in his annual reportthe cutting down of the great Crowreservation which now amounts to about3,000 acres to each Indian. He says thatwhile the whole power of government is justnow being exerted to hinder a white manfrom getting more than 160 acres of land,although he may be ready to make itproductive at once, here is sentiment whichdemands that an Indian shall not keep 1,000acres or more which he makes no use of and

is willing to part with if he is left alone. He isin favor of cutting down all the greatreservations to the actual needs of theIndians, paying them just what the surplus isworth and spending the money for theeducation of their children and furnishingthem supplies, farming implements, etc. Hedoes not regard it as a matter of sentiment,but good public policy and common businesssense.” (Daily Herald, Billings, Montana,October 23, 1884.)

Tribes were opposed to having their landsdivided and then declared “surplus” andopened to white settlement. Tribal leaderstraveled to Washington DC to protest, buttheir words fell on deaf ears. “Thefundamental effect of the law remainedconstant: Indians without legal or politicalrecourse, were deprived of tribal land”(Burton M. Smith). Rocky Boy was the onlyreservation not allotted. The Fort Belknapand Northern Cheyenne Reservations wereallotted but surplus lands were not opened upfor sale to non-Indians. Following is a listingof land ownership status on Montana’s sevenreservations. (Please note that land status isin a state of change as Tribes are aggressivelybuying back land.)

Losing the land forced many tribal membersto sell off large horse and cattle herds thatthey had once grazed together in a large herdon communal reservation lands. The divisionof lands under allotment and thenhomesteading actually had the opposite effectof the stated intention of the law. Allotmentinduced a state of poverty on reservations.

Indian people were in a state of adjustment toconfinement to reservations and a new typeof economy when they were faced with a newchallenge. An agricultural economy hadintroduced Tribes to a different way to makea living, but it had not succeeded inextinguishing their traditional and culturalbeliefs and practices. While Indian people


(continued)

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engaged in farming and ranching, theyremained unique as Indian people. They hadnot assimilated into mainstream America.Indian people maintained their languages,cultures, and traditional practices even underextreme stress and radical change.

In 1819, Congress had appropriated$10,000 for “introducing among them (theIndians) the habits and arts of civilization.”This fund came to be known as theCivilization Fund, and was allocated tomissionary schools providing education toIndian children. Educational goals were toeliminate tribal culture and identity. Federal

Industrial Schools were later begun in 1870with a $100,000 Congressionalappropriation. General Pratt in Carlisle,Pennsylvania started the first Federal off-reservation boarding school in 1878. Pratt’smotto was “Kill the Indian and save theman.”

In 1888 school attendance was madecompulsory for Indian children and childrenas young as six years old were sent to schoolsfar from home. Their school day consisted ofan equal amount of instruction and work.The labor of children ran most schools.Overcrowded dormitories and malnutrition

caused the spread of tuberculosis andtrachoma in some schools. Some childrendied at boarding school, and were notreturned home, but were buried in a cemeteryat the school.

While some schools are remembered byformer students living today as places thatgave them survival skills needed for achanging world, other schools imbuememories of shame and abuse. In 1929 theBrookings Institute conducted a thoroughreview on Indian Affairs. The chapter on

Indian Education was an indictment of 50years of assimilationist policies. Someschools were feeding students on 9 cents aday – a diet that resulted in malnutrition andillness. “A Red Cross investigator who visitedRice Boarding School in Arizona in the mid-twenties reported that the diet of childrenconsisted of bread, black coffee and syrup forbreakfast; bread and boiled potatoes fordinner; more bread and boiled potatoes forsupper. In addition, there was enough milkfor each child to have a quarter of a cup each


(continued)

Reservation Total Acreage % Trust Lands % Fee Lands(Tribal & Individual) (Non-Indian,

State & Federal Govt.)

Blackfeet 1.5 million 65% 35%

Crow 2.3 million 68% 32%

Flathead 1.2 million 60% 40%

Fort Belknap 650,000 96% 4%

Fort Peck 2.1 million 44% 56%

Northern Cheyenne 445,000 98% 2%

Rocky Boy 108,000 100% 0%

— 27 —

meal, but the big children received all of thesupply and the little ones received none. Thisdiet enabled the school to feed the childrenon an average of nine cents a day.”(American Indian Education, M. Szaz, 1972,p.28) Vocational training that was beingprovided, was outdated, such as harnessmaking and left students ill-equipped foremployment.

Many parents did not want their children sentaway, and some children were hidden whenthe Indian Agent came for them. Whenparents refused to send their children, theywere deprived of much needed rations orjailed. Students resisted their circumstancesat school by running away, but theconsequence of desertion was harsh andsevere. “Two of our girls ran away but theygot caught. They had their legs tied up, tiedtheir hands behind their backs, put them inthe middle of the hallway so that if they fell,fell asleep or something, the matron wouldhear them and she’d get out there and whipthem and make them stand up again.”(Helen Ward, Makah, Interview with CarolynMarr)

The Boarding School era is a dark period ofhistory for American Indians. Impacts ofboarding school practices are evident today inthe tragic language loss among many tribes.Personal impacts are still felt within manyfamilies whose lives were shattered by theemotional violence they endured with thetheft of their children, and for the children thetheft of their parents. Indian communities inthe United States and Canada are stillworking to recover and heal from this time.

1The concept of “holding land in trust” camefrom the 1831Supreme Court rulings of ChiefJustice John Marshall. In 1830, the state ofGeorgia passed a statute in an attempt toprevent the Cherokee Tribe from operatingunder their own constitution. Georgia state

officials were trying to enforce and executelaws within Cherokee territory with theintention of forcing the Cherokee to“abandon their homes and surrender theirright to self-govern.” (The Nations Within,Deloria & Lytle p.16) Chief Justice Marshallstated that “Indian nations had always beenconsidered as distinct, independent politicalcommunities, retaining their original rights, asthe undisputed possessors of the soil, fromtime immemorial…” (The Nations Within,Deloria & Lytle p.17) The status of IndianTribes became defined as Chief JusticeMarshall attempted to describe therelationship of Indian nations and the UntiedStates. Marshall likened the relationship as“that of a ward to his guardian…of a nationclaiming and receiving the protection of onemore powerful.” Marshall’s decision assertedthat this “protectorate relationship” did notdiminish the Tribe’s right to self-govern.(American Indian Tribal Governments,O’Brien, p. 58) The Marshall decisions wereto forever set the course for Federal IndianPolicy.

The concept of the ward-guardian relationshipremains today between Tribes and the UnitedStates government. Tribal lands and someTribal revenue are still “held in trust” by thegovernment. The intention is to safeguardthem from inappropriate use or exploitation.This intention is being dramaticallyquestioned in the Eloise Cabel lawsuit thatexposed the government’s mishandling ofmillions of tribal dollars. Ms. Cabel is aBlackfeet Tribal member who discovered thatrevenue belonging to individual tribalmembers was not in their accounts. Uponfurther investigation, she uncovered astaggering amount of revenue from triballandholdings had literally disappeared. Todate the Department of Interior has beenunable to answer where these Tribal dollarshave gone.


— 28 —

To Learn a New Way

Visual records of history were done by manytribes. Pictographs, petroglyphs, and wintercounts recorded important events and keptsignificant details of what were primarily oraltribal histories. When a number of warriorsfrom different tribes were imprisoned at FortMarion on Augustine, Florida, they were givenledger books to use as drawing paper. TheIndian prisoners were under the guard ofCaptain Richard Pratt, who later establishedCarlisle Industrial School. Pratt began his

intention of educating the prisoners and createda schedule of study for them, including art.

Beautiful and detailed drawings of tribalmemories of family, battles, buffalo hunts, andhomelands filled ledger books with an Indianaccount of a vanishing way of life. Perhapsthrough this remembering something wassaved. Pratt believed there was a market fortheir drawings and many ledger books weresold.

Teacher Narrative on Ledger Art

Detail from—Going to the Agency to have a Big Talk, White Bear, Cheyenne,April 1885, graphite and colored pencil on paper.

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To Learn a New Way

Prior to contact with Europeans, there wereover 300 Native languages spoken in NorthAmerica. Of these numbers, perhaps 210different native languages are still spoken inthe Untied States and Canada. The questionbefore American Indian, First Nation, andAlaska Native people today is: How long willthese remaining languages survive?

