Contentsto counteract the effects of free radicals. It has been prescribed for patients with coronary disorders since it is believed to reduce cholesterol levels drastically. It is

Contents

TIGERPAPER Tail Carriage in Pig-tailed Macaques........................................... 1 Role of Seabuckthorn in the Conservation of Fragile Ecosystems of the Temperate Himalayan Region......................................... 3 Essentials of Protected Area Management in the Philippines...... 4 Executive Summary – Threatened Birds of Asia.......................... 8 Conservation of Wildlife and Its Habitats in Soan Valley............ 12 Status of Tigers in Dibrusaikhowa Biosphere Reserve................. 17 Namdapha Tiger Reserve – Planning for Sustainable Development as a Biosphere Reserve........................................ 22 Ecological Prudence of the Lepchas of Sikkim............................ 28 Bird Species in Kanjli Wetland.................................................... 30 FOREST NEWS

APFC is Mongolia Bound!.......................................................... 1 Bringing Back the Forests: Policies and Practices for Degraded Lands and Forests.................................................................. 3 In Search of Excellence in Forest Management........................... 5 Sustainable Forest Management: From Theory to Practice......... 6 New Coordinator for RIL Activities............................................ 7 Toward Effective Watershed and Flood Management................ 8 Not All Trees Grow in Forests.................................................... 9 Vietnamese Foresters Assess Philippine Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) Practices................................................. 11 Criteria and Indicators for Model Forests................................... 12 Understanding Forest Management Certification and Local Auditing Systems in Indochina................................................ 13 Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips........................................ 15 New RAP Forestry Publications.................................................. 17 FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar........................................... 18

Tigerpaper Vol.29:No.1 Jan.-Mar.2002 1

TAIL CARRIAGE IN PIG-TAILED MACAQUES (Macaca nemestrina)

by Anwaruddin Choudhury

Introduction

Tail carriage in non-human primates makes aninteresting study. Even sub-specific variationsare often recognized on the basis of tail carriage,at least as one of the keys to identification. Inthe case of the pig-tailed macaque (Macacanemestrina Linn.), the tail carriage is significantas is evident from its popular English name.Fooden (1975) gave a detailed account of thetail carriage of three subspecies of Macacanemestrina. In fact, tail carriage is an importantkey to identification of all three races of the pig-tailed macaque. M. nemestrina leonina carriesits tail arched forward over its back, with the tipof the tail directed upward and forward, whileM. nemestrina nemestrina carries its tail archedrearward, with the tip of the tail directeddownward. M. nemestrina pelops carries its tailalmost like the nominate race. Groves (2001)has even suggested full species treatment toleonina and the tail carriage was one of itsdiagnostic features.

In India, the pig-tailed macaque is confined tothe forests of northeastern India, only south ofthe Brahmaputra river (Choudhury, 1988, 1989,1996, 1997). Although not common in its entirerange in India, it is still widely distributed

(extent of occurrence more than 150,000 km2).The subspecies found in India was earlierdesignated as M. nemestrina blythii (Pocock,1939), but Fooden (1975) considers it to besynonymous with leonina and the author hasfollowed the same practice (Choudhury, 1997).

In this brief report, the description of tailcarriage as observed in the wild in Assam, India,is contradictory to the existing theory suggestedby Fooden (1975). This is important because thetail carriage is also an important key to sub-specific identification of M. nemestrina.

The survey of pig-tailed macaques was carriedout throughout northeastern India between 1986and 1999. However, detailed observations ontail carriage could only be made in the followingareas of Assam: Innerline Reserved Forest (RF)of Cachar district (24°30' N, 92°50' E),Garampani and Nambor Sanctuaries (26°25' N,93°50' E) of Karbi Anlong district, Bherjan RF(27°32' N, 95°23' E), Podumoni RF (27°32' N,95°19' E) and Borajan RF (27°25' N, 95°22' E)(recently declared a protected area namedBherjan-Borajan-Podumoni Sanctuary) inTinsukia district. The habitat in all the localitieswas of tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests, on flat plains as well ashills.

Results and discussion

Fooden (1975) attempted to investigate theanatomical basis for such differences in tailcarriage in M. n. leonina and M. n. nemestrina.His materials included embalmed cadavers of 3adult male M. n. leonina, caudal vertebrae of 3wild-caught adults (also M. n. leonina) andcaudal vertebrae of 2 captive sub-adults of M. n.nemestrina. He observed that the intervertebraljoints Ca 4-5, Ca 5-6 and Ca 6-7 in M. n.leonina are hyperextended to form the anteriorlydirected tail flexure, while in contrast, in the

Tigerpaper Vol.29:No.1 Jan.-Mar.20022

case of M. n. nemestrina these joints areventriflexed to form the proximal part of thedownward directed rail flexure, and theintervertebral joints Ca 7-8 and Ca 8-9 are alsoflexed to complete the arch.

However, the recent field studies in Assam seemto completely reverse Fooden’s (1975)anatomical basis identification. Between 1987and 1996, the author observed a few hundredwild individuals in the forests of northeasternIndia, especially in Assam. Detailedobservations of tail carriage could be made of 90individuals. Because of the dense vegetation andextreme shyness of the species, details could notbe recorded in many of the cases. Extensivephotographs were taken which clearly showedthe tail carriage.

The field observations and photographs showthat the tail carriage of these macaques is moresimilar to M. n. nemestrina and M. n. pelopsthan to M. n. leonina as observed by Fooden(1975). From long hours of field observation,often from dawn to dusk, the author found thatthe males often carry their tails arched forwardover their backs, but do not keep it like that allthe time. One example of this is when the maleis excited or two males are making threateninggestures at each other. This may be dominantbehavior by an alpha male as has been observedin the rhesus macaque (M. mulatta), where adultmales, usually alpha and lone ones, carry theirtails straight and upwards with a curl at the tip,which is very distinctive and completelydifferent from other members of the species. Inthe case of captive pig-tailed macaques, whichare usually kept in small cages and flocked byvisitors, they show a greater tendency to carrytheir tails arched forward, obviously excited dueto disturbance and stress. When these macaquesare leisurely strolling, they carry their tails likeM. n. nemestrina and M. n. pelops.

The present study shows that the anatomicalbasis for identification as suggested by Fooden(1975) needs a fresh review, as there seems to belittle or no difference in tail carriage among thethree races of M. nemestrina, except for the factthat the subspecies leonina, especially the adultmales, often carry their tails arched forward over

their backs. Had there been such an anatomicalbasis, they would have always carried their tailsarched forward. Thus, perhaps there is noorientation of caudal vertebrae.

AcknowledgmentI thank collectively the many civil and forestofficials and NGOs of northeastern India and alarge number of villagers, relatives and friendsfor their assistance. Nur Hussain, Havildar K.Das, Dilip, Babul, Chakravary and Hakeemaccompanied me in the field and my thanks tothem. I also acknowledge the partial financialassistance from the Assam Science, Technologyand Environment Council in 1990-1994 and theAmerican Society of Primatology in 1994 (forTinsukia).

References

Choudhury, A.U. 1988. Priority ratings forconservation of Indian primates. Oryx22:89-94.

Choudhury, A.U. 1989. Primates of Assam: theirdistribution, habitat and status. Ph.D. thesis,Gauhati University. 300pp+maps.

Choudhury, A.U. 1996. Survey of primates in someparts of eastern and central Assam. Finalreport to ASTEC (Assam Science Technology &Environment Council), Guwahati.

Choudhury, A.U. 1997. Checklist of the mammalsof Assam. Revised 2nd Ed. Gibbon Books &ASTEC, Guwahati.

Fooden, J. 1975. Taxonomy and evolution ofliontail and pigtail macaques (Primates:Cercopithecidae). Fieldiana: Zoology, 67:1-169.

Groves, C. 2001. Primate taxonomy. SmithsonianInstitution Press, Washington & London.

Pocock, R.I. 1939. The fauna of British India:Mammalia, Primates and Carnivora. Taylor &Francis, London.

Author’s address: The Rhino Foundation for Naturein N.E. India, c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., G. BardaloiPath, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati - 781 021; E-mail:[email protected]


ROLE OF SEABUCKTHORN IN THE CONSERVATION OFFRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE TEMPERATE

HIMALAYAN REGION

by Anil K. Choudhary and R.C. Jaggi

Introduction

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae spp.) is a thornytemperate bush that grows in temperate climatesand is indigenous to the regions of Lahaul andSpiti, Kinnaur and some parts of Chamba inHimachal Pradesh, Kumaon and Gharwal Hillsof Uttrancha., the Laddakh area of Jammu &Kashmir and some parts of Sikkim (Dwivedi,2001). It grows widely and abundantly in thetemperate climates of Europe and Asia (Singh,2000). In Asia, it is commercially grown inChina, Russia, Nepal and Pakistan. It is regardedas a ‘magic plant’ because of its high nutritionalvalue, medicinal properties, and its ability toreplenish and conserve the soil in the fragileecosystem of the temperate Himalayas. It isindigenous to the temperate Himalayan region,but it is paradoxical that few people know aboutits existence and tremendous medicinal value. Itis time for research institutions, governmentagencies, and the pharmaceutical and cosmeticindustries to understand the global trends andbenefits of evolving advanced technologies forutilizing seabuckthorn and bring about a newrevolution in the Asian economy.

This paper attempts to highlight the importanceof seabuckthorn and its use in the sustainabilityof the fragile ecosystems of the temperateregions of Asia in general, and the temperateHimalayas in particular.

Characteristics of Seabuckthorn

Seabuckthorn is a thorny bush that grows intemperate climates. It grows selectively in thesnow-covered mountains of the Himalayas andcan withstand very low temperatures down tominus 40°C. It can flourish even in rocky,sandy, or marshy soils. Its well developed rootsystems goes down 3 meters vertically and 10meters horizontally, producing 30-40 sisterplants of several generations, which hold soil

particles and stones even on steep slopes(Saklani, 2001). Its extensive root systemprotects the soil against erosion by high velocitywinds, which are a common feature of colddeserts. Thus, the plant is considered to be aneffective soil binder in the erosion-prone soils ofcold and barren mountains.

Medicinal and Nutritional Value ofSeabuckthorn

Seabuckthorn has many reputed nutritional andmedical properties. Its fruit and other plant partsare used in making herbal remedies againstmalnutrition, skin diseases, lung problems,ulcers, gastro-intestinal problems, and colds. Itis reported that it can also be used against cancerto counteract the effects of free radicals. It hasbeen prescribed for patients with coronarydisorders since it is believed to reducecholesterol levels drastically. It is rich inVitamin A, B, and K and is the richest source ofVitamin C. It is also a potential source ofproteins, organic acids, carotenoids andflavonoids, etc. The fruit is the main repositoryof these compounds but the whole plant is a richsource of nutrients. It is also extremely rich inminerals like iron, cobalt and molybdenum(Dwivedi, 2001).Thus, seabuckthorn has greatmedicinal properties and is presently used inabout 200 industrial products like medicines,cosmetics, and health food products.

Seabuckthorn as fuel and fodder

The harsh, cold climate of the temperate regionkeeps the mountains devoid of vegetationthroughout the year, with no available fuel forman or fodder for animals. In such conditions,seabuckthorn has emerged as a ‘magic plant’. Inthe cold and barren lands of the temperate regionit is used to make fences, as fuel, fodder andfruit besides its medicinal uses. Sheep, goats,yaks and other animals of these areas feed on the

4 Tigerpaper Vol.29:No.1 Jan.-Mar.2002

ESSENTIALS OF PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT INTHE PHILIPPINES

The National Integrated Protected AreasProgramme is publishing a series called“Essentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines”. All manuals are available freethrough their office. Below is a synopsis ofavailable volumes:

BIODIVERSITY, CONSERVATION ANDTHE COMMUNITYEssentials of Protected Area Management in thePhilippines (2001); Volume 1, by StruanSimpson and Sahlee BugnaISBN: 971-8986-23-5

Biodiversity, Conservation and the Communityare essentially the three strands running throughthe concept of “environment.” Biodiversityrepresents genetic variability in a wide varietyof plants and animals. Conservation ismanaging biodiversity and natural resourcessustainably. Communities who depend on theseresources for their livelihood, health andprosperity must be the ones who insist thatnational environment policies are efficiently andeffectively put into practice. The harmoniousinter-relationship of these three concepts inprotected area management will most likelydefine the successful protection of Philippineecology.

This volume discusses Philippine biodiversity,reasons for biodiversity loss, as well as adescription of the measures instigated to ensurebiodiversity conservation. It is a guide aimed ata wide audience, including students, researchers,grassroots organizations, protected areapersonnel, policy-makers and funding agencies,and provides an insight on protected areamanagement in the Philippines.

A GUIDE TO UNDERSTANDING THEENVIRONMENTEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000) ; Volume 2 by Nick J.Ashton-Jones ISBN: 971-8986-25-1

This is a simple guide to understanding how thehuman environment works, taking the reader, insimple steps, from What is the Environment to

The Future of Humankind. It requires only abasic knowledge of science and is read with itscompanion, the NIPAP Ecological Glossary forProtected Area Managers.

The aim of the guide is to bring all those whoare interested in protecting the Philippinesenvironment – laymen and scientists alike - to acomprehensive understanding of the dynamicmechanics of ecosystems and especially to anappreciation of that fact that in today’s world allecosystems are unavoidably human ecosystems.

ECOLOGICAL GLOSSARY FORPROTECTED AREA MANAGERSEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000); Volume 3 by Nick J.Ashton-JonesISBN: 971-8986-26-X

The glossary has been designed as a companionto the NIPAP Guide to Understanding theEnvironment and is especially aimed atprotected area stakeholders who are seeking toextend their knowledge of ecosystems. As such,the glossary defines a wide range of termscommonly found in ecological texts so that italso stands alone being useful to anyone who isreading about ecological and environmentalissues in the Philippines.

The eighty-six definitions have arisen from awide range of ecological experiences in thePhilippines and elsewhere in South East Asia.They are expected to generate lively debateamong members of the Philippines ecologicalcommunity.

HANDBOOK FOR PROTECTED AREARANGERS AND FIELD OFFICERSEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000)Volume 6, by Struan Simpson and SahleeBugnaISBN: 971-8986-31-6

Protected area management in the Philippines isoftentimes a complex and perilous task,particularly for Rangers, who spend most oftheir time patrolling and monitoring. Their


duties depend upon the nature of the area, butstem mainly from ensuring territorial integrity,implementing the NIPAS Act and other relatedpolicies, and maintaining good relations withlocal residents and visitors. The primary concernof this manual is to provide Rangers withinformation that will enhance their performancein the field. Topics include health, First Aid andhygiene, preparation and planning for safe fieldoperations, monitoring biodiversity, fireprevention and control, and pollution preventionand control.

MANUAL ON PARTICIPATORY 3-DIMENSIONAL MODELING FORNATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Essentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000); Volume 7 by GiacomoRambaldi and Jasmine CallosaISBN: 971-8986-21-9

The manual is intended to assist ParticipatoryLearning and Action practitioners, non-governmental and other civil organizations,society or scientific institutions and others whowould find “community-based 3-D modeling” apowerful tool enabling local stakeholders toexpress their views and assert their rights.

The manual’s content and format are designedfor practitioners who would like to plan andfacilitate the preparation of 3-D models througha community-based process and for thosewanting to bring the potentials of GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) to the grassrootslevel. The P3-DM process and its output (thescaled relief model) are the foundations uponwhich participatory GIS can release its fullpotential.

GUIDE TO ESTABLISHING APROTECTED AREA LIBRARYEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000); Volume 8 byEmmanuel MacedaISBN: 971-8986-36-7

A functional library at the protected area levelcovering the disciplines of environmentalplanning and protected area management isimportant despite the limited literature on thesubject. Also, most information is concentratedon how to organize libraries within universitiesand schools.

This manual covers a selection of topics dealingwith the major aspects of establishing aprotected area library service. It is meant toserve as reference for those entering theprofession of librarianship and as the basis forreflection for more experienced librarians.Library school students may also use it as apreview of what they may expect to do in theirfuture endeavors.

HANDBOOK ON THE ESTABLISH-MENT AND MANAGEMENT OFINTEGRATED PROTECTED AREA SUB-FUNDSEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000); Volume 10. by ImeldaBacudo, Julia Aglionby, Giacomo Rambaldi,Ma. Purissima Matsuura and TeresitaBlastique ISBN: 971-8986-32-4

Produced as a joint-effort by PAWB andNIPAP, this handbook builds on the experiencegained over a period of three years inestablishing and managing Integrated ProtectedArea Sub-Funds (IPAF) in eight protected areas.It deals with procedural matters on theestablishment and management of the IPAFwithin the legal framework and providesvaluable insights into the various aspects ofresource valuation, answers questions from thefield and supplies guidelines for budgetpreparation according to governmentprescriptions. The handbook is designed for allthose involved in protected area managementparticularly for members of the Protected AreaManagement Boards, Protected AreaSuperintendents and Government Officials whowould like to establish functional trust funds inthe framework of the NIPAS law.

PRIMER ON CRIMINAL PROCEDURESFOR VIOLATIONS IN PROTECTEDAREASEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000), Volume 11 by Ted T.Bonpin and Asis G. Perez ISBN: 971-8986-29-4

This primer provides practical answers to basicand frequently asked questions regarding theenforcement of Philippine environmental andnatural resources laws within protected areas. Itdescribes the step-by-step process, fromapprehension to the filing of the case to the


promulgation of judgment and the variousremedies.

This primer intends to enrich the knowledge andskills of field officers and community-basedparalegals in protected areas regarding the lawenforcement aspect of their conservation work.

PARALEGAL TRAINING MANUAL FORPROTECTED AREASEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000); Volume 12, by Ted T.Bonpin, Rodolfo Fernando N. Quicho,Armand H. Mejia, Maria Generosa T.Mislang, Manuel E. Narvadez Jr., and AvaSharon P. Batay-anISBN: 971-8986-37-5

With the scarcity of law enforcers and lawyersin most protected areas of the Philippines, it iscrucial that park rangers and communitymembers be equipped with basic knowledgeabout the legal system, particularly onenvironment and natural resources laws.

This manual was designed to help community-based paralegals train new community-basedlaw enforcers in protecting the biodiversity ofprotected areas. It also suggests methods ofimparting information and skills to paralegals,but the user or trainer must have training skillsparticularly on popular education techniques.

The manual contains nine modules or topicswhich have been grouped under three parts: (1)Paralegal Philosophy and Metalegal Strategies,which is considered inseparable from the wholeparalegal training, discusses why paralegalsshould be directly and actively involved inprotection work and presents arguments fromwhich one can view the legal system and thedelivery of legal services from a developmentalperspective; (2) Legal Information andKnowledge, explains provisions of specificenvironmental and natural resources statutes thatare relevant to law enforcers in protected areas,and (3) Law Enforcement and Prosecutionwhich enables paralegals to actually enforce thelaws they learned in the second part of the

training; it also explains relevant provisions oflaws and regulations as well as techniques onthings that are being actually done.

PRIMER ON ADMINISTRATIVEPROCEDURES FOR VIOLATIONS INPROTECTED AREASEssentials of Protected Area Management inthe Philippines (2000), Volume 13 by Ted T.Bonpin and Asis G. Perez AssociatesISBN: 971-8986-28-6

The primer discusses the important provisions ofvarious administrative orders of the Philippine’sDepartment of Environment and NaturalResources. It answers basic and frequently askedquestions about the administrative procedure forviolations in protected areas (PAs). It describesin detail the Philippine legal process fromapprehension, seizure, confiscation to thedisposition of items subject to illegal activities inPAs. It also includes possible loopholes thatoffenders might take advantage of, so that parkrangers and community-based law enforcers willbe warned of possible pitfalls that might derailtheir efforts.

The primer expects to enrich the knowledge andskills of field officers and community-basedparalegals in PAs. It also expects that the usersenrich this work by giving suggestions andasking more practical questions arising fromtheir experiences in law enforcement.

For more information on how to obtain thesepublications, please write to:

Giacomo Rambaldi (Mr.)Information, Communication TechnologySpecialistASEAN Regional Centre for BiodiversityConservation (ARCBC)Quezon City AnnexP.O. Box 1614 QC CPO, 1156 QUEZON CITY,PhilippinesTel: (+63.2) 926.91.63; 925.84.06 or 925.84.07Fax: (+63.2) 925.84.08Email: [email protected]: www.arcbc.org.ph


tender new flesh of this plant. The double-humped camel, an endangered species found inthe high altitude cold deserts survives onseabuckthorn.

Conservation value

Seabuckthorn improves the soil health andnutrient status of the soils as it adds organiccarbon and fixes 180 kg of nitrogen per ha peryear, which is equal to soybean. It grows widelyon the riversides, on slopes and on farmlands incold deserts. It improves the growth of otherplants and grasses growing below its canopy.Seabuckthorn also has the ability to absorbharmful solar radiation (Dwivedi, 2001).

In India, it is estimated that over 40,000 ha areunder seabuckthorn in Himachal Pradesh,Uttranchal, Sikkim and the Laddakh area ofJammu and Kashmir. Large scale afforestationof seabuckthorn has been started in Pakistan’sBaltistan area of cold deserts, which is adjacentto Laddakh.

There is a lot of scope for seabuckthorncultivation in Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan andother countries in the Asia region endowed witha temperate climate. In China, seabuckthorn hasbeen planted to control soil erosion in more than0.6 million ha of temperate wastelands throughaerial seeding and by manual means by theforest department and other developmentalagencies (Saklani, 2001).

International support and regionalcooperation

Seabuckthorn is of immense value in conservingsoil and the environment and a remarkablepreserver of the fragile temperate ecosystem. Inaddition, it has an important role in medicinalpreparations and is a potential source of proteinsand other organic compounds. China, Russiaand Pakistan have diverted ample energy to tapthe manifold potential of seabuckthorn in termsof commercial cultivation and industrialexploitation. China has benefited tremendouslyby organizing three international workshops onseabuckthorn. However, most people are

unaware of the existence and utility of this‘wonder plant’.

There is an opportunity for late starters likeIndia and other countries of Asia to collaboratewith foreign universities, institutes and otheragencies to evolve advanced technologies onseabuckthorn with regional cooperation.Recently, Himachal Pradesh AgriculturalUniversity, Palampur (India) initiated an actionplan on the promotion of seabuckthorn as analternate economic crop of cold deserts byorganizing a workshop on seabuckthorn atKeylong (H.P.) in collaboration with theUniversity of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan(India); the Institute for Himalayan Bio-resourceTechnology, Palumpur; the Field ResearchLaboratory of Defense Research andDevelopment Organization (DRDO) of India;and other development agencies, industries,NGOs and progressive farmers. H.P.Agricultural University, Palampur alsoorganized an international workshop onseabuckthorn in New Delhi.

Regional cooperation is a must for thedevelopment of appropriate technologies onseabuckthorn and its industrial utilization, aswell as for environmental conservation and asustainable community-based seabuckthornindustry in Asia.

References

Dwivedi, D. 2001. Seabuckthorn - as a vitaminrich brew. Agriculture Today, Feb. 2001,pp.7.

Saklani, S. 2001. Seabuckthorn - a new revolution.Himachal Reporter, Feb. 2001, pp.1.

Singh, V. 2000. Proceedings of the Workshop onSeabuckthorn, organized by HimachalPradesh Agricultural University, Palampur(India), 25 Sept. 2000, Keylong, H.P., India.

Authors’ address: Anil K. Choudhary, SeniorResearch Fellow, Department of Agronomy; R.C.Jaggi, Senior Soil Scientist, Department of SoilScience, Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,Palampur - 176 062, India.


BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONALEXECUTIVE SUMMARY – “THREATENED BIRDS OF ASIA”

Every day news reports focus on the politicalcrises and conflicts that affect the world’shotspots. But we tend to see and hear less aboutthe unfolding global environmental crisis,reflected in the rising number of threatened birdspecies facing a real risk of extinction. Today,hundreds of threatened birds are being draggedinto the extinction vortex. And the bad news isthat the same forces that caused many of theextinctions of the past 200 years – such asdeforestation and habitat fragmentation – arestill virulent today.

BirdLife International’s new book, ThreatenedBirds of Asia: The BirdLife International RedData Book (ISBN 0 946888 44 2), is the mostauthoritative and comprehensive assessmentever published on the subject. It was compiledby over 160 regional experts from 23 Asiancountries, and acknowledges contributions fromanother 1,000 people.

The assessment sets out key data, identifies allglobally threatened bird species in Asia,explains how and why they are threatened, mapsalmost all their localities and lists the actionsneeded to help save them from extinction. It setsout the revised total for Asia’s threatened birdspecies, 100% of which are at risk of extinctionfrom human activities, principally those leadingto the loss and degradation of natural habitats.The assessment also sets out potential solutions,including practical actions required to savespecies from extinction.

One in eight of all bird species in Asia isglobally threatenedA total of 323 bird species – a shocking 12% ofAsia’s birds – are globally threatened withextinction. Most worryingly, 41 are Critical,meaning they have only an estimated 50%chance of surviving over the next 10 years orthree generations. A further 65 are Endangeredand 217 are Vulnerable. An additional 317(Near Threatened) species are close toqualifying as globally threatened. For 23 (Data

Deficient) species, there is inadequateinformation to make a direct, or indirect,assessment of their probability of extinction, butthese too may be at risk. All told, 664 species, or25%, of Asian birds are of conservation concernat the global level.

Some species are on the verge of extinctionOf the 41 species that are classified as Critical,at least eight could already be extinct. A Criticalspecies for which conservation action isessential if extinction is to be prevented isGurney’s Pitta (Pitta gurneyi), which has aknown population of just 26 birds confined toone locality, Khao Nor Chuchi, in peninsularThailand, where forest degradation continues tobe a serious threat.

The overall trend is an increase in thenumber of species that are threatened.Taking into account newly identified species,two rediscovered species and changes in status,the new assessment shows there are 323threatened species out of a total of 2,700 birdspecies in Asia in 2001, compared with theprevious totals of 340 in 1994, 287 in 1988, and51 in 1981. All 323 threatened species are at riskof extinction from human activities, particularlyhabitat loss or degradation resulting fromunsustainable and often illegal logging, and landor wetland clearance for agriculture or exotictimber plantations.

Threatened Birds of Asia includes the firstcomprehensive analysis of the threatened statusof Asia’s bird species. There are, therefore, anumber of differences from previous preliminaryanalyses as a result of the improveddocumentation and interpretation of existingdata, as well as new information. Since 1994,over 50 species have been assessed as threatenedfor the first time in the new book. Half of thesehave been elevated from Near Threatened status,with 12 moved from Least Concern and 12evaluated for the first time ever – either newlydescribed species or newly elevated to specific


rank such as Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus) andthe Slender-billed Vulture (G. tenuirostris).Conversely, this more detailed assessment hasresulted in nearly 70 species being downlistedfrom threatened status. The majority of thesespecies (75%) are retained on the NearThreatened list.

Threatened birds indicate a more generaldeterioration of biodiversity The loss of Asia’s threatened birds from manysites is a measure of the more generaldeterioration of most of the avian and otherdiversity in the region.

All countries and territories in Asia areimportant for threatened speciesIndonesia has the most threatened species (115)both in the region and in the world. It isfollowed by China (78), India (73) and thePhilippines (69). In terms of all species ofconservation concern (i.e. those classified asCritical, Endangered, Vulnerable, ConservationDependent, Near Threatened or Data Deficient),Indonesia again has a very high total of 320species, followed by Malaysia (143) andThailand (137). For Critical and Endangeredspecies only, Indonesia has the most (44species), followed by the Philippines (25) andIndia (18). For nationally Critical andEndangered endemic species, Indonesia againhas the most (32 species), followed by thePhilippines (21) and Vietnam (5). Although themajority of Critical and endangered species areendemic to single territories, 35 species (>30%)occur in two or more territories and therefore thepolitical responsibility for their survival isshared.