Dr. Michael Kraus, Director of the AlaskaNative Language Center, has createdcategories that describe the viability andvitality of these remaining 210 nativelanguages. Category A describes languagesthat are still being learned by children in thetraditional way. Category A includes thesmallest number of Native languages and only11% of the native languages in the UnitedStates are being learned this way. Thatpercentage translates to about 20 languages.In Canada, the numbers are higher; about30% of First Nation languages are beinglearned this way.

Languages that are spoken by the parentgeneration make up Category B. Thiscategory includes about 30 languages in boththe United States and Canada. Regrettably,the largest category is Category C, whichconsists of languages spoken by middle-agedor the grandparental generations and olderonly. While the numbers in this category arehigh, this is not indicative of a positivesituation or opportunity for any of theselanguages. According to Dr. Krauss, “…itdoes not make a difference if such a languagehas a million speakers or a hundred. If alanguage of a million people is not spoken byanyone under fifty, then it is not going to lastvery much longer than such a languagespoken by a hundred people.” (Stabilizing

Indigenous Languages p.17) Thepercentages of this category are similar inboth the United States and Canada.

The fourth category describes nativelanguages spoken by only a few of the veryoldest people. Elders of such languagecategories have little opportunity to use thelanguage. In California there are 40 suchlanguages that are remembered by at leastone or two people in their eighties.

The last category, Category E, consists oflanguages that are extinct.

Early educational efforts including bothmissionary and government boarding schools,made intentional efforts to eradicate nativelanguages and replace all literacy withEnglish. As language and culture are sointerconnected, native languages became atarget in the country’s assimilationist goal forIndian children.

“Now, by educating the children of thesetribes in the English language thesedifferences would have disappeared, andcivilization would have followed at once…

Through sameness of language is producedsameness of sentiment, and thought; customsand habits are molded and assimilated in thesame way, and thus in process of time thedifferences producing trouble would havebeen gradually obliterated…

In the difference of language today lies two-thirds of our trouble… Schools should beestablished, which children should be requiredto attend; their barbarous dialect should beblotted out and the English languagesubstituted.” (President Grant, Report of theIndian Peace Commissioners, 1868, pp.16-17)

Teacher Narrative on Native Languages

(continued)

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“The instruction of Indians in the vernacular isnot only of no use to them, but is detrimentalto the cause of their education andcivilization, and no school will be permittedon the reservation in which the Englishlanguage is not exclusively taught.” (J.D.C.Atkins, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1887Report, pp.xxi-xxiii)

Both President Grant and CommissionerAtkins had their goals realized when thegovernment instituted compulsory schoolattendance of Indian children in 18__. Asnoted in the beginning statistics, schools wereextremely effective in eliminating and mortallywounding native languages. In Montanatoday, the only Tribe that has childrenentering school speaking their native languageis the Crow Tribe. However, even the Croware feeling the impacts on their languagesstability and, for the first time since timeimmemorial they are witnessing children whoare not fluent in their native language.

In Browning several visionary people includingDarrel Robes Kipp and Dorothy Still Smokingengaged in a desperate, but powerful attemptto create fluent speakers among the childrenin their community. With no tribal fundingand financial support coming only from the

private sector, they started the Real SpeaksSchool. Using the Maori and Hawaiianlanguage immersion models, they havesuccessfully supported language acquisitionfor over _ years. Due to their success, theyopened a second school in order to serve thenumber of students applying.

Following their lead, four young people on theFlathead Indian reservation are in the thirdyear of operating Nkwusm, a Salish languageimmersion school for 3-6 year olds. Currently21 students attend the school. Darrell Kippand the success of the Real Speaks School inBrowning inspired and guided these youngpeople to take action. On the Flathead IndianReservation today, there are approximately60 fluent Salish speakers. Most of these 60speakers are over 50 years old.

The culture and language loss that missionaryand government boarding schoolsintentionally and purposefully contributed toremains as a deep wound in Indiancommunities today. The additional emotional,psychological and physical abuse that childrenendured is a recent history and living memory.Many grandparents of school children todaycarry the untold stories like that ofSeepeetza’s.

To Learn a New WayTeacher Narrative on Native Languages (continued)

— 31 —

To Learn a New Way

Shaping SurvivalAn excerpt from author Lydia Whirlwind Soldier

Used with author’s permission.

“In writing my story I wrestled with telling the whole story

because of the repercussions from the Catholic community here

on the Rosebud Reservation, but I made the resolution not to

spare the worst because I am writing my story for the children

who suffered in the boarding schools. For those children whose

stories will never be told, for those of us who still suffer from

post-traumatic stress, for the generations who stand on the

street corners and dig in trash for aluminum cans to sell, for

those who deaden their pain with alcohol and drugs and for their

families who have suffered from generations of grief and invisible

scars. And finally for those who have lost their culture and

heritage and have not seen it as a loss.”

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To Learn a New Way

When newcomers to this country first arrived, they simply began settling in the coastal areas near their places of arrival. Indian people watched them and at times made contact with them. There was no formal arrangement for taking land to occupy, and later on, this created conflicts and sometimes war. After the colonies evolved into a country with a formal government, they began to deal with Indian Tribes through treaties. Treaties are formal agreements made between nations. Indian Tribes were recognized as distinct nations because they occupied specific homelands, had distinct languages, traditions, and governments.

As more settlers moved onto Indian lands, the young United States government negotiated treaties with Indian nations because the government recognized that the land belonged to the different Tribes. The first treaty made with Indians by the new United States government was in 1778. The treaty period lasted until 1871, and it created most of the Indian reservations in existence today. By the year 1871, three reservations had been

established in Montana through treaty negotiations: the Blackfeet, Flathead, and Crow Reservations. The Blackfeets, Assiniboines, and Gros Ventres shared the Blackfeet Reservation, which included most of northern Montana. In 1888, Congress reduced the size of that reservation and created three smaller reservations: the Blackfeet, Fort Belknap (shared by the Gros Ventres and Assiniboines), and Fort Peck Reservations (shared by the Assiniboine and Sioux). The Northern Cheyenne Reservation and Rocky Boy’s Reservation were established by Executive Order (a rule made by the president) in 1884 and 1916. All of the reservations are much smaller than the tribes’ traditional homelands.

Student Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment

Reservation Tribal Group/s

Flathead Salish, Pend d’Oreille, Kootenai

Blackfeet Blackfeet

Rocky Boy Chippewa, Cree

Fort Belknap Gros Ventres, Assiniboine

Fort Peck Assiniboine, Sioux

Northern Cheyenne Northern Cheyenne

Crow Crow

Blackfeet Reservation

Rocky Boy’s Reservation

Flathead Reservation

Fort Belknap Reservation

Fort Peck Reservation

Crow Reservation

Northern Cheyenne Reservation

Glacier

National

Park

Yellowstone National Park

Kalispell

Great Falls

Helena

Missoula

Butte

Bozeman

(continued)

— 33 —

Many people have a common misunderstanding that the government gave Indian people land through their treaty negotiations. This is not true. Tribes had occupied large homelands for thousands of years, and in their treaties they gave up some of this land and reserved a fraction of their original homeland for their “reservation.” Some Tribes had already been displaced by the time of the treaty period, and so they reserved new lands in place of their original homelands.

Confining Indian people to reservations was the government’s answer to the conflicts over land. However, officials were still unsettled about the presence of Indian people, and desired to see them become more like“Americans.” The government wanted Indian people to change their beliefs, culture, and lifestyles to be more like European Americans. Many people believed that Indian people should give up their traditional way of living and become ranchers or farmers. To encourage Indian people to do this, the U.S. legislature passed a law called the Dawes Act (Allotment Act) in 1887. This law divided reservation lands into individual “allotments” for tribal members. These “allotments” were pieces of land that would belong to individual tribal members. The government thought that if Indian people had their own piece of land, they would be more likely to begin living as a rancher or a farmer. People also thought that this change in the lifestyle of Indian people would make them more like white people. Indian adults with families received 160 acres and unmarried tribal members over the age of 18 received 80 acres. These allotments were held in “trust” for 25 years. “Trust” land meant that the U.S. government was responsible in some way to watch over it.

Indian people could not sell their land while it was in trust and there were no property taxes that had to be paid on it during this time. At the end of the 25 years, people could ask to have their land taken out of “trust” and often when they did, the property taxes on the land grew to beyond what the owner could pay. Then someone could take the land simply by paying the taxes owed on it. Some Indian people used their land to borrow money or to buy things they needed at trading posts or stores. If they could not pay for the loans or the goods their lands were sometimes takenas payment.