Forests are the major habitats for 75% ofthreatened speciesForests are by far the most important of all thehabitats for threatened bird species in the Asianregion, holding the greatest proportion (some80% occurs in total, 75% where the habitat isessential for their survival). Grasslands, savannaand shrublands are second (nearly 30%), but fornearly half of these species these habitats areonly of minor importance. Although artificialhabitats (such as plantations, arable land,artificial wetlands, etc.) apparently feature quitehighly, they are also of minor importance for the

great majority (88%) of threatened speciesoccurring in them, meaning that it is unlikelythat these species can survive without adjacentnatural or semi-natural habitats for feedingand/or breeding.

Tropical lowland moist forests important for70% of threatened forest speciesThreatened Asian forest species occur in manydifferent forest types, including tropical montanemoist, tropical dry, mangrove and temperateforests. However, the majority of threatenedforest bird species occur in the tropics (>90%)and in moist forest types (>80%). The singlemost important forest type is tropical lowlandmoist forest with some 70% of threatened forestspecies (compared to some 40% globally)including, for example, Gurney’s Pitta.

The continuing loss and degradation of lowlandforests in the Sundaic region of Indonesia andMalaysia, in particular, has resulted in somenotable changes: 37 bird species are nowclassified as threatened (compared to 26 in1994) and, alarmingly, 82 as Near Threatened(compared to just 19 in 1994).

Wetlands are crucial for the survival of 20%of threatened speciesWetlands are also important for biodiversity inthe Asian region, with some 20% of threatenedbird species found in such habitats (compared to10% globally), including lakes and pools, riversand swamps and marshes, coastal lagoons andestuaries. Many large waterbirds, whethersolitary or flocking by nature, are edging veryclose to extinction through the disturbance orconversion of their habitats, as well as throughintense hunting pressure in many areas.

Habitat loss or degradation affects nearly100% of threatened speciesHabitat loss or degradation is the major cause ofendangerment in birds in the Asian region,affecting nearly all bird species classified asCritical, Endangered or Vulnerable. This is thebiggest threat overall to forest birds, especiallygiven that the vast majority (>80%) areintolerant of more than medium levels ofdegradation and are therefore highly dependenton near-intact habitat for their continuedsurvival.


Forest exploitation is the commonest cause ofhabitat loss and degradationThe preliminary analysis indicates that of the 15commonest causes of habitat loss, six areagricultural, four relate to extraction (mostlylogging for timber) and three to infrastructuredevelopment (e.g. dam construction), while two(relating to deforestation and wetland loss) areof unknown cause. Overall, logging impactsmost threatened species (affecting nearly 50% ofall), followed by arable farming (affecting>30%), shifting agriculture (>25%) and clearfelling (>25%). An issue that has been ofincreasing concern is the conversion of naturalforest to commercial plantations (e.g. rubber, oilpalm, tea, coffee, etc.) which are of little to noimportance to the conservation of speciesdiversity. Many of these threats areinterconnected, with selective logging oftenleading to the conversion of these lands toplantations or other agricultural practices.

Fragmentation and isolation is especiallyconcerningSome 30% of threatened species in the regionare judged to have small, severely fragmentedranges of <20,000 km2. Some of these are birdswith naturally confined ranges (e.g. on islandsor mountains) are now facing increasedextinction risks owing to most individuals beingfound in small, relatively isolated sub-populations which may go extinct with areduced probability of recolonization. Otherspecies were once historically widespread, buttoday are confined to tiny forest patches orwetland sites. The loss of 99.8% of the primaryforest in Singapore over the past 150 years hasled to the loss of a substantial fraction of thenative biota, including 28% of the residentavifauna.

Agricultural intensification may herald amore widespread declineMany threats and their causes areinterconnected. For example, in the case of theGreat Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigripes) keythreats include habitat loss, modification andfragmentation as a result of widespreadagricultural development and land-use change,particularly conversion of large areas tointensive crop cultivation, irrigation schemes,increased pesticide usage and livestock-grazing,

and high levels of disturbance.

Exploitation affects 50% of threatenedspecies and the bird trade is expected toincreaseExploitation for human use is the second mostcommon threat impacting >50% of allthreatened species. Of these latter, some 70% arecurrently taken for food, and some 30% for thecagebird trade, e.g. the Bali Starling (Leucosparrothschildi).

Invasive species affect 10% of threatenedspecies but the problem may be worseInvasive species are noted to affect some 10% ofthreatened bird species in the region, themajority on small islands.

Other threats include disease, longline fishingand climate changeDisease is believed to be a factor in the Criticalstatus of three species of vultures which aresuffering extremely rapid population declines,particularly across the Indian sub-continent.Longline fisheries are a key threat for twoalbatross species in the north Pacific Ocean,where seabirds are killed when they take baitedhooks and drown. Climate change resulting inhabitat change could become an increasinglyimportant issue in the region, such asprogressively drier conditions resulting in thedecline of forest around the Qinghi-TibetanPlateau.

Conservation measures have been identifiedfor every speciesFor every threatened species, a range ofconservation measures has been proposed. Thepreliminary analysis shows that some of theserelate to species-based actions, such as thoseaddressing specific threats from hunting(relating to 10% of all threatened species), trade(10%), invasive species (5%) and disturbance(3%), and intensive species managementthrough recovery management (3%), re-introduction (2%) and ex situ action (1%). Somerelate to habitat and site-based actions, such asthe establishment of new protected areas and themanagement of new and existing protected areas(a key target for nearly 80% of all threatenedspecies) or the extension of existing ones (20%).And some relate to more general cross-cutting


conservation actions such as increasedawareness and advocacy (40%) or legislation(20%). For some species, especially those thatcross national boundaries, Species Action (orrecovery or management) Plans are an importantinstrument for coordinated species conservation.

Some species are already being saved fromextinctionThe following two are examples of specieswhich are benefitting from targeted conservationaction and whose status has improved fromCritical to Endangered since 1994:

Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon), now a localizedbreeder in central China, had a population of 66in 1998 and is slowly increasing owing to arange of conservation measures includingprotection of nest sites and maintenance of rice-fields as feeding sites. The estimated populationat the end of 2000 was 120 birds.

Black-faced Spoonbill (Platalea minor), isestimated to number 700 birds, breeds on isletsoff the west coast of Korea and China, and hasmajor wintering wetland sites in Taiwan, HongKong and Vietnam. An action plan andworkshops involving all major range countrieshas resulted in coordinated actions, including

satellite-tracking and field surveys which haveadded considerably to knowledge of themigratory movements and identified someimportant breeding and passage sites.

Birds are valued for economic, cultural,ethical and spiritual reasonsBirds are a vital part of Asia’s natural heritage.They inspire every culture, every religion andevery ethnic group in some way, through theirbeauty, their sounds and their close links withpeople. They help to define cultures andidentities in the face of globalization ofsocieties. Over the centuries, birds have inspiredartists and bird images are frequently used toadorn everyday objects. Conserving birds alsoclearly has great economic benefits.Birdwatching is an increasingly popular interestin the region, and with this there are increasingbusiness opportunities for the recreation andtourism industries, particularly in rural areas.

For more information about Threatened Birdsof Asia, visit the BirdLife International websiteat www.birdlife.net.

Reprinted with the permission of BirdLifeInternational.


CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE AND ITS HABITAT INSOAN VALLEY

by Zulfiqar Ahmed

Soan Valley

The southern edge of the Potohar Plateau isdemarcated by the famous Salt Range ofPakistan. The Salt Range extends fromMianwali in the west, to Jhelum in the east. Thewestern end of the salt range forms a semi-loop,creating a valley called the Soan Valley. Theaverage elevation of the valley is 2,000 feetabove mean sea level. The mountainssurrounding the valley are covered withsubtropical forests. The highest peak in thewestern Salt Range is Mount Sakesar, whichrises 5,200 feet above mean sea level (Ref: Atlasof Pakistan). The valley has three lakes, whichplay a vital role in the climate and ecology ofthe region. These lakes are the staging areas ofwinter migrating flocks of some of theendangered species of waterfowl and otherbirds.

Soan Valley has an intriguing culture,environment, climate and ecology. It ismoderately populated, with approximately 60%of the population engaged in farming, and mostof the land is under cultivation. Soan is famousfor its off-season vegetables, and fruits likecauliflower, oranges, etc., which are sold by thefarmers at exorbitant prices that bring ahandsome inflow of cash into the valley.

The Soan Valley is accessible from four roads:1) via Jaabah Village, situated at Talaghang-Khushab Road; 2) via Soddi Village, direct fromKhushab;3) via Quaidabad through Sakesar;and 4) via Ban Hafiz Gee Village throughSakesar. Routes 3 and 4 are restricted for thegeneral public.

Although the valley has abundant subsoil water,the water table is rapidly decreasing due tofrequent droughts. The tube well water of thevalley is not fit for human consumption, as itcontains a high percentage of nitrates,

carbonates and bi-carbonates. In certain places,the salt content in the water makes itundrinkable.

Environmental disorders in the valley

Large-scale deforestation in the adjoining SaltRange has devastated the environment of thevalley. The slopes once covered by lush greenforests are now barren. Along with the globalwarming effect, the alarming rate ofdeforestation in the area has led to a steadilyprogressive rise in the temperature. According tometeorological reports, this rise has beenbetween 3-4°C during the last two decades. Ifone scrutinizes the temperature data, it is easy toascertain that the temperature rise in the valleyhas been directly proportional to the rate ofdeforestation.

Forest destruction is also one of the majorfactors responsible for fewer rains, as thenumber of trees are inadequate to generate theamount of moisture in the atmosphere requiredto trigger rains. Less rain is responsible for theever dropping water table and the shrinkinglakes. As a cyclic reaction, the reduction inwater reservoirs in turn contributes to less rains,and temperature rises.

Another harmful effect of deforestation is thelarge-scale erosion of slopes that results inlandslides, which are a common occurrence inthe Salt Range.

Causes of deforestation

The mountains of the western end of the SaltRange are covered with sub-tropical evergreenforests, sub-tropical semi-evergreen forests andtropical thorn forests. The major treesconstituting the forests are Kao (Oleaferruginea) and Kikar (Acacia modesta). Thereare many factors which contribute to the large-


scale deforestation in the Salt Range, some ofwhich are discussed below.

Forest fires

The primary cause of forest destruction is thefrequent forest fires. In the summer of 1994there were 27 incidents of forest fires in just 45days. In an official capacity, the author hasinvestigated a number of such fires, whichrevealed that most of them were deliberatelyignited by the local herdsmen. This was doneprior to the monsoon season, as then the burntarea produced more fodder for the cattle andsheep of the local people after the rains.Normally such fires are self-extinguished aftera day or two. However, there were two incidentswhere the forest fire spread over large areas andenormous efforts were needed to extinguish it.Kao tree contains an oily substance which ishighly inflammable. Hence, the Kao tree burnslike a torch and is reduced to ashes in a matter ofminutes. In this respect, the Kao tree is unlikeother trees found at the same altitude in that thefire only destroys the dead cells forming thebark of those trees, and the living cells remainunscathed.

Recommendationsi) Educate the local population about the

hazards and the detrimental effects of fire onthe ecology and environment.

ii) Identify alternative methods for locals toincrease fodder for their livestock.

iii) Point out sites where the fire could bebeneficial for the forest.

iv) Educate the local population on methods offighting forest fires and controlled fires.

Wood cutting for fuel

Wood cutting for fuel is a dilemma ofdeveloping countries. Poverty stricken peopleare dependent on the forest for their livelihoodand fuel requirements. Each day tons of woodare collected from the forests of the Salt Range.Daily, before dawn, groups of women emergefrom the villages of the Soan Valley to cut andcollect firewood from the forests. They formlong queues before entering the forest area.After collecting the wood in huge bundles, byfirst light they are ready to return home. As part

of the culture of Soan, all the heavy-duty tasksare carried out by the women. The reason woodis cut and collected before dawn is so that thewomen will confront minimum resistance fromthe forest guards deployed on duty.

Most of the villages are located at a height of2,500 feet above sea level, where the slightlylower atmospheric pressure increases thecooking time and the chill factor in winters,boosting the requirement for fuelwood. RecentlyWorld Wildlife Fund - Pakistan provided fuel-efficient stoves to the locals, which will reducethe need for fuelwood.

Cutting of Kao branches to make walkingsticks

Kao branches are quite in demand in the localmarkets. Each Kao stick having a diameter of 1-2 inches and a length of 4-5 feet may fetch up toRs 100. These branches are treated and finishedinto fancy walking sticks which are sold in themarkets of big cities. Walking sticks of Kaowood are very durable and naturally termite-proof. Such branch cutting jobs are carried outby the local men, as they can expertly identifythe right sized branches for making the walkingsticks. Kao trees stripped of branches are acommon sight in the Salt Range.

Wetlands of Soan

There are three wetlands in the Soan Valley,namely Ucchali, Khabbaki and Jahlar. It is amisconception to include Nammal and KalarKahar as part of the Soan Complex since thosetwo wetlands are well outside the range of SoanValley. Nammel is 25 miles northwest of thevalley and Kalar Kahar is about 30 miles east ofthe valley. Both of the wetlands form parts ofentirely different climatic and environmentalzones.

Khabbaki Wetland

Located a couple of miles east from the center ofthe Soan Valley, the lake is rectangular in shape,with a maximum depth of approximately 10meters. The water is brackish and muddy, andsupports a number of species of aquaticvegetation. The wetland attracts many species of


wintering birds. Amongst them the mostnoteworthy is the White-headed duck. In fact,because of the presence of this duck, the lakehas gained the attention of a number ofinternational wildlife conservation conventionsand was listed as a Ramsar site in 1976. Duringthe last few years, the number of waterfowlvisiting the lake has significantly decreased, asthe fragile biodiversity of the wetland and thesurrounding areas has been seriously disturbeddue to the following factors:a) hunting;b) increased human population along the lake;c) water pollution by soap (used for washing

clothes, etc.);d) introduction of fish species by the Fisheries

Department;e) pedestrian and vehicular movement on the

road adjacent to the lake; andf) climatic changes.

Ucchali

This is an oval-shaped wetland located at thefoot of Mount Sakesar, in the extreme west ofthe valley. The surface area of Ucchali, being ashallow water lake, is subjected to rapidvariation depending upon the territorial rain. Thewater is extensively salty, which makes thesurvival of fish and other underwater organismsimpossible. However, a greater percentage ofOrganic ‘C’ compounds makes it ideal for highmicro-organisms activity. The Ucchali water isalso quite rich in chemicals like Albite, Calcite,Chlorite, Illitite, Quartz, Kaolinte and Geothite(Ref: Water Quality Research Journal ofCanada).

Ucchali salt water reservoir is an ideal wetlandfor migrating Greater flamingoes. Each year,100-150 birds make a brief stop-over ofapproximately 3-4 weeks to rebuild theirstrength to continue their long journey.

Jahlar Wetland

Jhalar is the smallest wetland, and in fact ismore like a large pond. The activity of migratingbirds is not very significant. Only the disturbedwater fowls from the nearby larger lakessometimes decide to land at Jhalar for a brieftime.

Efforts in the conservation of Greaterflamingoes (Phoenicopterus ruber)

In October/November 1994, a flock of 147Greater flamingoes landed at Ucchali Lake. Itwas a rare opportunity for the author to studythe behavior of the bird in the wild. After acouple of days, observations revealed that thenumber of birds was decreasing and stray dogswere seen eating the corpse of a dead bird on theshores of Uccahali. The author immediately tookthe following protective measures:a) Convinced the local influential people to

keep strict control over hunting in theirrespective villages.

b) Provided twelve bore cartridges to the localsof Ucchali village to carry out the shootingof stray dogs. (Within days the stray dogswere effectively controlled.)

c) Instructed PAF guards deployed at a checkpost close to the lake to discouragepedestrians from using the road adjacent tothe lake and from disturbing the birds bythrowing stones, etc. Soon the birds foundthat the corner of the lake closest to thecheck post was the safest point, and spentmost of their time there.

By adopting these simple measures, 100%conservation results were achieved and not asingle bird was lost before they flew off afterthree weeks.

From this personal experience, the author canconfirm that community response is verypositive and villagers can be easily convinced totake effective part in conservation projects.

White-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala)

Amongst the many species of water fowlvisiting the wetlands of the Soan Valley, theWhite-headed duck is the rarest and mostendangered. The world population of this bird isestimated to be between 9-15 thousand, andtheir status category in IUCN’S Red Data Listis VUA2e (BirdLife International). It is listed bythe Bonn Convention, CITES, CMS and ECRegulations. The breeding distribution isrestricted to the adjoining regions of theMediterranean. At the start of winter, the White-heads migrate to Iran, Pakistan and


Turkmenistan.

In spite of enormous efforts put in by a numberof international conservation organizations, thenumber of White-headed ducks in the wild israpidly decreasing. The following are the twomajor contributing factors:a) Hybridization with Ruddy duck. Ruddy duck

(Oxyura jamaicensis) is originally fromAmerica and was introduced in Europe atthe Sir Peter Scott Wild Life Sanctuary.From there, the bird escaped and moved toSpain, which is the favorite breeding area ofthe White-heads. The male Ruddys found itvery easy to mate with the females of theclosely related species of White-heads, thusdecreasing the number of original White-heads. Different projects (including thekilling of Ruddys) are in hand to try tocontrol the situation, but the desired resultshave not yet been achieved (Ref: Newsletterof Baltimore Birds Club).

b) Hunting. Migrating White-heads (alongwith other species of waterfowl) areruthlessly hunted in the Central Asian states.Whole communities participate in well-planned hunting of water fowl, in order tofulfil their protein requirements.

Migration routes

The migration routes of White-headed ducks arenot yet properly understood. Sometimes the oddsighting is reported from an area or wetlandwhere the bird could be least expected andsometimes they fail to stage at their favoritewintering spots.

Author’s hypothesis

The migration of birds is a complex, instinctualbehavior, strongly linked to the weather. Eachstep of the migratory sequence is directly orindirectly linked with different weatherphenomena. In order to determine and analyzethe migratory behavior of White-heads, theauthor established a link with the significantweather that prevails over the Mediterranean.

In the winters, the sub-continent is frequentlystruck by ‘western disturbances’, which is a lowpressure system originating from the

Mediterranean. This particular weatherphenomena is caused by a high-pressure areaover the Mediterranean sea due to Orography. InOctober, such pressure changes over theMediterranean Sea cause cloudiness and a lot ofrain (Ref: Weather Around the World byTannehill). This is the time when the White-heads take off for their long eastward journey.The birds fly well ahead of the weather (westerndisturbance). The flight of White-heads issupported by favorable winds, blowing in aneasterly direction towards the sub-continent andCentral Asia.

The author strongly believes that there is arelationship between the migration of White-heads and this particular weather phenomena.

Recommendationsa) Satellite Tracking Technology should be

employed to exactly determine themigratory pattern of White-headed ducks.

b) A captive breeding facility should beestablished at Soan Complex. From thebreeding center the captive-bred birds canbe introduced to Khabbaki wetland forsubsequent integration with wild White-headed ducks.

Avi and mammalian fauna in the Salt Range

The Salt Range supports a number of commonbird and mammal species. Only those speciesnot covered in any of the wildlife surveys(except for sub-para ‘c’) are described below:a) Wood pigeon (Columba palumbus). Except

for a few small pockets in the SulemanRange at the Pak-Afghan border, the SaltRange is the only place in Pakistan wherethis particular species of the pigeon familyexists (Ref: Birds of Pakistan Vol-I byRoberts). The Wood pigeon is a colony birdand is found at heights of not less than4,000 feet above mean sea level. Theplumage of Wood pigeon is generallysimilar to that of Common blue rock pigeon.The only significant feature is its extra longtail, which is unusual for the pigeon family.The bird is a swift flyer and the speciallydesigned tail gives it excellentmaneuverability during flight. Its populationis drastically decreasing, mostly because of


loss of habitat. Hunting of the bird is veryrare, as the local shikarees (hunters) aremore interested in hunting partridges, see-see, etc. Moreover, very few people candifferentiate it from the Common blue rockpigeon (Columba livia).

b) Hedgehog (Paraechinus hypomelas). Hugecolonies of common hedgehog inhabit thetop of Sakesar. The mammal is not very shyand often comes in close range of humans,as it feels no potential threat. In winters, themammal goes into hibernation. The onlyfactor responsible for its unnatural death isvehicular traffic on the road. The Sakesarpeak can provide excellent opportunities forthe study of hedgehogs.

c) Punjab urial (Ovis vignei). A few herds,each comprising 10-15 urials, are found inthe Salt Range. They are fighting a battle forsurvival against the local shikarees and lossof habitat. Shikarees are distributed inalmost all the villages of the valley and havea craze for hunting these magnificentanimals because of their delicious meat,trophy horns and for seeking thrills. Also,the Punjab urial is affected by the loss ofhabitat due to the ever increasing numbersof coal and salt mines, along with humaninterference in the ecology of the SaltRange.

d) Leopard (Panthera pardus). The Salt Rangesupported a comfortable population ofleopards until the mid-20th century, afterwhich it fell prey to the hunting instincts ofman and loss of habitat. Influential personsin Mianwali and Kalabagh (adjoiningdistricts of the Western Salt Range) carriedout the ruthless killing of the cat to the stagewhere it was declared ‘extinct’ (Ref:Mammals of Pakistan by Robberts -1977).

The species made its first reappearance in

1995 when a leopard was sighted at the topof Mount Sakesar. The animal was seen bya number of people at close range in broaddaylight. It remained there for three days(confirmed by multiple sightings), whichspread a wave of terror amongst the localinhabitants. Recently an animal descendedfrom the mountains (probably due tostarvation) and entered the town ofQuaidabad, where it was shot dead. Duringthe same time frame a calf was killed by aleopard near the top of Sakesar. The remainsof the calf were poisoned by the locals, butthe results of the poisoning are not known.In the summer of 2000, a sighting of afemale leopard with two cubs was reportedin the Western Salt Range.

The author believes that there are presently nomore than 2-3 pairs of leopards remaining. Thespecies is facing extinction due to loss ofhabitat, the hostile attitude of humans, and thenon-mutation of the genetic pool.

Recommendationsi) A well-planned, thorough survey of the area

should be conducted to establish the numberof animals and their favored habitats.

ii) The hide and skull of the recently shotanimal should be retrieved from the town ofQuaidabad and a sample of hair or skin sentto relevant laboratories for DNA testing.The results would enable us to determine itsexact decendency and to establish links withsimilar species.

iii) To eliminate the chances of poisoning, ascheme for compensation to the localsshould be initiated in case their domesticanimals are killed by leopards.

The author is Squadron Leader, P.A.F Base,Lahore, Pakistan.


A PRELIMINARY SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF TIGERS (Panthera tigris)

IN DIBRUSAIKHOWA BIOSPHERE RESERVE

by Asif Ahmed Hazarika

Introduction

Tiger (Panthera tigris) is the most significantspecies of wildlife in the flood plains ofDibrusaikhowa Biosphere Reserve, with ahealthy population and an additional largepotential habitat for expansion. The grassyriverine plains, interspersed with evergreenand moist deciduous tree forest and swamps, isideal for the sustainment and propagation ofthe tiger population. The presence of preyspecies, i.e. wild ungulates, is very low andthe tigers thrive to a great extent on thelivestock of the cattle stations. The tigersnormally keep within the protected area, but inwinter some animals - usually males - stray tonearby villages, particularly along theBrahmaputra and even to towns likeDibrugarh. Also, during heavy flooding thetigers occasionally take shelter in nearbyvillages.

Taking into consideration factors like the richtiger population in the area, the inadequatesurveys on the species in the region, andfinally the protection and managementinfrastructure in Dibrusaikhowa and its impacton the tiger population at present and in thefuture, there is an urgent need for a first handpreliminary survey on its status.

This paper deals with the distribution of tigerswithin the reserve, their major prey species,local movements and recommendations.

Methods

All parts of the reserve were surveyed on foot,by boat and on a few occasions on elephants.Foot transects were made along wildlife trails,foot tracks and forest roads. The banks of

water channels were also thoroughly surveyed.

Animal drinking spots in the forests, as well asin the silty stretches of the Brahmaputra, weresurveyed for tiger pugmarks. In the morningsand evenings, forest roads and animals trailswere monitored for direct observations. On afew occasions, tiger kills were located toascertain the presence of tiger. Interviews wereconducted with local graziers, forest villagersand forest guards. For a comparative study onthe movement of tigers, several central andperipheral zones of the reserve were selectedand pugmark evidence collected from thezones in summer and winter.

Results

Tiger pockets

Several pockets of jungle have been identifiedas tiger pockets. These pockets hold residenttigers and, in some cases, regular visitors. Themaximum number of evidences in the form ofpugmarks, scratch marks, dung, kills, etc. werefound in these pockets. Both old and freshevidences regularly found at the samelocations indicates that these areas holdresident tigers or regular visitors. The habitatin all these pockets is ideal for tiger.

1. Holokhbari-Jamubari Pocket Location: northeastern part of the reserve

One of the most well-stocked tiger habitats,situated in the northeastern part of SaikhowaR.F. The vegetation consists of trees such asJamuk (Syzygium cumini), Holokh (Terminaliamyriocarpa), Satiana (Alstonia scholaris),short grasses (mostly thatch -Imperata) andcane (Calamus) thickets. Bushy thickets of


Fig.1: Tiger pockets identified in Dibrusaikhowa Biosphere Reserve

wild lemon are also found in some parts of thearea. The Garonala runs along the southernboundary of the area, while the Brahmaputraforms its northern border. The marshy area ofTokobil and the thatch land of Miripathar formthe western boundary. The area has at leastthree small pools that hold water in summeruntil early winter. The western part ofGaronala holds water almost throughout theyear.

2. Ronganala Pocket Location: southeastern part of SaikhowaR.F. in the northeastern part of the reserve.

A very fine area with perhaps two residenttigers, comprising thatch land dotted withsmall trees. It stretches along the west bank ofthe Ronganala (a sub-channel of theAjukhanala) in a northwest-southeastdirection. The thatch grassland vegetation onthe bank of the Ronganala is graduallyreplaced in the west by a dense forest which iscontiguous with the eastern-most point ofDibru R.F.

3. Nagapathar Pocket Location: northeast of Kolomy

A very secluded pocket comprised solely oftall elephant grass. There are no trees with thegrassland. The area is bounded in the south,east and west by dense forest. There are a fewpools of water within the grassland.

4. Dighalipathar Pocket Location: central northern part of thereserve at the mouth of the Dighalinala

A vast area comprised entirely of elephantgrass. To the north lies the pomua-monku area.This area is one of the best tiger areas inDibrusaikhowa. The tigers of this arearegularly visit the forests to the south, acrossthe Dighalinala.

5. South Shampathar Pocket Location: immediately south ofShampathar field, south of Phasizua ForestVillage

The area comprises light to dense forest andbushy areas. There are some open areas andsmall swamp lands. The area is visited bytigers from the Balijannala area in the west.Tigers from this area visit the Shampathar inthe north and the main channel of theBrahmaputra.

6. Kachudeep (Kachudubi) BalijannalaPocket Location: less than a kilometer to the westof Balijan Forest Camp

The area comprises a narrow nala surroundedup to the bank by big trees. Several uprootedtrees have fallen across the nala. North of thenala is mostly of grassland, although there areforests as well. The entire area to the south of


the nala consists of thick forest, most of whichbelongs to the Balijan Forest Plantation. Thereis sufficient evidence to indicate residenttigers.