Lands that were not allotted – assigned to individual Indian people - on some reservations were declared “surplus.”“Surplus” meant left over, unused, or unneeded. These lands were opened up to white settlement, even though there were promises in most of the treaties, like the following guarantee in the 1855 Treaty of Hell Gate with the Salish, Pend d’Oreille and Kootenai Tribes:

All which tract shall be set apart, and so far as necessary, surveyed and marked out for the exclusive use and benefit of said confederated tribes as an Indian reservation. Nor shall any white man, excepting those in the employment of the Indian department, be permitted to reside upon the reservation without permission of the confederated tribes, and the superintendent and the agent. Article II Treaty of Hell Gate

Tribes did not give permission for their reservation lands to be opened up to white settlers. Tribal leaders protested, and some traveled to Washington DC hoping that government officials would give attention to their protests.

To Learn a New WayStudents Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment (continued)

(continued)

— 34 —

The government went ahead with white settlement of the Crow, Blackfeet, Fort Peck and Flathead Reservations. Between, 1889-1991, twelve million acres were lost. By 1934, over two-thirds of reservation lands in the United States left Tribal control. On the Flathead Indian Reservation, 70% of the Tribes’ reserved land was lost to white homesteaders, townsites, reservoirs, and 18,521 acres were set aside for a national bison range.

Before the Allotment Act, Tribes were already farming and ranching. Many Indian people were making a fairly good living off the land.

Indian Agent Richard Landsdale remarked on the Pend d’Oreille’s farming efforts. “Their crops in 1856 were so abundant as to supply much of their food.”In 1887, the first purpose of allotment was to support Indian farms and ranches. Later, as the law was applied to other reservations, it was an excuse and method for non-Indians to take Tribal lands.

Below is a table of Montana’s Indian reservation lands today, showing the Tribe’s acreage in the beginning of the reservations and then after the Allotment Act. Many Tribes are buying back Tribal lands, so the percentages will frequently be changing.

To Learn a New WayStudents Narrative on Treaties, Reservations & Allotment (continued)

Reservation Total Acreage % Trust Lands % Fee Lands(Tribal & Individual) (Non-Indian,

State & Federal Govt.)

Blackfeet 1.5 million 65% 35%

Crow 2.3 million 68% 32%

Flathead 1.2 million 60% 40%

Fort Belknap 650,000 96% 4%

Fort Peck 2.1 million 44% 56%

Northern Cheyenne 445,000 98% 2%

Rocky Boy 108,000 100% 0%

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To Learn a New Way

Indian people were in a state of adjustmentto confinement on reservations and a newway to make a living, when they were facedwith a new challenge. Farming and ranchinghad introduced Tribes to a new way ofmaking a living, but it had not succeeded indestroying their traditional and culturalbeliefs and practices. Though Indian peoplehad adapted to an agricultural lifestyle, theyremained unique as Indian people. They hadnot become like European Americans. Indianpeople maintained their languages, cultures,and traditional practices even under extremestress and intense change.

This was troubling to government officialsand so in 1870 Congress appropriated$100,000 to begin a federal educationalsystem for Indian children. The first Federaloff-reservation boarding school was startedby General Pratt in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.Pratt’s motto was “Kill the Indian and savethe man.” In 1893, the government orderedall Indian children to attend school. Childrenas young as six years old were sent toschools far from their homes. If parentsrefused to send their children they were keptfrom getting much needed food and suppliesand sometimes they were put in jail.

Student Narrative on Indian Boarding Schools

Orchestra – Fort Shaw Indian School. Back row: Left to Right: Baptist Couture, Violin: Mr. Goings,Instructor. Front Row: Harvey, Coronet; John Bulte, Cornet. Others Unidentified [no date].Photographer:unidentivied

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(continued)

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To Learn a New WayStudents Narrative on Indian Boarding Schools (continued)

A school day for Indian children oftenconsisted of half a day’s work and the otherhalf in the classroom. Students got upbetween 5:00 and 6:00 a.m. and went to bedbetween 8:00 and 9:00 at night. Theyworked in the dairies, fields, laundries,kitchens and tailor and leather shops, growingmuch of their own food, and making most oftheir own clothing. At one particular school,100 of the 191 girls were 11 years old oryounger. This meant that very young childrenwere doing the work necessary to maintainthe school. The work was made more difficultby a very poor diet. Malnutrition was also aproblem and some schools fed students on 9cents a day. Imagine eating bread, blackcoffee and syrup for breakfast, bread andboiled potatoes for lunch, and then morebread and boiled potatoes for supper!

Children were not allowed to speak theirnative languages and instruction was all donein English. Most of the students knew littleEnglish, and they were confused and fearful ofa foreign language and place. Boys and girlshad separate dormitories. The dormitorieswere large rooms with rows of beds. Many ofthem were overcrowded and diseases such astuberculosis and trachoma spread among thestudents. Some children died at boardingschool and were not returned home, but wereburied in a cemetery at the school. It was verydifficult for parents, grandparents and familiesto not have the bodies of their childrenreturned home for burial.

Some former boarding school studentsremember their schools as places that gave

them survival skills for a changing world.Other students have memories of shame andabuse. In 1928 the government ordered thata report be done on Indian Affairs. The reportincluded a chapter on Indian Education. Thereport recorded all of the problems atboarding schools, overcrowding, malnutrition,outdated training, mistreatment of students,and children doing hard labor, as well asmany other issues. Even though the reportclearly showed the problems at boardingschools, the government continued to sendstudents there. By 1933, _ of all Indianchildren in the United States were enrolled inschools, many of them in boarding schools.

The Boarding School time period is a darkpart of history for American Indians and theUnited States government. Families still feelthe effects that boarding school had on theirparents and grandparents. Many triballanguages were lost because of boardingschools, and people still remember the hurtthey experienced there. There are 53 Indianboarding schools operating today. Most ofthem are located on reservations, and thesehave guidance and direction form tribalgovernments and Indian school boards. Somegovernment boarding schools are stilloperating off of reservations, but attendanceat these schools far from home is usuallyvoluntary. Today, most Indian children attendpublic schools and many of the prejudicestheir parents and grandparents faced havebeen eliminated. Unfortunately some of themstill remain. All of us have a continuing roleto play in eliminating prejudice.

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To Learn a New Way

I. Treaties, Reservations, and Allotments

A. Legislation and history of historic and changing land use

B. Practical realities and effects of changes

C. Montana land use today

D. The story of the bison in Montana

II. American Indian Boarding Schools

A. Background

B. Literature - A child’s voice …

C. Ledger Art

D. Effects on languages and cultural practices

III. Bridge building

A. Knowledge/awareness

B. Weaving old into new/ Traditional games

Outline for Classroom Presentation

— 38 —

To Learn a New Way

Allotment – an assigned portion of land

Assimilate – to make or become similar

Boarding school – a school where pupilsare provided with meals and lodging

Cede – to surrender possession of especiallyby treaty

Confinement – being kept within bounds -restricted

Culture – the behavior patterns, arts,beliefs, and institutions especially asexpressed in a particular community ofgroup of people or period in time

Destiny – a predetermined course of events,or one’s fate

Displaced – moved from the usual place

Equitable – just, impartial, fair

Identity – the set of characteristics by whicha person or thing is known

Influx – a flowing in

Inherit – to receive something legally fromsomeone after he/she dies

Invest – to commit money in order to gain afinancial return or to spend or devote timeand effort for future benefit

Ledger – a book with lined pages used totally money transactions of a business

Malnutrition – insufficient or unhealthynutrition

Mission – the building housing missionaries(people who attempt to convince others tojoin their beliefs or cause)

Negotiation – a conference/discussion withanother in order to come to agreement orsettlement

Prejudice – irrational suspicion or hatred ofa particular group, race, or religion

Preserve – to keep or maintain intact; anarea maintained for the protection of wildlifeor other natural resources

Reservation – a tract or parcel of land setaside for a special purpose

Stewardship – the situation of havingfinances, property, and/or other affairs bemanaged by another

Traditional – when culture/customs arepassed down from one generation to thenext

Treaty – a formal agreement between twoor more groups

Tuberculosis – an infectious disease ofhumans and animals, caused by a bacteria,in which lesions (sores) form on the lungs

Trachoma – a contagious disease of the eyecaused by a virus

Trust – a legal title to property held by oneparty for the benefit for another

Unsettled – not determined or resolved

Vision – the ability to look ahead

Vocabulary List

— 39 —

To Learn a New Way

When the 1855 Treaty of Hell Gate wasnegotiated at Council Groves, Victor, StandingGrizzly Bear, was the principal leader of theSalish Tribe living in the Bitterroot Valley.After Victor’s death in 1871, his son Charlo,Little Claw of the Grizzly Bear, became chief byconsent of the Tribe. Traditional leaders led byexample and maintained their positionsthrough their character. Honesty, generosity,and courage were all qualities necessary forleadership.