7. Kundaghat Pocket Location: north of Torali beel, stretchingalong the Garamajan-Laika forest road oneither side

Of late, the area earlier covered with open treeforest has been encroached upon bygrasslands. Attracted by this ideal habitat oflight to heavy forest and grassland, one ormore tigers have taken up residence in thearea, perhaps temporarily since the area doesnot have any thick patches of jungle that thetigers usually prefer. The evidence indicatingthe presence of tigers was collected in thewinter, when tigers often travel considerabledistances from their home territory in search ofa mate.

Major prey species of the tiger inDibrusaikhowa

The reserve has a moderate stock of wildungulates. The populations of both of themajor deer species, i.e. barking deer(Muntiacus muntjac) and sambhar (Cervusunicolor) are showing an increasing tendencyand the hog deer (Axis porcinus) is also knownto occur in some pockets. In particular, thepopulation of barking deer is showing a steadyrecovery. Wild pig (Sus scrofa) is well stockedin the reserve and is one of the major preyspecies of the tiger. In Dibrusaikhowa,buffaloes – particularly calves, heifers andcows – from the cattle camps constitute amajor portion of the dietary ratio, particularlyin the northern riverine areas where most ofthe cattle farms are located. Other minor preyspecies include hare and porcupine. In theeastern part of the reserve, in the SurkeyChapori-Rongdoi area, the tiger will readilyprey upon the feral horses that are found inthat part of the reserve.

Comparative study of local seasonalmovements of tiger within the core area

A comparative study of the movements oftigers in the central and peripheral zones of

Dibrusaikhowa Reserve was carried out duringthe months of November/December (winter)and July/August (summer) of 1993-94, basedon pugmark evidence. For the purpose of thestudy, the reserve was roughly divided intoseven central zones (Kolomy, Nagapather,Kawri Beel, Kadamguri, Trongkong Road,Dhopra Beel, Dighali south) and sevenperipheral zones (Torali, Kunda ghat, SabruMohmara, Baghjan Raidang, Shampathar,Rongdoi, Kaitia). More pugmarks wererecorded in the central zones in summer and inthe peripheral zones in winter, indicating thatthe tigers maintained a seasonal pattern. Thispattern may correspond to factors such as: 1)flooding of the reserve and the submergence ofmost areas, particularly in the peripheralregions, during the summer months; 2) themating season being in winter; and 3) theconfinement and dispersal of the prey animalsin the summer and winter months.

Another factor that is instrumental in forcingthe tigers out to far flung areas in late summeris the annual flooding which drives both thetigers and the prey animals to peripheral andadjoining areas.

Recommendations

A multi-pronged management, protection andresearch infrastructure is recommended.

1. Protection infrastructure a) Adequate protection staff: At least

three companies of Assam forestprotection force should be stationed atDibrusaikhowa Biosphere Reserve.

b) Establishment of forest camps: Someforest camps are needed in strategicand vulnerable areas of the reservewhere 24-hour vigilance is necessary.Forest camps should be set up atBaluchar, Surkey chapori, Jamukbari,Ajukha, Dighalimukh, Baghjan,Mohmara chapori and Kuplong.

c) Establishment of beat offices: Twobeat offices should be established, oneat Laika and another at Dodhia. Bothshould have half a company ofA.F.P.F. personnel each.

d) Intelligence network: An efficient


intelligence network should be set up,engaging informers on a reward basis,who should be instructed to reportback on all illegal activities such asfishing, poaching, tree felling, etc.

e) Improvement of mobility: A goodtransportation infrastructure should beestablished so that protection activitiescan be effectively carried out. Sincethe area is riverine and flood-prone, anadequate number of boats should bemade available. A few elephantsshould also be brought into service.

2. Technical research wing, research programsand projects

A proper research wing manned by trainedscientists and technicians should beestablished to carry out various long and shortterm research programs on the ecology ofdifferent species of wildlife, and in particular,the tiger.

3. Veterinary infrastructure with forensiclaboratory

A modern and sophisticated veterinary wingwith a research laboratory to carry out variousanalytical and experimental works should beestablished. This is needed to maintain thehealthy propagation of wildlife and also tocope with outbreaks of epidemics or diseases.A forensic laboratory would also be useful toascertain the causes of death of wildlife bothwithin and outside the reserve.

4. Elevated platform to provide shelter duringfloods

A series of earthen platforms about 15 feethigh should be constructed at different parts ofthe reserve to provide high ground for theanimals to take shelter during flooding.

5. Regional (district) tiger welfare cell Although the tiger is the most importantwildlife species in Dibrusaikhowa, it receiveslittle protection and management for itswelfare. Therefore, a regional or district tigerwelfare cell should be formed comprising theDeputy Commissioner of Dibrugarh &Tinsukia Districts as the Head, and theSuperintendents of Police of both districts, andthe Divisional Forest Officer and Range

Officers of Dibrusaikhowa as the othermembers of the cell. This cell should have afield coordinating group as its grassrootsconstituent comprising junior officers of thepolice stations, outposts and beat posts locatedon the periphery of the reserve, a few villageheadmen from the area, prominent villagersand a trustworthy local NGO. This cell orcommittee should meet once a month andreview the functioning of the reserve and thewelfare of the tigers.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the followingpeople for their assistance during this study:Retesh Bhattacharjee, Mufakkir Ali, NarayanSarmah, Samsul Hussain, Thaneswar Bora,Sankar Upaidhya, Bori, Khelon Saikia, SridharGohain, Dipen Saikia, Lokheswar Mili,BihuramMili, Depen Sonowal, MonojBailong, Marques Beck, Sadhin Sonowal,Semon Kerketta, Bishop Tirkey, RamonToppo, Holy Munda, Joton Das, LakhinderMajhi, Gopal Mahato, Maq bool Hussain,Pradeep Mahato, Ramjan Ali, Arshad Ahmed,Kharia Koiri, Bhim Y adav, Shyamdras Yadav, Hamlal Puri, Ramsing Pegu, Arun Miliand Dheran Pait. Their help and cooperationwere most efficient and praiseworthy.

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley. 1983. A PictoralGuide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-continent. Bombay Nat. Hist.Soc. 2nd ed.

Corbet, G.B. and J.E. Hill. 1992. TheMammals of the Indomalayan Region: ASystematic Review. Oxford UniversityPress.

Chaudhury, A. U .1997. Checklist of theMammals of Assam. Gibbon Books,Guwahati.

Das, P.K. and P. Sanyal. 1995. Assessment ofstable pug measurement parameters foridentification of tigers. Tigerpaper22(2):20-26.

Hazarika, A.A. 1994. Dibru Saikhowa: Theunsung tiger haven. The Assam Tribune,Sunday reading, April 3, Guwahati.

Hazarika, A.A. 1995. Born free. The AssamTribune, Sunday reading, July 23,


Guwahati.

Hazarika, A.A. 1997. A report on tigercensus conducted in Dibru Saikhowasanctuary and a prospective tiger reservein Upper Assam. Tigerpaper 24(1):14-16.

Jackson, P. 1995. The status of tiger in 1993and threats to its future. Tigerpaper22(1):14-22.

Kotwal, P.C. and R. Gopal. 1995. Radio-telemetry and field observation on the

territoriality of tiger in Kanha NationalPark. Tigerpaper 22(4):6-11.

Prater, S.H. 1948. The Book of IndianAnimals. Bombay Natural History Society,4th Edition.

Roots, C. 1971. Tropical Birds. HamlynPublishing Ltd., England.

Author's address: Seujpur 4th bylane, P.O.Dibrugarh, Dist- Dibrugarh, Assam -786001,India.

22 TigerpaperVol.29:No.1Jan.-Mar.2002

NAMDAPHA TIGER RESERVE – PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AS A

BIOSPHERE RESERVE

by G.S. Solanki and Uma Melkania

Introduction

In the first meeting of the InternationalCoordination Council for the Man in theBiosphere (MAB) program in 1971, it wasdecided that what was needed for the envisionedinternational network of protected areas was toidentify sites for the conservation of geneticresources, for research, monitoring, educationand training. The Indian MAB committeeestablished a Core Advisory Committee (CAC)in 1979 to study potential sites for biospherereserves in India. In accordance with the criteriaevolved by Unesco, the CAC of the Indian MABcommittee identified twelve potential sites forbiosphere reserves, one of which was NamdaphaNational Park (Nair, 1993). This national parkwas also identified and recognized as thefifteenth Tiger Reserve in 1982-83 (Gopal,1993).

Geographically, the park is located in thenortheastern part of Changlang district inArunachal Pradesh, between 20°15' to 27°51' Nlatitude and 95°45' to 97°30' E longitude. Itcovers a total area of 1,983 km2. At present,outside the boundary of Namdapha TigerReserve (NTR) there are villages of the Chakma,Lisu and Mishimi tribes, whose main occupationis agriculture and who are more or less settled inthe area. Their dependency on the adjacentforest (outside the boundary of the biospherereserve area) is for all forest products used asmaterial for house building, fodder, fuel,handicrafts, etc. It is necessary to take care ofthe human factor in the periphery of the reserve.Proper planning and consideration is needed totake care of their socio-economic, cultural andlegal aspects in order to ensure betterenvironmental care of this and other biospherereserves.

The information in this report was gathered andcompiled with the aim to:

1. Analyze the vegetation wealth of NamdaphaTiger Reserve and the human resourcefactor in the periphery of this reserve.

2. Assess the present level of impact of humanactivities on this reserve.

3. Suggest ways for proper and sustainablemanagement of the reserve.

Description of the area (NTR)

Climate: The region is well-known for aprolonged monsoon and excessive rainfall,which may extend over eight months fromMarch to November-February. Temperatures inthe winter season range from 15° to 21° C, whilefrom March to October it varies between 22° to30° C. The maximum temperatures occur duringJune-August when the weather becomesoppressive. The southwest monsoon that lastsfrom May to October accounts for 75% of thetotal annual rainfall, while the northeastmonsoon during December to March accountsfor only 15%. The total average rainfallrecorded is 6,300 mm.

Topography: The area is wedge-shaped and islocated between Mismi Hills and thenortheastern limit of the Patkai Hills. The ridgesof Mismi Hills have extensive table land andhigh peaks of over 4,000 m. The highest peakwithin the reserve is the Champ Bum (2,513 m),which is part of the present Dapha Bum Ridge.The ridges, burns and rivers (Namdapha andDiyum) form natural boundaries for the existingnational park. Diyum valley is the mostsignificant area within the national park and isproposed as the core area of the biospherereserve.

Biogeography and Geology: Biogeographically,the area falls within a single natural unit – theIndo-Chinese sub-region. Geological formationsinclude Tertiary and Quaternary sequences. Theoldest Tertiary sequence, termed ‘Dibang


Group’, dates back to the Eocene and iscomposed of sandstones, clay, shells andcarboniferous shells with coal. The next rockylayer is the ‘Tipan Group’, dating back to theMiocene and composed of coarse ferruginoussandstone and sandy clay with occasional thinpartings of shale, girt and conglomerates andfragmentations of silcified and semi-carboniferous fossil wood. The youngestTertiary sequence is composed of pebble bedsalternating with clay and sandstone termed‘Dihing Group’, and has become exposed alongthe course of a major drainage system. The areais earthquake-prone and as a consequence therivers change their courses abruptly.

Faunal diversity according to altitude: Thetopography of the Namdapha Tiger Reserve ishighly variable, ranging from 100m to 4,571m.The description of faunal diversity according toaltitude will conveniently provide the totalspectrum of richness in the reserve, althoughinformation on the biodiversity beyond 1,100mis not available because the area toward thehigher reaches is not easily accessible.Information regarding faunal and floral diversitywas gathered from the technical report of theMAB project conducted by the ZoologicalSurvey of India (Ghosh, 1987). The sites givenbelow have been redefined on the basis of thealtitudinal height mentioned in the report.

Site 1: This site is located at an altitude of about100m near Mio, the headquarters of NamdaphaNational Park and Tiger Reserve. Located by theside of the Noa Dihing River, the humansettlements border the nearby forest. Annualrainfall varies between 1,770-3,100mm,reaching its peak during July and its lowest levelin December. Significant vertebrates are asfollows:Mammals: Irrawaddi squirrel, Giant flyingsquirrel, Long-tongued fruit batBirds: Ruddy kingfisher, Speckled piculet,Longtailed broadbill, Crow-billed drongo, Hair-crested drongo, Great racket-tailed drongo, Red-whiskered bulbul, Red-vented bulbul, Spottedbabbler, Paradise flycatcher, Tree sparrowReptiles (Lizards): Hemidactylus, Cosymbotus,Calotes sp.Amphibia: Rana, Bufo, Polypedates sp.

Site 2: Located at 300m; largely flat landcovered with mixed forests. Undergrowthcleared at times for habitat management. TheNoa Dihing River and various small nullahsflow in the area. The area is close to humanhabitations. Fauna commonly found in the areaare as follows:Mammals: Assam tree shrew, Miller’s fruit bat,Temminck’s fruit bat, Leopard cat, Black-tailedsquirrel, Irrawadi squirrel, Nepal house rat,Hoolock gibbon, Assamese macaque,Himalayan porcupine, Barking deer, Sadiyahare, ElephantBirds: Spotted Dove, Green imperial pigeon,Emerald dove, Spotted scops owl, Three-toedkingfisher, Ruddy kingfisher, Rufous piculet,Pale-headed woodpecker, Black-browed treepie, White-throated bulbul, Small wren babbler,Black-throated babbler, Laughing thrush, White-crested laughing thrush, Yellow-napped yuhina,Little spider hunterReptiles: Xenochrophis, Boiga sp.Amphibians: Rana, Amolops, Bufo, Philautus sp.

Site 3: This site is located at an altitude of500m, surrounded by deep forest with a verythick undergrowth. The Nao Dihing flowsthrough the area far below the surface.Commonly reported fauna:Mammals: Fruit batsBirds: Collared pigmy owlet, Red-headedtrogon, Rufous piculet, Gold-headed babbler,Black-throated babbler, Spotted-breastedlaughing thrush, Silver-eared mesia, White-napped yuhina, Nepal tit babbler, Small Nitava,Namdapha shortwing, Golden mountain thrush,Steak spider hunter, Scarlet finchReptiles (Lizards): Cosymbotus platyurus;(Snakes): Elephe, Ophiophagus sp.Amphibia: Bufo, Rhacophorus sp.

Site 4: The site is located at an altitude of 700m,with an undulating terrain interspersed with afew moderately large all-weather streams. Thearea is covered with old mature forest with talltrees; the undergrowth is very thick at someplaces and less so at others. The site is suitablefor hornbills and also provides an appropriatehabitat for gibbons. A brief list of fauna is givenbelow:Mammals: Nepal house shrew, Yellow-throatedmarten, Barking deer, Giant flying squirrel, Red-


bellied squirrelBirds: Blyth’s kingfisher, Red-eared baywoodpecker, Collard broadbill, Himalayan treepie, Large scimitar babbler, Wedgbilled wrenbabbler, Black-throated babbler, Nepal titbabbler, Sapphire-headed flycatcher, Smallniltava, Blue-throated flycatcher, Slaty-backedforktail, Himalayan whistling thrush, Lesserbrown thrushReptiles (Lizards): Crytodactylus, Ptyctolaemus,Sphenomorphus, Takydromus sp.; (Snakes):Dendrelaphis, Trimeresurus sp.Amphibia: Rana, Amolops, Bufo, Philautus,Chirixalus sp.

Site 5: The site is located at an altitude of1,070m, and has high mountains covered withevergreen forest. The area is free of humanhabitation. The avian fauna is reputed to be rich.A brief listing of the fauna is given below:Mammals: Wild dog, Malayan sun bear,Sambar, Capped langur, Assamese macaque,Stumptailed macaque, Himalayan porcupine,Clawless otter, Assamese shrewBirds: White-throated brown hornbill, Wreathedhornbill, Rufous hornbillReptiles (Snakes): Python molurusAmphibia: Rana sp.

Floral diversity: The forest survey recordclassifies the vegetation following the manual ofChampion and Seth, as mentioned in theZoological Survey of India, MAB TechnicalReport (Ghosh, 1987), into the following majorcategories:

Type I: Northern Tropical Evergreen Forest orAssam Valley Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest.This is dominated by Diptioarpus

Type II: North Indian Tropical DeciduousForest. This is dominated by Terminalia andDuabanga

Type III: Miscellaneous forest – no singlespecies is particularly dominant. This includesopen understocked inferior forest trees, e.g.Dillenia indica, Erythrina suberosa, Bischofiajayanica, Kydia caliciana and grass, e.g.Imperata arundinaceum (thatch), Phragmiteskirka, Alpina, Erianthus rovanceace

Type I forest is a three-storeyed forest withDipterocarps, Shorea assamica presenting themost dominant layer. Dipterocarpus occurs inlarge belts on the well-drained areas at highelevations and Shorea grows in patches in thedrier and gravelly soil. Other trees in the topstorey include Artocarpus chaplasa, Cinnamumcecidodapha, Terminalia myriocarpa, andToona cileata.

The middle storey consists predominantly ofMesua ferrea in some areas, while in others M.ferrea may be scarce or non-existent. Themiddle storey as such is not dominated by asingle species that can be noted but Castanopsisindica, Canarium resiniferum, Duabangagrandiflora, Dyoxylon hamiltonii, Cryptomeriapeniculata, Eleocarps genitrus, Dillenia indica,Magnolia griffithi and Michalia sp. can bepointed out as primary components.

The lower storey of the forest is composed ofmainly shade trees, e.g. Baceaura sapinda,Dillenia indica, Atica lanceaetolia, etc. and thedensity of the canopy of this stratum iscorrelated with the density of the uppercanopies, but in the case of mixed forest canopyin the upper strata, shade trees in the lowerstorey are replaced by deciduous trees, e.g.Albizzia sp., Molia azodarech, Mallotus albusand bamboo, especially Dendrocalamushamiltonii.

The undergrowth is composed of woody shrubsand scitaniinous shrubs; woody shrubs (e.g.Leea indica, Lea acuminata, Melastomamalabarica) and other shrubs in the moist area(e.g. Alpinia sp., Phyrnium sp., Musa sp. In dryareas cane and palm, especially Pinangagracilus, occur in abundance. Calmus sp. andLivistonia jenkinsii may also occur occasionally.

The ground offers thick humus on the forestfloor and different species of fern, a number ofspecies of beonia and a large number of shrubsand herbs forming a thin ground cover. Fernsmay be Polyodaceacous or tree ferns (Cyatheasp.) and Angiopteris orchids are mostlyDendrobium and Cymbidium.

In Type II forest, two distinct storeys can bedistinguished. The top storey is composed of


Terminalia myriocarpa, Duabanga grandiflora,Amoora wallichi, Terminalia ceitrina,Terminalia belrica, etc. The middle storey iscomposed of Bischia javanica, Gynocardiumodonata, Vatica lanceaefolia and bamboo.

This type of forest also shows profuse climberslike Acacia pinnata, Tinospora cordifolia,Mikania cordata and Vitis latifolia.

The composition of Type III forest has beenmentioned earlier. One of the major weeds thatinvade this forest in abandoned jhoom land orother areas is Mikenia cordata, which alongwith Eupatorium forms the major weed problemall over the northeastern region.

Human factor

The tribes living outside the boundary of thetiger reserve are the Chakma, Lisu and Mishmi.Their main occupation is settled agriculture. TheChakmas are well settled in the nearby urbanareas of Miao and Deban. Their dependency onthe forest is for firewood, fodder, food, housebuilding material and other forest produce. Thebasis of their economy in terms of cash, inaddition to agricultural products, partiallydepends on their employment as porters fortourists, the occasional killing of wild animalsfor social ceremonies and selling forest productsin the local market.

The Mishmi, living towards the Happy Valleyside, had previously resided inside the Reservesince 1952. Now they have vacated the park areaand also left their claims on the Reserve areaand are settled outside the park boundary andengaged in agricultural and horticulturalactivities. In spite of the settled way of life, theirdependency on minor forest products from theforest outside the park has not lessened.

The Lisu tribe migrated from Myanmar in 1947and settled in the higher altitude area of 1,000melevation inside the park area. They were latershifted to the Gandhigram area outside theperiphery of the tiger reserve. Their populationhas slowly increased from five families to 40,with a total population of about 6,000, althoughthe official records say 1,800. In 1994 they weregiven Indian citizenship and 1,600 persons are

in the voters list. They are also allotted land foragriculture, but their dependency on the forestand forest produce is still strong (pers. comm.from Project officials).

Under the eco-development project, thegovernment is providing free medicine and freeteaching material for their children and school atthe primary level. This area is quite far from theurban areas and there are no road linkages. Thepeople have to go on foot to the market place atMiao, around 100 km away to purchase salt, oiland clothing. For the rest of their needs they aredependent on the forests and forest products.They also kill animals for their own use. Theyare good archers and use bows and arrows.Conflicts with forest personnel posted inside theforest are common.

They major demands from the government are:i) that their community be included in the STcategory at par with the tribes of ArunachalPradesh for getting all benefits in thegovernment sector; ii) proper road transport andother communication facilities; iii) awarenessactivities for held and family welfare should bepromoted.

Threats to biodiversity conservation

Deforestation, illegal hunting, shiftingcultivation and encroachment have beenconsidered threats to biodiversity that need to beprotected in this area. Care must be takenregarding these aspects when preparing themanagement plans for this pristine reserve.

Land use strategies

The land use strategies can play an importantrole in management and planning in thisbiosphere reserve.

Discussion

The Tiger Reserve which has been proposed tobe a Biosphere Reserve has to be developedalong the core, buffer zone and transition zoneconcept. Generally in India, Biosphere Reserveshave been demarcated as core and buffer zones.The management planning needs to makecareful observations to identify the transition


zone in order to give a double protective cover,as the chances of human interference are high.

The area is very big (1,985 km2) and has enoughmanpower, but the participation of the localpeople should also be sought in managing theReserve. Their needs, influence and linkageswith other communities, indigenous knowledge,etc. should be recognized before getting theircooperation in the better management of thisimportant Biosphere Reserve.

At the same time, an impact assessment studyneeds to be initiated to understand and analyzethe possibility of damage/change due to humaninterference in the Biosphere Reserve and vice-versa.

The general characteristics of an area and thesocio-economic conditions in the district play animportant role in the management of nationalparks. The Namdapha Tiger Reserve is locatedin Changlang district with an extension of thedenuded hills of the Eastern Himalayan rangesin Arunachal Pradesh. Land uses/land coverfeatures are forest-dominated. The Miao blockof Changlang district, which is adjacent to thereserve area, has a diverse land cover patternwith evergreen and semi-evergreen forestdominating in most parts. In this district, settledagriculture ranges from 0.93% (Khagam-Miaoblock) to 46.45% (Bordumsa Diyum block) and1% shifting cultivation in Nampong. The forestarea with evergreen ranges from 16.12%(Bordumsa Diyum block) to 86.48% inKhagam-Miao. The degraded and deciduousforest ranges from 9.88 toe 36.74% (Bordumsa-Diyum block) and 1.5% of the land is in abarren/rocky snow-covered area (Singh, 1999).

The total number of villages in the district are285, with 79 villages in the Khagam-Miaoblock. The main occupation is cultivation,ranging from 45 to 71.42% in the differentblocks. Activities like animal husbandry,forestry and fishing, trade, commerce, transportand other services are limited, as are theeducational opportunities, hence the need toextend these facilities. The total populationvaries in the different blocks: 12,593 inNagmpongmanmao; 15,789 in Changlang;27,288 in Khagam Miao; and 39,815 in

Bordumsa Diyum. Censuses have shown that thetotal population has grown between 1981 and1991 from 95,530 to 62,211, and furtherincreases area expected. The literacy rate showsa wide gap between male and female (70.09% vs29.91%), thus emphasizing the need for femaleeducation.

Biosphere Reserve management planning

Management plans need to be prepared withproper emphasis on the following points:

C The main focus of the plans should be onthe basic principles or concepts, which needto be simplified for applications suited tolocal conditions.

C The traditional knowledge identifyingbiodiversity, its uses and management needsshould be incorporated into the plan.

C The land use policy and legal status of thearea need to be clearly defined in order toavoid conflicts at any level.

C The carrying capacity needs to be assessedin order to predict the stability of the systemfrom an ecological point of view for theplan to be environmentally sound.

C Regular impact assessment studies andmonitoring should be carried out.

C The interests of the local inhabitants shouldbe protected by accommodating theirpreferences in jobs and other activities witheconomic return. Moreover, theircooperation and participation will definitelybe helpful in effective implementation of theplan.

C While preparing the plan, due considerationshould be given to each and every aspectrelated to resource utilization.

Claridge (1999) has emphasized thatmanagement decisions can be made on the basisof the best available information at the time andsuggested some points to consider:

What are the values of the protected area? Whatgaps are their in our knowledge of those valuesand how will we fill the gaps? What threats arethere in the values and what will we do aboutthem. How will we capitalize on the values ofthe area (e.g. develop them to meet parkobjectives). What resources do we have with


which to carry out the tasks arising from theabove, and do they match what is needed? Howwill we program our time to do the tasksidentified with the available resources?

Some important points include local constraints,such as the historical aspects of management ofprotected areas, traditional conservationmethods, etc. In these areas the main occupationis cultivation, involving 45-71% of the locals.Other opportunities are very limited. With aprobable population increase in the future, otherpossible occupations must be worked out duringthe management planning. Coordination withother departments involved with employmentopportunities may be considered.

References

Claridge, Gordon. 1999. Protected areamanagement planning. Tigerpaper26(2):15-17.

Ghosh, A.K. 1987. Quantitative Analysis ofFaunal Resources of NamdaphaBiosphere in Arunachal Pradesh. FinalTechnical Report of the MAB project,Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Gopal, Rajesh. 1993. Fundamentals ofWildlife Management. Justice HomePublication, Allahabad.

Nair, S.C. 1993. Biosphere reserve in theIndian Context. The INTACHEnvironmental Series No.24. New Delhi.

Singh, S. 1999. A resource atlas of ArunachalPradesh. Govt. of Arunachal Pradeshpublication, Itanagar.

Authors’ address: c/o Department of AppliedScience (Forestry), North Eastern RegionalInstitute of Science & Technology, Nirjuli - 791109, Arunachal Pradesh, India.


ECOLOGICAL PRUDENCE OF THE LEPCHAS OF SIKKIMby Ajeya Jha

While searching for new alternatives forevolving sustainable societies, the human effortshave begun venturing away from the westernwisdom to explore the knowledge and traditionsof tribal and other indigenous people. There arelessons, too important to be ignored, to be learntfrom the Lepchas of Sikkim that will help insaving our earth and enriching our civilization.

Living around Mount Kanchendzonga inSikkim, Lepchas are a charming people with afascinating lifestyle and a unique philosophy oftheir own. They are the true children of nature.To survive, like all natural societies of huntersand gatherers, they developed a pragmatic andcaring attitude towards their environs. Theircollective experience has taught them that natureis fragile and they cannot afford to be carelesstowards it. Hence, they have imposed a strictsocial and religious order upon themselves andtheir surroundings.

Perhaps the most important feature of theirculture is the emotional tie existing betweenthese indigenous people and their non-humancompanions. This bond springs from theirtraditional belief the they, along with the rest ofall other biological (and even geographical)beings, are the creation of one mother - theirsupreme goddess - Na Zong Nyo. They believethat they are an inherent and inseparablecomponent of the living world. Their taboos,myths and traditions keep this concept dynamicand alive.

This emotional approach, however, must not beinterpreted as an irrational conviction. Theirintimate knowledge and intuition made themrealize that the mountains, rivers, forests, and allthe animal and birds living in this world doshare a symbiotic relationship of mutualobligation and trust. They also believe thatconservation is vital and that is why they depictrestraint in terms of usage – even in times ofplenty.