Chief Charlo held a deep love for his homelandand his people. He intended to remain in theBitterroot Valley, as he believed that the Treatyof Hell Gate promised to create a reservationthere for his people. In fact, the treaty did statethat a survey of the Bitterroot would be done todetermine if it would be good for Charlo and hispeople. However, a survey was never done andthe settlers and government pressured Charlo tomove up to the reservation in the Mission Valley.Charlo kept reminding the government of theirpromise to survey the land in the BitterrootValley and even traveled to Washington DC totell government officials in person of theirobligation to keep their promise. The Salish,Pend d’Oreille, and Kootenai had kept theirword and Charlo was angry that the governmentwas not keeping theirs. In 1872, Congresspassed an act that ordered the Salish to move.The government sent U.S. Commissioner JamesGarfield to get Chief Charlo to sign a contract toagree to move. Chief Charlo responded bysaying, “I will never sign your paper…My heartbelongs to this valley. I will never leave it.”Later the contract was published in with a markappearing as Charlo’s. He maintained that henever signed it. The handwritten contract hadno mark by Charlo’s name, just as he had said.

Charlo managed to remain in the BitterrootValley until 1891. Settlers surrounded theremaining Salish, and they pressured thegovernment to move the Salish out. Poorconditions among the Salish were increaseddue to recent crop failures, and Charlo finallyrelented and move.

After moving to the reservation, Chief Charlosoon had to engage in another battle. Thatfight was to prevent reservation lands frombeing broken up into individual allotments.Again, he traveled to Washington DC toprotest. His protest made no difference andin his last years saw the land divided. ChiefCharlo passed away in 1910; the yearreservation lands were opened tohomesteading.

Amazing Montanans—BiographyChief Charlo, Little Claw of the Grizzly Bear

The great Chief Charlot, Flathead Reservation,circa 1908 –Photograph by N.A. Forsyth.Stereograph Collection

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The year that Robert Yellowtailwas born could be 1889 or1887. Robert was born nearLodge Grass, Montana andhad only four short years to bea child with his family. At theyoung age of four years old,Robert was taken to the CrowAgency Boarding School. “Hewas not allowed to practice hisown religion, speak his ownlanguage, or live withmembers of his tribe. Theonly thing the whites could nottake away from him there hesaid, were his thoughts.” (MTMagazine of Western History,Vol. 39, 1981 #3, ConstanceJ. Poten) After finishing gradeschool there he transferred toSherman Boarding School inRiverside, California. He wasable to complete a Law Degreefrom the University of Chicagothrough correspondenceclasses.

“I studied the law because Iwas disgusted with the wayIndian Affairs was beingadministered in Washington. I said to myself, ‘I’m going tomake this my life’s work,graduate in law, and defend the Indians’”.(MT Magazine of Western History, Vol. 39,1981 #3, Constance J. Poten) WhenMontana Senator Thomas Walsh introduced abill to open the Crow Reservation tohomesteading, Robert Yellowtail was calledhome by Chief Plenty Coups to assist as an

interpreter and lawyer. Thebattle to open up Crow landscontinued in the courts forseven years. In 1917, RobertYellowtail gave his final four-hour argument. Yellowtail’sefforts paid off and the courtsdecided in favor of the Crowand their lands were safe forthe moment.

Yellowtail’s leadership qualitieswere recognized in 1934, andhe was appointed the firstIndian superintendent of hisown tribe. During his years inthis position he did manyremarkable things. Heencouraged preserving Crowculture and language andbegan the Crow Fair onceagain. After eleven years assuperintendent, Yellowtailresigned and becameChairman of the Crow Tribe.Robert continued to defend hisTribe’s right to manage theirown land and resources andself-govern.

Robert Yellowtail survivedboarding school and learnedhow to live on “two worlds”,

the Crow world and American society. Heused his education to benefit the Crowpeople, but he never forgot the importance ofwhat it meant to be a Crow Indian. His life isbest remembered by another tribal member,“Robert Yellowtail has everything to do witheverything on the Crow Reservation.”

To Learn a New Way

Amazing Montanans—BiographyRobert Yellowtail, 1889 – 1988

Robert Yellowtail –1907,photographer unidentified.PAc 89-113

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To Learn a New Way

Born just two years afterthe signing of the 1855Treaty of Hell Gate, SamResurrection was towitness many changes inhis lifetime. The loss ofhomelands and languageand traditions had a greatimpact on Sam. Thoughhe lived during anextremely challengingtime, he led a remarkablelife. Even as a young boy,his life was extraordinary.At the age of nine, it wasbelieved that Sam hadpassed away. During hiswake, Sam “came to” andfrom that time on he wasreferred to by a name thatdescribed his “comingback”. This Salish namelater became translated tothe English wordResurrection.

Sam distinguished himself as a cultural andpolitical leader in many ways. When theUnited States government made the decisionto allot lands on the Flathead Reservation,Sam Resurrection made several trips toWashington DC to protest this breaking up ofthe remaining tribal lands. He also wroteletters to government leaders, trying to reasonwith them and telling of the integrity andhonesty that the Salish people haddemonstrated in all of their dealings with thegovernment. In one of his letters to PresidentRoosevelt, Sam Resurrection reminded thePresident of the governments treatyobligations. “When they made the treaty,Stevens told the three chiefs this would be areservation as long as there was an Indianhere.”

To accomplish such things was no small feat,given the language barrier and the distancefrom the reservation to Washington DC.

Traveling such adistance in the early1900’s would have beenboth difficult andexpensive for an Indianperson. On one trip toWashington DC,Jackson Sun Downaccompanied him as aninterpreter. JacksonSun Down was NezPerce and was wellknown as an experthorseman. ThoughSalish leaders wereunsuccessful in stoppingallotment, theycontinued to speak outagainst governmentdecisions and actionsthat they believed werewrong. Without thevoices of such leaders,the Confederated Salish

and Kootenai Tribes would not have been ableto save the lands and traditions that they havetoday.

Sam also contributed to keeping tribaltraditions alive. Pete Beaverhead (1891 –1975) described how Sam taught WarDancing and hosted celebrations where tribalmembers danced and sang for three days.Sam lived much of his life in the Jocko Valleyand is buried in the cemetery there that wascreated from land donated by Sophie Moiese.For a time his grave site had been neglected,then a young tribal member read about himand all of the things that he did for his tribe.Samantha Shelby went to the cemetery tovisit his grave and was saddened that it wasnot well cared for. She took it upon herselfto take care of it from then on. It was awonderful thing for a young person to be ableto learn about her cultural ancestors and totake responsibility for that learning to heartand do something meaningful with it.

Amazing Montanans—BiographySam Resurrection, 1857 – 1941 — Cultural and Political Leader of the Salish Tribe

Sam Resurrection

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To Learn a New Way

Lesson 1: What is a Treaty?

ObjectiveAt the conclusion of thislesson students will be ableto give a definition of theword treaty and identify apromise and guaranteewithin a treaty

Time1 – 1¹�₂ Hours

Materials• Footlocker Materials –

1855 Treaty of HellGate, 1851 LaramieTreaty, Montana mapwith reservations, WordMap & Word Mapoverhead

• User Guide Materials –Student narrative onTreaties, Reservationsand Allotment, Sampletext from Treaty of HellGate and LaramieTreaty

• Teacher ProvidedMaterials – Dictionaries

(continued)

Pre-Lesson PreparationFamiliarize yourself with the definition and concept of theword treaty and the two treaties provided. Display the statemap in the classroom. Make 4-5 copies of the word map

ProcedureGive students the narrative on treaties, reservations, andallotment. Give them time to read the complete narrative.Give students highlighters and instruct them to highlightimportant and difficult words and passages.

Arrange students in groups of four. Give them about 5minutes to share what they highlighted with their group.

Give each group a dictionary & instruct them to look up thewords promise, guarantee, nation, and treaty. Ask each groupto share a definition of one of the four words. Tell studentsthat you are going to create your own class definition of theword treaty to get a clear understanding of what it meansparticularly in regard to the treaties the United States madewith Indian Tribes.

Give each group a word map and give them about 10 – 15minutes to fill in the sections. They can use dictionaries if theywant. Instruct them to keep in mind some of the words andthe treaty text that you read to them.