They show restraint in the killing of game orgathering of plant material protected by taboos

which are invariably the veneer over a practicalmeasure. The Lepcha socio-ethical norm called“Buk-rup” in this context is a uniquephilosophy. It essentially involves avoidance ofunnecessary wastage and the destruction ofnature and promotes the employment of simpletechniques to upgrade the same. This entirebelief is reflected in many Lepcha traditions. Forexample, the tuberous roots, which form animportant component of their diet, are notremoved completely. Only the most edible partsare removed and the rest is put back under thesoil for it to grow up once again. They also takemeasures to protect it by building stoneprotections around it and by removing excessrain water. They use many plant species asedible fruits using non-destructive methods forharvesting (e.g. collecting only ripe fruits byshaking the tree). In edible plants, mostly leavesare used, thus allowing ample scope forregeneration.

Females of the wild species were alwaysprotected by Lepcha hunting taboos. Even themale animals were not hunted during particularperiods or under certain conditions. Fishing wasprohibited from July to October – the breedingtime for fish. Thus, their ecological prudence isnot only highly evolved, but is also well defined.It could very well be the basis for us to buildsustainable societies.

Today, the greatest threat to global food securitycomes from the fact that the entire world isheavily dependent on only seven species of plantsources. There is an urgent need to add on manymore plant species to the list of food sources. Inthis context, the Lepchas have been known touse 268 plants as sources of food – includingmushrooms of various kinds. These would formalternative vegetable or fruit resources for otherstoo, thereby broadening the base of our foodsecurity system.

The greatest contribution Lepchas have made inthis respect is perhaps the ways and means theydeveloped to make poisonous plants edible.About four hundred years ago, the Lepchas


waged a 12-year war with Bhutanese invaders,which resulted in an appalling food supplyshortage. The Lepcha wise men embarked uponfinding ways to neutralize the toxic contents ofotherwise edible items for their consumption asfood. This required an investigative task of somemagnitude. After many efforts, the Lepchapriests finally succeeded in converting manypoisonous plants into harmless edible foodsources. The philosophy and technique ofneutralizing the toxic content of edible plants iscalled “Sim-Ayu-Mun”.

Many plants are sacred to Lepchas because theyare the gods’ trees and thus possess healingpowers. Their knowledge of medicinal plants isvery impressive and could be a significantaddition to the contemporary knowledge of foodand health security.

The tradition of sacred groves prevalent amongthe indigenous people of Africa and Asia findsits expression in the ‘mountain-worship’amongst the Lepchas. Sikkim is a land endowedwith a rich congregation of natural features, butis epitomized by its mountains. Indeed, thewhole ecosystem of this region has beennurtured by its mountainous character. Thesemountain peaks, the forests over them and theanimals and birds living there are protected andconserved through a combination of taboos,prohibitions, beliefs and restrictions. The riversand streams flowing from the mountains are alsotreated as sacred. People protect the watersource of the stream and do not allow farmingactivities, bathing, washing of clothes or similarpolluting activities, even today.

Some forests and ecosystems are veneratedbecause they house a variety of animals or birdsthat are considered sacred. For example, Bloodpheasant is one such sacred bird believed tohave saved the Lepcha ancestors by guidingthem to Mount Tendong when a devastatingflood engulfed the entire earth. Hence, thisparticular species is protected along with theforest patch it dwells in. Thus, the respect forone species leads to the conservation of manyothers.

Migratory birds, particularly cuckoos of various

kinds, are important to them as they help indeciding their agricultural calendar. So theLepchas take immense care not to disturb theirnesting and breeding habitats.

Another important principle underlying theirrelationship with nature is that ‘rare is sacred’.Thus, Lepchas never allow hunting or disturbingany rare animal or plant. Sikkim Himalayas arereplete with micro ecosystems; some aredistinctly unique in terms of their flora andfauna. Broad and swampy valleys beyondNathula are some good examples. For Lepchas,all such micro-climatic zones are sacred.

Being primarily hunters and food gatherers,none of their traditions ever required the cuttingof trees. They cut trees perhaps only to buildhouses. A person who cuts even a single tree isunder the religious and social obligation tocompensate for the same by planting eightsaplings in its place and nurturing them for sixfull years. In addition, one has to plant andprotect three more saplings in place of everysingle one dying during this period.

Apart from such specific instances, the entirecultural spectrum of Lepchas inculcates ahealthy and practical attitude towards nature.The indigenous knowledge on the properties,utilization and conservation aspects of plant andother natural resources available with theLepchas is on the verge of extinction because ofvarious developmental activities and arrogantattitudes which are adversely affecting theircultural and traditional life. It is vital that theknowledge now available with the Lepchas andother tribal people is properly documented andintegrated with modern scientific values beforeit is lost forever. Also, preservation of such vastknowledge demands an essential belief in thepeople’s life-style and culture. Studies in well-defined tribal areas need to be initiatedimmediately to catalogue the ecologicalprudence of their glorious traditions.

Author’s address: Sikkim Manipal Institute ofTechnology, Majitar, Rangpo 737132, Sikkim;E-mail: [email protected]


BIRD SPECIES IN KANJLI WETLAND

by Tejdeep Kaur Kler

Study Area

Kanjli is a man-made, freshwater wetlandlocated at 31°13' N latitude and 75°12' Elongitude, occupying an area of about 0.3 km2 inthe Kapurthala district of Punjab State (50,376km2) classified as the North Western State andknown as the grain bowl of India. The Ministryof Environment and Forests, Government ofIndia, has identified sixteen wetlands of Punjab,including the wetland of Kanjli, for conservationand management (Anon., 1988). Humanhabitations include Kapurthala town and KanjliVillage, situated a few kilometers from thiswetland.

This report summarizes observations made onthe status of bird species in the Kanjli wetlandand the threat of aquatic weeds/pollutionaffecting this fragile ecosystem.

Methods

Observations in the Kanjli wetland were madeduring walks along the sides of the water bodiesand point counting without distance estimates(Verner, 1985), using field binoculars. Bird’snests were also observed in the survey area andsubsequently this information proved valuable inthe confirmation of certain avian speciesresiding/present in the wetland, which otherwisecould have been missed.

Results and Discussion

The present study has generated a fairlycomprehensive list of species, althoughadditional species may be present in lessaccessible areas, or in dense woods/tall grasspockets. A total of 61 species were

recorded/found/confirmed during the study,which is less than the 92 species recorded in anearlier report (Dhindsa and Saini, 1993). Apossible explanation for the lower number canbe that since the study was conducted in thesummer, it did not include the winter migrants.The water body near the bridge in Kanjli wasfound to have abundant and extensive growth offloating aquatic weeds, particularly Eichhorniacrassipes/water hyacinth; this weed can have adetracting effect on the migratory birds, and anadverse effect on the health of the wetland. Itwas distressing to see that the surface of thewater body was covered with a blanket ofdiscarded polythene bags, household refuge andwaste matter on one side of the bridge. Littlecormorants were seen sitting and diving in thewater surrounded by floating polythene bags.Wetlands are more vulnerable to accidental andintentional human interference than any otherhabitat because both water levels and quality canvery easily be altered to spoil the life supportsystem of the wetland. Nearly 25% of the 300bird species present in Punjab are more or lesstotally dependent on the wetlands, and anadditional 50 are partly so; thus, pollution andhuman interference can have a serious effect onthe ecological status of the wetland and itsbiodiversity. In such habitats, avian communitystudies are effective tools for monitoring thehealth of a wetland. There is a need to evaluatethe bird communities of Kanjli wetland, as itwill greatly help in forming an effective plan forthe preservation of biodiversity and eco-friendlydevelopment of the wetland.

Bird species in Kanjli Wetland (common andscientific nomenclature) follow (Toor et al.,1982).

No. Common Name Scientific Name


Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae1. Little grebe Podiceps ruficollis capensis salvadori

Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae2. Little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger (Vieilot)3. Large cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis

Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ardeidae4. Eastern grey heron Ardea cinerea rectirostris (Gould)5. Eastern purple heron Ardea purpurea manilensis (Meyen)6. Indian pond heron Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes)7. Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis coromandua (Boddaert)8. Little egret Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus)9. Night heron Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus)

Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae10. Spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha

Order: FalconiformesFamily: Accipitridae11. Pariah kite Milvus migrans govinda (Sykes)12. Indian shikra Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck)

Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae13. Indian black partridge Francolinus francolinus asiae (Bonaparte)14. North Indian grey partridge Francolinus pondicerianus interposiius (Hartert)15. Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus (Linnaeus)

Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae16. Chinese white-breasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus chinensis17. Indian moorhen Gallinula chloropus indica18. Coot Fulica atra atra

Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae19. Red wattled capwing Vanellus indicus indicus

Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae20. Indian blue rock pigeon Columba livia intermedia21. Indian ring dove Streptopelia decaocto decaocto22. Indian spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis suratensis23. Indian little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis

Order: Psittaciformes


Family: Psittacidae24. Large Indian parakeet Psittacula eupatria nipalensis25. Northern rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri borealis

Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae26. Indian cuckoo Cuculus micropterus micropterus27. Indian koel Eudynamys scolopacea scolopacea28. Common crow pheasant Centropus sinensis sinensis

Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae29. Northern spotted owlet Athene brama indica

Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae30. Indian pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis leucomelanura31. Indian white-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis fusca

Family: Meropidae32. Indian small green bee-eater Merops orientalis orientalis

Family: Coraciidae33. Northern roller Coracias benghalensis benghalensis

Family: Upupidae34. European roller Upupa epops epops

Family: Bucerotidae35. Grey hornbill Tockus birostris

Order: PiciformesSub-family: Picinae36. Northern golden-backed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense benghalense

Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pittidae37. Rufous-backed shrike Lanius schach erythronotus

Family: Oriolidae38. Indian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus kundoo

Family: Dicuridae39. North Indian black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis albirictus

Family: Sturnidae40. Brahmini myna Sturnus pagodarum41. Indian pied myna Sturnus contra contra42. Indian myna Acridotheres tristis tristis43. Bank myna Acridotheres ginginianus44. Northern jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus fuscus


Family: Corvidae45. Western tree pie Dendrocitta vagabunda pallida46. Indian house crow Corvus splendens splendens47. Punjab red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer intermedius

Family: Muscicapidae48. Western yellow eyed babbler Chrysomma sinense hypoleucum49. Common babbler Turdoides caudatus caudatus

Subfamily: Sylviinae50. Indian tailor bird Orthotomus sutorius grzuratus

Subfamily: Turdinae51. Indian magpie robin Copsychus saularis saularis52. Northern pied bush chat Saxicola caprata bicolor53. Brownbacked Indian robin Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis

Family: Motacillidae54. North western paddy field pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae waitei55. Large pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis

Family: Nectariniidae56. Indian purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica asiatica

Family: Ploceidae57. Indian house sparrow Passer domesticus indicus

Subfamily: Ploceinae58. Indian baya weaver bird Ploceus philippinus philippinus59. Red munia Estrilda amandava amandava60. White throated munia Lonchura malabarica malabarica61. Indian spotted munia Lonchura punctulata punctulata

Acknowledgment

Thanks are due to Mr. Harpal Singh Thandi,Investigator, and Ram Parshad Beldar for theirassistance. Thanks are also extended to theIndian Council of Agricultural Research forfinancial support.

References

Anonymous. 1988. Directory of Wetlands inIndia. Ministry of Environment andForests, New Delhi.

Dhindsa, M.S. and H.K. Saini. 1993. Avianfauna of wetlands. In: G.S. Dhaliwal, B.S.Hansra and S.S. Ladhar (Eds.) Wetlands:their conservation and management. PunjabAgricultural University, Ludhiana.

Verner, J. 1985. Assessment of countingtechniques. In: R.F. Johnston (Ed.) CurrentOrnithology, Vol.2. Plenum PublishingCorporation.

Author’s address: c/o Prof. P.S. Kler, 225-226Model House, P.O. Model Town, Ludhiana141002, Punjab, India.

Forest News 1

FOREST NEWSVol.XVI:No.1

APFC IS MONGOLIA BOUND!

Plans are being made to convene the 19th sessionof the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC),26-30 August 2002, in Ulaanbaatar, the capital ofMongolia. Please mark your calendars and plan toparticipate!

The convening of the APFC session in Mongoliaoffers a rare opportunity to visit this fascinatingand beautiful country. Mongolia is a huge country;with 156 million hectares, it encompasses an arealarger than Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand andVietnam combined. But with only 2.3 millionhuman inhabitants, Mongolia has the lowestpopulation density of any country in Asia.Situated between China and Russia, Mongoliaoccupies a critical transition zone in Central Asiawhere the great Siberian taiga forest, the CentralAsian steppe, the high Altai mountains, and theGobi desert converge. An abundance of wildlife,including several species that have largelydisappeared from the rest of Asia, is foundthroughout the country. Mongolia has more than17 million hectares of protected areas, includingmore than 10 million hectares under strictprotection.

Many people mistakenly think Mongolia has noforests. While it’s true that the majority of thecountry is devoid of tree cover (only about 8percent is forested), Mongolia surprisingly hasabout 12 million hectares of forests — nearly thesame as Thailand or Laos, and roughly twice thatof the Philippines or the Republic of Korea.Common species include Siberian larch, Siberianpine and Scotch pine, cedar, Siberian spruce,Siberian fir, birch, aspen, poplar, saxaul, and

willows. Until 1990, the country had a vibrantforest products industry, which has suffered inrecent years due to market restructuring andincreased conservation measures.

Mongolians have a close and synergisticrelationship with the environment, which plays acritical role in supporting the nation’s economicwell being and traditions. Herders (there are morethan 30 million head of livestock in the country)are directly dependent on healthy grasslands andclean water for their livelihoods. Unspoiled andspectacular landscapes, rare wildlife, andtraditional cultures are important for the tourismindustry — a growing source of employment andrevenue. Numerous plant and animal speciesprovide important sources of food, traditionalmedicines, and materials for daily life.

Against this backdrop, the Mongolian Ministry ofNature and the Environment will serve as graciousofficial hosts for the 19th session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. The detailed agendafor the session is currently being developed, but itwill certainly include the following:C discussion of important forestry developments

in the region over the past two years;C regional inputs to the United Nations Forum

on Forests (UNFF);C regional involvement in future forest

resources assessments;C updates on the International Year of

Mountains, preparations for the XII WorldForest Congress and the World Summit onSustainable Development;

C information on the national forest programme

Forest News2

facility; andC reports of progress on key APFC initiatives

related to forest harvesting, policy studies, andsustainable forest management.