Put the overhead of the word map up and ask each group tofill in one section of the map. After all the sections are filledin, have the class develop their own definition of treaty in theirwords using information in the word map. Write the definitionon the board.

Read this beginning of the 1855 Treaty of Hell gate tostudents: “Articles of agreement and convention made….byand between Isaac I. Stevens…on the part of the UnitedStates, and the undersigned chiefs, head-men and delegates ofthe confederated tribes of the Flathead, Kootenay, and UpperPend d’Oreilles Indians…do hereby constitute a nation, underthe name of the Flathead Nation,…

— 43 —

To Learn a New WayLesson 1: What is a Treaty? (continued)

Ask students if developing their definitionhelped them understand this treatyintroduction.

Give each group one of the numberedsections of either the Treaty or Hellgate orthe Treaty of Fort Laramie. Allow them 5-10minutes to read it and highlight any promiseor guarantee they can find in it.

Let each group share and discuss what theyfound.

Inform students that in the 1855 Treaty ofHell gate, the term Flathead was a non-Indian name used to refer to the SalishIndians. Actually, there was no Tribe withthe name Flathead, however non-Indianscontinued to refer to the Salish by that nameand it appeared throughout the treatydocument.

— 44 —

— 45 —

(continued)

To Learn a New Way

Treaty of Hellgate • July 16, 1855

— 46 —

To Learn a New WayTreaty of Hellgate (continued)

(continued)

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To Learn a New WayLakota Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851 (continued)

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http://puffin.creighton.edu/lakota/1851_la.html

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To Learn a New Way

ObjectiveStudents will be able toexplain the present landstatus of four of Montana’sReservations. Students willbe able to describe the color-codes of a land status map ofthe Flathead, Crow,Blackfeet, and Fort PeckIndian Reservations.

TimeTwo One-Hour Class Periods


Series of historic landstatus maps, currentland status map of theFlathead, Crow, FortPeck and BlackfeetIndian Reservations,Montana map withreservations, Wall mapof Montana showingphysical features,photographs of Salishdelegation inWashington DC,photograph of ChiefCharlo, SamResurrection, andRobert Yellowtail

• User Guide Materials –Allotment narrative,biographies of Chief Charlo and Sam Resurrection andRobert Yellowtail, andproblem solutions mapmaster

• Teacher ProvidedMaterials – Maskingtape - several rolls,paper, and markers

Pre-Lesson PreparationDisplay series of historic land status maps and current landstatus maps, Montana wall map and Montana map withreservations, photographs, make copies of biographies of SamResurrection, Chief Charlo, and Robert Yellowtail

ProcedureRead this portion of Article II of the 1855 Treaty of Hell Gateto students:

All which tract shall be set apart, and so far as necessary,surveyed and marked out for the exclusive use and benefit ofsaid confederated tribes as an Indian reservation. Nor shallany white man, excepting those in the employment of theIndian department, be permitted to reside upon the saidreservation without permission of the confederated tribes, thesuperintendent and the agent.

Discuss the text with class. Tell students that they are goingto create a piece of land in their classroom that is like a“reservation” like the one you just read about. Thereservation can be Blackfeet, Crow, Flathead, or Fort Peck.Let the class pick one of these four reservations, allowingthem 5 minutes to decide which one. Let students select thepart of the classroom to be used as their reservation. Usetape to create a boundary line on the floor that will representtheir reservation boundary. Use classroom furniture to createsome prominent landmarks. Label the furniture with picturesand words so that students remember what geographicfeature it is.

Divide the students into two groups – tribal members andnewcomers. No one will be able to use the classroom“reservation” space except the tribal member class group. Thetribal member group should be about 1/4 of the class.

Place the tribal member group inside of the boundary tape oftheir reservation. Tell them that they can use all of the areawithin the taped boundary. They can find a comfortable placeto sit or recline if they’d like.

Lesson 2: Losing the Land

(continued)

— 56 —

To Learn a New WayLesson 2: Losing the Land (continued)

Read the treaty article again to the wholeclass and instruct them to listen to it carefullyto what it means.

Now tell the tribal members that a new lawhas been passed and that they are going tohave a piece of the reservation land that willbe theirs alone. It will not be able to be usedby other tribal members – it will belong justto them.

Assign each tribal member a very small pieceof the classroom “land”. Assign the space insuch a way that only about 1/4 of it isassigned. Have the students use tape tomark their piece of land –making sure thateach one is of a similar size, taking up onlyabout _ of the “reservation”. The tribalmembers now have to stay in their own tapedspace.

Now tell the class that another law has beenpassed and that the “left-over” reservationland will be opened up to newcomers to thearea – these newcomers are not tribalmembers. Tell the newcomer group to walkaround the space and pick out the space thatthey would like, until all of them have founda space within the “reservation”. Thesespaces can be larger and of different sizes.Tell students that they need to tape theseareas also. Limit their time to pick and tapetheir space.

Do a little debriefing now – ask students to sitin their space and engage them in adiscussion. How do the tribal memberstudents feel? How do the newcomers feel?Was the activity fair? Why? Why not? (Endof 1st part of lesson) Leave the masking tapeon the floor!

Part TwoDirect student attention to the masking tapeon the classroom floor and ask them toexplain what the taped areas represent.

Instruct students to look at the allotment mapseries. Share what the color code of themaps are and ask if any students think theycan interpret the maps. Remind students touse the activity they did in the previouslesson to help them. Show students the largeFlathead Indian Reservation Land Status mapand share what the different colors mean.

Give students a Problem Solution NarrativeMap and ask them to try to fill it in startingwith the problem of the first colonists arrivingand moving onto Indian lands. Give studentsabout 15 minutes to work on the map. Thenput up an overhead of the map and fill it inas a whole class. Use the completed mapprovided as a guide if necessary.

What started the problem?

When?What is the problem?

Problem/Solution Map

What new problems happened?

When?

What are some solutions?

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— 58 —

To Learn a New Way

Lesson 3: The Land of Seven Reservations

Pre-Lesson PreparationReview with students bar graph concepts, using theirmath texts. Display maps and write reservation sizes andownership percentages on board

ProcedureDirect students’ attention to the information written onthe board. Ask students how they could organize theinformation so that it would be easy to understand andcompare.

Show students the example of a bar graph. Askstudents to make two bar graphs. One graph will showreservation land size and the other will show thepercentages of Indian and non-Indian owned reservationlands. Ask students if coloring the graphs could helpexplain the information. Let them color their graphs ifthey choose, and then share them with the rest of theclass.

Distribute the biographies of Chief Charlo, SamResurrection and Robert Yellowtail to the class, givingonly one biography to each student. Allow studentstime to read the biographies. Ask for volunteers toshare what they learned about the people they readabout. Write some of their responses on the board.

ExtensionRead this part of the Vision and Mission of theConfederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes (CS&KT) tothe class:

“We will strive to regain ownership and control of alllands within our reservation boundaries.”

Tell students that the CS&KT are expending millions ofdollars each year to buy back their reservation land.Ask students to journal about whether they think it isimportant for Tribes to try to regain all of theirreservation lands, and if they think it would be possiblefor them to do so. Ask them to be specific about theirreasons.

ObjectivesStudents compare the sizes ofMontana’s seven reservations andtheir percentage of Indian and non-Indian owned land.

Time40 minutes


Reservation maps, Montanamap with reservations

• User Guide Materials –Allotment Narrative, bios ofChief Charlo, SamResurrection and RobertYellowtail, ConfederatedSalish and Kootenai TribesVision and Mission Statement

• Teacher Provided Materials –Colored pencils

— 59 —

The Confederated Salish and KootenaiTribes, The Sovereign People of the

Flathead Indian Reservation

V I S I O NThe traditional principles and values that served our people in the past

are imbedded in the many ways we serve and invest in our people and

communities, in the ways we have regained and restored our homelands

and natural resources, in the ways we have built a self-sufficient society

and economy, in the ways we govern our Reservation and represent our-

selves to the rest of the world and in the ways we continue to preserve

our right to determine our own destiny.

M I S S I O NOur mission is to adopt traditional principles and values into all facets

of tribal operations and service. We will invest in our people in a manner

that ensures our ability to become a completely self-sufficient society

and economy. We will strive to regain owership and control of all lands

within our reservation boundaries. And we will provide sound environ-

mental stewardship to preserve, perpetuate, protect and enhance natural

resources and ecosystems.

— 60 —

To Learn a New Way

Lesson 4: Sending the Bison Away

Pre-Lesson PreparationMake student copies of the bison tracks, Montana map andstoryboard map

ProcedureExplain to students that bison is the correct term for theanimals most commonly referred to as buffalo.

Teach students the Salish, Blackfeet, Crow & Cheyenne wordsfor bison –(List words and their phonetic pronunciation.)

Share with students the story of how the bison were saved.

Review the story with the class:

Who were the main characters of the story?

When did this story take place?

What routes did the bison travel starting with Atatice on theGreat Plains.

How many years passed from the time the remnant herd werebrought to the reservation and when they had to be sold toCanada?

Give each student a Montana area map and a ¹⁄₂ a sheetof bison tracks on their Montana map. Have studentscut out and use the tracks to show the route theytraveled as the remnant herd were saved on the GreatPlains by Atatice and brought back to the FlatheadReservation and then growing into a large herd alongthe Lower Flathead River and then some being sold toYellowstone Park, Conrad herd in Kalispell, and thenthe final round up and shipment across the border toCanada. Some tracks should then return to the BisonRange on the Flathead Indian Reservation. This map willbecome the cover of their storyboard book (see below).Students could select their own title.

Give students several copies of the storyboard maps andhave them retell how the bison were saved using textand pictures.

ObjectivesStudents will retell throughpicture and text, the storyof the Bison Range andhow the bison were saved.

TimeOne Hour


Pictures of bisonround-up, FlatheadReservation map

• User Guide Materials –Allotment Narrative,bison tracks, Buffaloand the Salish andPend d’Oreille People,storyboard map,Montana map

M. Pablo on his famous BuffaloRanch –Photograph by N.A. Forsyth

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Author_________________________Story

Story MapIn the beginning . . .

Picture Panels Writing Panels

Copyright, 1991 Think Network— 63 —

— 64 —

To Learn a New Way

Lesson 5: Away From Home

ObjectiveStudents locate 10 FederalBoarding Schools on a U.S.map. Students calculate thedistances Indian studentstraveled from one of theMontana Reservations toattend boarding schools.

Time45 minutes


Photographs of boardingschools, Nat. Geog.North American IndianCultures map

• User Guide Materials –U.S. student maps,boarding school icons,Carlisle student tribalaffiliation list, boardingschool narrative, list ofboarding schoollocations

• Teacher ProvidedMaterials – U.S. politicalwall map, rulers, glue

Pre-Lesson Preparation

Make copies of U.S. student maps (one for each student),make copies of boarding schools icons – 10 for each student

ProcedureGive each student a U.S. map and 10 boarding school icons.Have them glue an icon on each state that a boarding schoolwas located. Assist students by showing these schoollocations on a U.S. political wall map:

Carlisle – Pennsylvania

Flandreau – Rapid city, South Dakota

Chemawa – Salem, Oregon

Riverside – Anadarko, Oklahoma

Haskell – Lawrence, Kansas

Phoenix Indian School – Phoenix, Arizona

Sherman Indian School – Riverside, California

Fort Lewis - Fort Lewis, Colorado

Hampton Institute – Virginia

Santee Normal Training School – Santee, Nebraska

Ask students to calculate the distance from Montana to theout of state schools.

Locate the Carlisle Boarding School onthe U.S. map. Read the list of Tribesrepresented by students at Carlisle.

Find some of the locations of theseTribes on the U.S. map with triballocations. Have students use a ruler tocalculate the distance of some of thetribes to Carlisle.

Give students boarding school narrativeto read. Discuss as a class.

Indian boys band-St. Labre’s Mission

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To Learn a New Way

Carlisle Industrial Boarding SchoolCarlisle, Pennsylvania • Student Tribal Affiliation • 1879 – 1918

Abenaki

Alaska Native

Algonquin

Allegeheny

Apache

Arapaho

Arikara

Assiniboine

Bannock

Blackfeet

Caddo

Catawba

Cayuga

Cayuse

Checto

Chehalis

Chelan

Cherokee

Cheyenne

Chickasaw

Chinook

Chitimacha

Choctaw

Clallam

Coahulla

Colville

Comanche

Concow

Coos Bay

Coquell

Couer d”Alene

Covelo

Cowlitz

Cree

Creek

Crow

Dalles

Delaware

Digger

Ehenek

Filipino

Flathead (Salish)

Gopah

Gros Ventre

Hiawatha

Hoopa

Hopi

Iowa

Iroquois

Kalispell

Kaw

Keechi

Kickapoo

Kiowa

Klamath

Klickita

Kootenai

Lapwai

Littlelake

Longhorne

Lummi

Makah

Malecite

Mandan

Menominee

Miama

Mission

Modoc

Mohawk

Mojave

Mono

Munsee

Narragansett

Navajo

Nez Perce

Nomelaki

Nooksak

Pecos

Pend d’Oreille

Penebscot

Peoria

Pima

Pit River

Pokanot

Pomo

Ponca

Porto Rican

Pottawatomi

Pueblo

Puyallup

Quapaw

Sac and Fox

Samseau

Sanpoil

Seminole

Seneca

Serrano

Shawnee

Shebits

Shinnecock

Shoshone

Siletz

Sioux

Skagit

Skokomish

Spokane

Squamish

Stockbridge

Tewan

Tliongit

Tsimpshean

Tuscarora

Uintah

Ukeah

Umatilla

Umpqua

Ute

Walla Walla

Wampanoag

Washoe

Wichita

Winnebago

Wishoshkan

Wyandotte

Wylack

Yakima

Yuckicreek

— 68 —

To Learn a New Way

Lesson 6: My Name is Seepeetza

ObjectiveStudents will reflect in writing theirawareness of the trauma of a child’s firstday at boarding school as seen throughhistoric fiction.

TimeOne Hour

Materials• Footlocker Materials – Books - My

Name is Seepeetza and As LongAs the Rivers Flow, Photographsof boarding school students,boarding school narrative

• User guide Materials –

• Teacher Provided Materials –Writing materials

Pre-Lesson Preparation

Copy pages 16-19 of My Name is Seepeetza forevery student

ProcedureAsk students to think about the first time theystayed overnight somewhere without any of theirfamily. Give them time to describe it briefly inwriting. While they are writing, ask students howthey felt. How far away were they from home?Were they uncomfortable? Was it different thanbeing at home? How? Did they sleep well?Were they happy to be home the next night?Etc…Use questions to try to elicit some detailsand feelings.

Share photographs with students and providethem some background.

Now give students time to read the pages fromMy Name Is Seepeetza.

Possible discussion question: Why was the nunangry when Seepeetza told her what her namewas?

ExtensionAsk students to write an encouraging letter toSeepeetza as if they were her friends.

For further exploration, students may want toread a Canadian boy’s story of his family life justbefore having to leave for boarding school. (AsLong As the Rivers Flow)

The Victors of Catechism Contest, circa1929, photographer unidentified. St. Labre Mission Collection

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To Learn a New Way

Lesson 7: Drawing From Memory

ObjectiveStudents gain awareness ofLedger Art and the role itplayed with boarding schoolstudents.

TimeOne Hour


Laminated Copies ofLedger Art from theSmithsonian Institution,Narrative on Ledger Art,Ledgerbook of ThomasEagle by Gary Matthaei

• Teacher ProvidedMaterials – drawingpaper, colored pencils

Pre-Lesson PreparationMake several copies of the patterns for Ledger Art, and cutthem out.

ProcedureShow students the copies of Ledger Art and discuss thevarious scenes.

Share the information from the narrative and talk aboutdifferent strategies people use to remember importantthings.

Ask students to take a moment to try to recall the earliestmemory that they can. How far back could they go? Howmany details were they able to remember? Pose thesequestions: If you were a young child and sent to a boardingschool, how long do you think you could remember yourhome and family? What would be the most importantmemory you would want to keep?

Read The Ledgerbook of Thomas Blue Eagle by GaryMatthaei

Give students a choice of drawing projects:

1. Create a scene in ledger art style and color it. Write abrief description of the scene, telling a short story to gowith it.

2. Select a favorite memory and create a picture of it inledger art style. Write a short story to go with it.

— 70 —

To Learn a New Way

Lesson 8: Clothing and Identity

ObjectiveStudents explore how clothingand hair connects to ourpersonal identity.

TimeOne Hour


Wing dress, leggings andvest, school uniforms,historic photographs ofmen, women and childrenin traditional clothing,photographs of boardingschool students, CheyenneAgain

• User Guide Materials –Narrative on hair fromZitkala-sa, story map,Traditional Clothing andHairstyle

• Teacher Provided Materials– contemporary clothing &jewelry items that depictcurrent styles/trends,pictures from magazines ofcontemporary hairstyles

Pre-Lesson PreparationDisplay all of the clothing items, along with all of thephotographs.

ProcedureHold up contemporary clothing and jewelry items and askstudents to describe them and try to identify what kind ofperson might wear them.

Ask students to share something about a favorite shirt, pairof shoes, jewelry item, etc. that they have.

Ask students how they choose their clothing. Do theirparents select it with them? Do they get to pick it outthemselves? What about their hairstyle? Who gets tochoose their own hairstyle? Generate a discussion aboutpersonal style that is expressed visually through ourappearance.

Ask students to share what they know about traditionaldress and hairstyle of Montana tribes. Share informationfrom “Traditional Clothing and Hairstyle” document.

Read the book Cheyenne Again with the class, showingthem the pictures. Talk about the main character in thestory and what he went through.

Show picture of the boarding school students and discusshow the clothing and hair change may have impacted theiridentity as Indian children.

Read the writing of Zitkala-sa

Let students try on the traditional andboarding school clothes.

ExtensionsProvide students with a story map forretelling the book Cheyenne Again usingtext and pictures.

Have students write about how they feelpersonally about choosing their ownclothes and hairstyle.

Two young men, no date, photographer unidenti-fied. St. Labre Mission collection

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To Learn a New Way

My friend Judewin knew a few words ofEnglish and had overheard the woman talkabout cutting out long hair. Our mothers hadtaught us that only warriors who werecaptured had their hair shingled by theenemy. Among our people short hair wasworn by mourners, andshingled hair by cowards.

We discussed our fatesome moments, andJudewin said, “We have tosubmit, because they arestrong.”

“No, I will not submit! I will struggle first!” Ianswered.

I watched for my chance,and when no one noticed, I disappeared. I crept upthe stairs as quietly as Icould in my squeakingshoes-for after breakfastmy moccasins had beentaken from me andexchanged for shoes.

I did not know where I wasgoing. Turning aside to anopen door, I saw into alarge room with three beds. The windowswere covered with dark-green curtains, whichmad e the room dim. I crawled under thebed and cuddled myself in the dark corner.

From my hiding place I peered out,shuddering with fear whenever I heardfootsteps nearby. In the hall loud voiceswere calling my name. I knew that evenJudewin was searching for me. I did notopen my mouth to answer.

The steps quickened and the voices becameexcited. The sounds came nearer and nearer.Women and girls entered the room. I heldmy breath and watched them open closetdoors and peep behind large trunks.Someone threw up the curtains, and the

room was filled withsudden light.

What caused them tostoop and look under thebed I do not know. Iremember being draggedout, though I resisted bykicking and scratchingwildly. I was carrieddownstairs and tied fastin a chair.

I cried aloud, shaking myhead until I felt the coldblade of the scissors andheard them gnaw off oneof my thick braids. ThenI lost my spirit. Since Ihad been taken from mymother, I had sufferedextreme indignities.People had stared at me.I had been tossed in theair like a wooden puppet.

And now my long hair was being shingledlike a coward’s. I moaned for my mother, butno one came to comfort me. Not a soulreasoned quietly with me, as my motherwould have done. I was only one of manylittle animals driven by a herder.

From The Flight of Red Bird: The Life ofZitkala-Sa, Doreen Rappaport, Puffin Books,1997 pp. 36-37.

The First Day of SchoolZitkala-Sa

Gertrude Käsebair, Zitkala-Sa, 1898

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— 72 —

To Learn a New Way

Take a moment and think about how muchwe assume about a person based on theirclothing. A suit and tie or dress and heelsoften give an impression of a professionalperson. Wranglers and cowboy boots mightlead us to believe that someone lives orworks on a ranch. Clothing that is tie-dyeddefinitely evokes ideas of a liberal, a hippie, acollege student, or someone a little bit on theedge of mainstream culture.

Traditional clothing among Native people wasas important in giving impressions to others.Tribes had stylized quill and beadworkpatterns that expressed tribal affiliation.Floral patterns were common among theSalish, and geometric patterns were unique instyle among the Blackfeet and Sioux.Moccasins were made differently amongtribes and added to the tribal identity ofdress.

Just as clothing was stylized among tribes, sowas hair. Braiding styles signaled tribalidentity, such as the three braids worn by theBlackfeet. Some hairstyles were specific inshowing marital status or even religioussociety membership, such as hair worn in aknot on the head worn by Blackfoot men

belonging to a religious society. However,within tribal styles, there was alwaysallowance for individuality. Feathers, dye andother ornamentation were often individuallychosen for aesthetic value.

Hair care could be a tender, daily ritualamong couples. People would note theaffection and care with which couplesattended to meticulous care of one another’shair. Hair was most often worn long by bothmen and women. The Kootenai story aboutsweetgrass tells of two warriors who are on araiding journey. While they are camped at aspecific site in northern Montana, theyreceive the gift of sweetgrass. Along withtheir instructions of how to gather and braidit, they are told about braiding their hair toremind them of the gift of sweetgrass. Theyare told to only cut their hair when somethinghappens that will forever change their livesforever. Today many people still honor thetradition of cutting their hair when they losea close loved one. While traditional hairstylewas part of the vanity of personalappearance, it also meant much more, andwas an intimate component of personalidentity and status in the community.

Traditional Clothing & Hairstyle

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To Learn a New Way

Lesson 9: Do You Understand What I’m Saying?

ObjectiveStudents are exposed toAmerican Indian languagesthrough written and audiomaterials, and brieflyexperience trying tounderstand a language thatthey have never heard before.

Time45 Minutes


CD’s–Children’s Songs InSalish and Intro to theSalish Language, Teacherbackground narrative onNative languages

• User Guide Materials –“When I go Home I’mGoing to Talk Indian,”and “Native Words forGreetings”

• Teacher ProvidedMaterials – CD player

Pre-Lesson PreparationRead the narrative on Native Languages and the story,“When I Go Home I’m Going to Talk Indian,” identifydiscussion facts/questions, have a CD player available

Procedure

Instruct students to listen to the CD’s and write down whatthey hear. Ask them to listen for any words that they canunderstand. Play CD’s and give students time to write downwhat they heard.

Ask students to report what they heard.

Ask students if the CD’s were the same. What was the sameand what was different? How would they feel if they had tospend the whole day trying to understand the languages?What clues could they use to try to understand and try tocommunicate?

Give students the story “When I Go Home I’m Going to TalkIndian”, and allow them time to read and discuss.

Extension

Teach students greetings and words for bison in Montanatribal languages.

— 74 —

To Learn a New Way

My best friend, Rose, was the most fun in theworld. I looked forward each day to meetingher in the school hallway just before the bellrang. She often wore a barely-suppressedgrin, or covered her mouth with her hand. Iwould spend recess trying to get her to tellme what the joke was. Usually, she hadmanaged undetected to plant a stone onSister’s chair or sneak an extra crust of breadfrom the supper hall. Rose, head bobbing,dark eyes twinkling, would finally share hersecret transgression with me, causing both toburst into uncontrollable giggles, andoccasionally drawing the attention of a stony-faced nun who, disturbed by our laughter,would shoo us to move on.

The Catholic Mission loomed at the far endof the only road cutting through FortProvidence, Northwest Territories. In 1954, Ientered my first year of school there as theonly “white kid”. My father spent his dayspredicting weather and tapping it in MorseCode, down to a military base in Hay River.My mother cooked, knitted, sewed my clothesand preserved berries. I, being a spirited 5year old, knew that we lived in an excitingplace, accessible only by barge or float planeand snowed under nine months of the year.

The Mission school was the place for me togo to and hang out with other children. Ididn’t question the locked iron doors, thebars on the windows, the unreasonable rulesimposed by the nuns. I didn’t find it unusualthat my playmates were several hundrednative children who lived at the school ratherthan with their families. It was my onlyexperience of school and I had no need toquestion.

The day I arrived at school and didn’t seeRose, I thought she must be ill. The recessbell finally rang and, in the impish manner Ihad learned from my friend, I quietly sliddown the forbidding corridors that led to thedormitory. The nun who was changing bedsglared at me as though I wasn’t meant toexist. I lowered my eyes to my shoes,knowing the necessary rules to avoid havingto stand in the corner or get the strap.

“What are you doing here?” she barked.

I heard the squeak of her black boots, thejangle of her crucifix and the angry swish ofher robes as she came closer.

“Looking for Rose, Sister. I thought she wassick.” “She’s not here. Now get back to class!”

I scurried back to the coatroom and pulled onmy parka and toque.

She must be outside, I thought, struggling topush open the heavy back door.

Children filled the snowy yard, screaming,laughing, building snow forts and pullingeach other around on little pieces ofcardboard. It was freezing today and thenuns gathered close to the building, warmingtheir hands over the fire barrel. I stood onthe high stone steps, searching everywherefor Rose’s red jacket. Finally I spotted her inthe farthest corner, standing with her face tothe fence, no friends around.

“Rose!”

I shouted loudly as I could, running down thesteps and slogging through the deepest partof the snow where the other children had not

When I Go Home I’m Going to Talk IndianCarol Hodgson

(continued)

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gone. When I reached her, I tugged on hersleeve.

“Come on, Rose! Recess is almost over!”

She kept her back to me, warming her handsunder her jacket. Impatiently, I tugged again,sure that the bell would ring at any momentand we would have not time to play.

Now she turned, her face drawn with painand fury. She held up her red, swollen handsand I knew then that she hadn’t beenwarming them, but holding, protecting themas best as she could, from the searing pain. Isaw the tears, which had frozen on herbeautiful cheeks.

“When I go home I’m going to talk Indian!”she whispered fiercely.

The bell rang and neither one of us moved.Cold needled into our faces and I stood,watching Rose breather rapid frosty puffs intothe bleak northern air. I didn’t know what todo for my friend. When I looked back, I sawthe other children were almost inside.

“Rose, we have to go.”

She nodded, wiping her face in her sleeve.We couldn’t hold hands like we usually did.Instead, I touched her shoulder as we walkedtoward the stone steps, where two nunsstood like sentries, waiting for us.

Rose and I never talked about what hadhappened to her. We still sat togethereveryday and traded ribbons in our hair. Webuilt forts and pulled each other around inthe snow on pieces of cardboard. Rosetalked longingly of eating her granny’stoasted bannock and romping in the woodswith her younger sisters, who hadn’t yetarrived at the Mission school.

Our family left Fort Providence two yearslater. In the time I knew her, Rose never didget to go home.

*When asked for an explanation from Carolfor what had been done to Rose’s hands, thiswas her response:

“Rose was strapped for speaking herlanguage. This is a common practice inschools all over the place at the time. Heropen hands were hit with a large thickleather strap, many times. I received thestrap on several occasions, although not asharshly as Rose did in my story. I did seemany native children whose hands werestrapped so long and hard that they wereblistered for day s, as though they had beenburned with fire.”

To Learn a New WayWhen I Go Home I’m Going to Talk Indian (continued)

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To Learn a New Way

Native Words for Greetings and Buffalo

Salish:Õest Sõlõalt (Good Day)

Ïey ïáy (buffalo)

Ûé

Kootenai:Kisuk kyukyit (Good Day)

Blackfeet:Oki (Hello)

Assiniboine:Amba Washday (Good Day)

Pte (Buffalo)

Gros Ventre:Wahay (Male – Good Day)

Naha (Female – Good Day)

E Dan Non (Buffalo)

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To Learn a New Way

Lesson 10: To Learn a New Way

ObjectiveProvide students with aclosing message that helpsthem move beyond thedifficult and tragic time periodof the Boarding School Era.

Time45 Minutes

Materials• Footlocker Materials -

Beyond BoardingSchools DVD

• User Guide Materials -Letter to Teachers andStudents, Bio of JulieCajune-creator of ToLearn a New Way

• Teacher ProvidedMaterials - TV & DVDplayer

Pre-Lesson Preparation None

Procedure Ask students if they think that education has changed forAmerican Indians. Discuss ways that they think schoolinghas changed. Ask students if they think that things thathappened during the Boarding School Era might still effectpeople today.

Share with the class that one way we can honor the sufferingor difficulty that others have gone through is by being awareof their story and taking time to remember it and to learnfrom it. Ask students if they can think of something theylearned from any of the lessons that they could use or applyin their lives today.

Read the Letter to Teachers and Students and discuss thecontent.

Play the DVD for the class.

Have students free write a reflective essay on any of thefollowing: the footlocker lessons, the Letter to Teachers andStudents, or the DVD

Jimmie, Maggie and Mary(child) Many Hides, circa1936. Blackfeet, photographerunidentified. PAc 79-37

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To Learn a New Way

July 17, 2005

Dear teachers and students,

Thank you for taking time to learn a little bit about the history ofAmerican Indian people. You live in a state that is now home to twelvetribal nations and seven Indian Reservations. Some of the historicalevents that you have been learning about were very difficult times forIndian people. Most Indian families today have memories of these times.Some of what you have learned has been sad, but I want you to knowthat today many things have changed. Some schools now teach abouttribal histories and native languages. Some Indian people work inschools as teachers and administrators. Indian people are becomingmore involved in the education of their children. This DVD is a smallpicture to show you how things have changed.

While there have been many improvements in our country and in ourschools, unfortunately, some prejudice and racism still exists. By learningabout people who are different from us, we can begin to understand thatit is okay to be different. We know that while we may look different andthink differently, we are still alike in many ways. The more we learnabout each other, the greater our respect will be for all people. I hopethat what you have learned about Indian people gives you a deeperunderstanding of who we are.

The kind of world that we live in is up to you and I. What we do eachday makes it better or worse. There is a saying in Indian Country thattells to think to the seventh generation. That means that we do not justthink of ourselves, but we must think of how our actions will effect thoseyet to come, our children, grandchildren, great grandchildren, and so on.What kind of a world do we want to leave to them?

I believe that you will make the world a better place. I believe that bytaking time to understand part of our country’s past, your heart will helpyou live strong in the present and find the knowledge to make a betterfuture. Lemlmtñ peseya. Thank you!

—Julie Cajune

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To Learn a New Way

It has been my good fortune to have beenborn on in the beautiful Mission Valley. I ama member of teh Confederated Salish andKootenai Tribes, and our home reservationencompasses 1 1/4 million acres, includingthe Mission Valley. The magnificent LowerFalthead River runs through the heart of thereservation and Flathead lake crowns thenorth top of the resrevation. The majesticMission Mountains are our eastern boundary,making our reserved homeland one of themost beautiful in the nation. Each day I amthankful to live in such a place of beauty.

I grew up in Ronan and St. Ignatius. Mymother grew up on the river at Dixon. Whenshe was a little girl she was sent to theboarding school in St. Ignatius by the IndianAgent. She didn't like the school and whenshe had an opportunity, she ran away. Shewent to her grandmother's and told her whyshe didn't like the school. Her grandmothersaid that it was good that she ran away. Hermother then let her go to the public school inDixon.

When I became school aged, my mother sentme to the school in St. Ignatius. It was nolonger a boarding school, but it was still runby the nuns and priests. They were verystrict, but I received an excellent educationthere. I still wondered why my mother sentme to the school that she ran away from.She said that at that time all of the Indiankids went there and she thought it would bebetter if we were with other Indian students.

When I grew up, I went to college to becomea school teacher. I wanted Indian students tohave at least one Indian teacher during theirschool career. I believed that I could helpchange schools to think differently aboutIndian people. I have worked in education for15 years now and I think that schools havechanged a lot. Unfortunately, prejudice stillremains in the world. It is something that youand I will always have to work to change.

I am just starting a new job at Salish KootenaiCollege. I will be writing tribal historymaterials for schools. I plan to visit schoolswith the materials to try them out and talk tostudents about what they think about them.Perhaps I will make it to your school!

Julie Cajune – Creator of To Learn a New Way—Biography

Julie Cajune

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To Learn a New Way

Bibliography

Additional References on Boarding SchoolsTHEY CALLED IT PRAIRIE LIGHT – The story of Chilocco as told by past students.

AWAY FROM HOME – Non-fiction book on the boarding school experience.

KISS OF THE FUR QUEEN, by Thompson Highway – A fictional story of two CanadianCree boys sent to boarding school. A powerful story of the boarding school experiencethrough the eyes of a child growing up.

VideosWHERE THE SPIRIT LIVES A video that chronicles a young girl’s boarding schoolexperience. Adult content, available at most video rental stores.

ROSEMARY’S VIDEO – A very brief but powerful documentary on boarding schoolsand the attempts of Indian people to come to terms with and heal from this part of theirpast. This video is available from Native Voices at the University of Washington in Seattle.