Side meetings may also be organized to discuss ingreater detail the prioritization and follow uprelated to the IPF/IFF proposals for action and

incentives for forest plantation development.Some exciting field visits will soon be identified,as well as opportunities for longer post-APFCtourist trips to stunning areas of the country.

More details on the August APFC session will beprovided in the coming months. Please plan nowto attend.

Forest News 3

First AnnouncementBRINGING BACK THE FORESTS:

October 2002, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Organized by the Asia Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutions (APAFRI), FAO, the ForestResearch Support Programme for Asia and the Pacific (FORSPA) and the Forest Research Institute Malaysia(FRIM).

Background

A large and growing area of forest land in Asiaand the Pacific has been deforested or degraded byinappropriate logging practices, shiftingcultivation, repeated burning and other humandisturbances. Much of this land has beenconverted to other uses, but much has also beenleft in a degraded state. In this condition it maystill support trees, but it will have lost much of itsoriginal structure, diversity and productivity.

Transforming degraded forest lands intorehabilitated forests offers many benefits, butfaces serious practical and institutional constraints.Knowledge and experience of rehabilitation arestill limited, and its needs are inadequatelyaddressed in forest policy, planning andmanagement. Some promising approaches andexperiences in rehabilitation exist in the region,but they have not been widely publicised oradopted. Concerted efforts are needed to build theknowledge, institutions and, above all, policycommitment needed for rehabilitation.

Against this background, the InternationalConference on Rehabilitating Forests in Asia andthe Pacific: Effective Policies, PracticalApplications will bring together forest managers,planners and policy makers to assess the state ofcurrent knowledge, highlight and promotesuccessful approaches to rehabilitation, andidentify key policy and management needs foreffective forest rehabilitation.

Conference objectivesC review the current status of rehabilitation

efforts and knowledge;C identify critical issues of policy and

implementation that need to be addressed tomake rehabilitation a key component of forestmanagement; and

C encourage cross-disciplinary learning andpartnerships among rehabil i tat ionpractitioners, resource managers, policymakers and other concerned stakeholders.

Expected outputsC better understanding of the opportunities and

constraints facing forest rehabilitation at bothpolicy and implementations levels;

C recommendations for a policy brief that willhighlight the positive role of forestrehabilitation and to outline measures neededto strengthen this role;

C proposals for action to establish a coalition ofresearch and development organizations toadvance forest rehabilitation in Asia and thePacific; and

C a publication on recent experiences andpromising approaches for rehabilitation.

Provisional session topicsC Defining Terms: Rehabilitation, Restoration

and ReclamationC Rehabilitation in Practice: What Works, What

Doesn’t?C Integrating Rural Livelihood Needs.C Rehabilitating Ecosystem Services.

Forest News4

C Scaling Up: Rehabilitation at the LandscapeLevel

C Financing RehabilitationC Policy, Planning and Partnerships for

Rehabilitation

Further details

The conference is intended for those who areactively involved in rehabilitating forests, or whoare developing policies, procedures and capacity

for rehabilitation. Additional information on thedate, agenda and other aspects of the conferencewill be made available as the program develops.For further details and a registration form, pleasev i s i t t h e c o n f e r e n c e w e b s i t e a thttp://www.apafri.upm.edu.my. Or contact: Mr.Alias Abd Jalil, APAFRI, Forest ResearchInstitute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109, Kuala LumpurMalaysia; Tel: 6003-62722516; Fax: 603-62773249; E-mail: [email protected]

Forest News 5

IN SEARCH OF EXCELLENCE IN FOREST MANAGEMENT –EXTENDED DEADLINE

In the drive towards sustainable forestmanagement, there has been continuousimprovement in the management of several forestareas in the Asia-Pacific region. In Search ofExcellence aims to document specific examples ofthis improvement. It seeks to identify:S a broad cross section of experiences of

exemplary forest management;S examples of forest management that show

promise for the future; andS examples across a broad range of forest eco-

types from many countries in the regionexemplifying management for a variety ofobjectives and under different ownershipstructures.

APFC and FAO are calling for nominations offorests in the region that demonstrate forms ofexemplary management. We welcomenominations both from people and organizationsthat wish to nominate their own forest(s) and fromthose who wish to nominate others’ forests.

To date, around 60 nominations have beenreceived from 17 countries in the region. Wewould like to receive more. Consequently, thedeadline for nominations has been extended to1 May 2002. Nomination forms can be obtainedfrom Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. E-mail: [email protected]

Forest News6

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

As a follow-up activity to the InternationalConference on the Application of Reduced ImpactLogging to Advance Sustainable ForestManagement: Constraints, Challenges andOpportunities (held in February 2001), and otheractivities promoting the regional Code of Practicefor Forest Harvesting, the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission (APFC), the Sarawak TimberAssociation (STA) and the Forest DepartmentSarawak organized a regional seminar on forestmanagement issues. The seminar was financiallysupported by the USDA Forest Service.

Three forestry officials each from Cambodia,China, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Viet Namparticipated in the seminar, along with additionalparticipants from Malaysia. The seminar providedample time for discussions, particularly duringtwo field visits. The objectives of the seminarwere as follows:C Raise the understanding of sustainable forest

management (SFM) for forestry officials ofcountries that have been less exposed to issuesof SFM and practical approaches forimplementing better forest management.

C Illustrate new approaches and experiences innatural forest management and timberharvesting during study tours to the ForestDepartment Sarawak and the Model ForestManagement Area (MFMA) project (an ITTOproject executed by the Forest DepartmentSarawak).

C Discuss and agree on follow-up activities ofmutual concern, with a focus on pilot ordemonstration areas for reduced impactlogging (RIL).

The public and private sector perspectives of thefollowing forest management aspects werediscussed during the seminar:C planning for sustainable timber production

and extraction;

C log tracking systems;C timber and forest certification;C requirements for conserving high-value

forests;C illegal logging and logging bans;C timber utilization and research;C the role of the timber processing industry;C technical, economic and institutional issues of

reduced impact logging (RIL); andC training requirements for achieving SFM.

During the field trip to the MFMA in Sarawak’shill forests, it became apparent that in steep terraineven improvements such as “path logging” (animproved tractor-logging practice) lead toconsiderable damage to the residual stand.Whether such damage is acceptable in the long runremains to be seen. The participants also gaineduseful insights into Sarawak’s approach to forestmanagement during the one-day trip to the ForestDepartment Sarawak.

Discussions during the seminar revealed thattechnical issues are viewed as secondaryconstraints to SFM. Instead, participants stressedthat illegal logging remains a serious concern andimpediment to SFM. Another issue of concern isthe move to decentralize and devolve forestmanagement, as it remains unclear whether movesto hand over forest management to decentralizedadministrative units and/or local communities leadto better forest management.

The outcome of the seminar was mixed. While thefirst two objectives were achieved, the discussionon follow-up activities proved to be less fruitful,as the conditions and the needs in the fivecountries are very different. The issue of how toproceed in implementing the Code will befollowed up by the new RIL Coordinator, whoassumed his duties in early 2002 (see followingarticle).

Forest News 7

NEW COORDINATOR FOR RIL ACTIVITIES

Under a cooperative agreement between FAO andthe Japan Overseas Forestry ConsultantsAssociation (JOFCA), Mr. Patrick C. Dugan willwork over the next several months to helpcoordinate and support activities related toreduced impact logging (RIL) and implementationof codes of practice for forest harvesting. Initialfunding for the arrangement has been providedunder a grant from the Government of Australia.

Mr. Dugan has extensive experience in loggingand forestry, including several field operationsassignments and senior management positions.Mr. Dugan, who was responsible for managingthree separate timber concessions in thePhilippines in the 1970s, has solid expertise inplanning and supervising logging, roadconstruction, reforestation, and log processing. Inrecent years, Dugan has served in several policyand programming positions where he haspromoted community-based management ofnatural forests, improved reforestation practices,and agroforestry development. He has championedthe concepts of labor-intensive approaches forroad construction and timber extraction in parallelwith conventional machine-based systems.

Mr. Dugan currently is a Senior Forestry Expertwith JOFCA, providing technical support forcommunity forestry programs, development andtesting of forest change models, and review ofpractices for rehabilitating logged-over forests inAsia. He is a U.S. national, but has lived andworked most of his life in the Philippines. He hasalso conducted consulting assignments in India,Indonesia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Myanmar,Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Thailand and Vietnam.

Under the cooperative agreement with JOFCA,Mr. Dugan will coordinate FAO and partnersupport to countries in the region in developingand implementing national codes of practice forforest harvesting, identifying priority trainingneeds for effective implementation of codes,organizing training activities and study tours, andbuilding awareness and political support forimproved forest harvesting.

Mr. Dugan can be contacted at:JOFCA445 Bulusan Lane, Marian Lakeview ParkParañaque 1700, Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel: (632) 823-3010; Fax: (632) 821-6692E-mail: [email protected]

“The condition of a Forest is the micro-image of the Forester who has tended it.”

– Anonymous

Forest News8

TOWARD EFFECTIVE WATERSHED AND FLOOD MANAGEMENT

Every year during the monsoon season, floodsoccur in the lowlands of many countries in Asiaand the Pacific. For many people, floods are anormal part of life, occurring regularly andpredictably. In other cases, however, unanticipatedcatastrophic flash floods devastate lives, propertyand agricultural crops. They also decrease foodsecurity and contribute to poverty in both ruraland urban areas.

There is a plethora of misinformation,misconceptions and myths surrounding therelationships between forests, trees, and land-useactivities on one hand, and catastrophic floods onthe other. Although the highland-lowlandinteractive systems are very complex, people’sperceptions of the causes of floods tend to beconversely overly simplistic. Within days of mostmajor floods, the media and leading publicofficials proclaim that human activities in theupper parts of mountainous watersheds in general — and deforestation or illegal logging inparticular — are responsible for the disasterstriking the lowlands. Because such simplisticperceptions pervade, the proposed remedies forcombating and managing floods often fail toaddress the real problems and needs related toflood disasters. Moreover, some of the proposedresponses (e.g. logging bans, reforestationprograms, resettlement of residents out of upperwatersheds, restrictions on growing certain crops,etc.) may be highly detrimental to the livelihoodsand food security of (poor) upland dwellers.

Over the past 20 years, the scientific knowledge offloods and erosion processes has increasedconsiderably. It is now well established that, whiledeforestation and land degradation cansignificantly affect hydrological processes in smallwatersheds, major floods in large watersheds arenatural phenomena that have more to do withextraordinarily heavy rainfall events and river-course mismanagement in the lower portions of

watersheds than with land and vegetationmismanagement in the uplands. Scientificevidence indicates the need for integratedapproaches that focus far more on floodmanagement and disaster preparedness in thelowlands, together with continued efforts toimprove watershed management in the uplands.

Unfortunately, the increased knowledge onhighland-lowland interrelationships has nottranslated into widespread re-orientation ofproblem-solving approaches. One reason for thisis the failure of scientists (hydrologists, soilscientists, foresters and experts in relateddisciplines) to effectively present recent researchresults and recommendations. There is an urgentneed to promote better understanding of the actualinteractions and influences related to watershedsand floods – and, more importantly, the optionsavailable for effectively mitigating and managingthe effects of floods.

The forestry group of the FAO Regional Office forAsia and the Pacific has taken the lead indeveloping a highly attractive bookletsynthesizing the scientific facts related to floodsand watersheds, and opportunities for improvedflood management. The International Year ofMountains (2002) offers a timely opportunity forthis work, in which the Center for InternationalForestry Research (CIFOR) is collaborating.Production of the proposed booklet would helpincrease the understanding of the policy makers,media development officials and the generalpublic about the real needs and opportunities forwatershed and flood management.

It is anticipated that the document will be releasedduring the FAO Regional Conference inKathmandu, Nepal, in May 2002. It will giveadded attention to the issues of mountaindevelopment and disaster management that will bea prominent focus of the conference.

1Aru Mathias is FAO Forestry Officer, Subregional Office for the South Pacific, Apia, Samoa

Forest News 9

NOT ALL TREES GROW IN FORESTS

Contributed by Aru Mathias1

A regional workshop on trees outside forests(TOF) for Pacific Island countries was organizedby the FAO Sub-Regional Office (SAPA) in Nadi,Fiji, 10-14 December 2001. The University of theSouth Pacific (USP), PNG University ofTechnology (UNITECH) and the Secretariat forthe Pacific Community’s Pacific Islands Forestsand Trees Programme collaborated in conductingthe workshop. This was the first workshop onTOF conducted in the region with participantscoming from Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue,Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Palau,Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu.

The purpose of the workshop was to:C share information and experiences on the

status and roles of trees outside forests in thePacific region in the context of overallforestry sector development;

C identify and analyze problems and issueslimiting and impacting establishment andprotection of trees outside forests; and

C identify opportunities for promoting treeplanting and sustainable management of TOF,including mechanisms to assist fieldimplementation (e.g. , insti tutionalarrangements, funding arrangements, regionalco-ordination, legislation, and policyinitiatives).

Undoubtedly, TOF in the Pacific Islands willcontinue to play a significant role, especially inmaintaining the environment and providingsupport for sustainable livelihoods. Two basicfacts underscore this importance: i) many of thesmall-island states of the Pacific, and a significantpart of the larger island countries, have little or notrue native forest or the potential for exotic forestplantation development; and ii) many of the

forests in large island countries and the remainingtree resources in small island countries, are beinglost to deforestation, forest degradation, and thegeneral neglect and failure to protect and replanttrees.

In some of the smaller islands and atolls, almostevery tree has a use or provides an ecologicalservice to the island and local communities. Oneof the most critical roles of trees outside forests istheir support for conserving biodiversity. In fact,the loss of biodiversity is considered by many tobe a much more serious obstacle to sustainabledevelopment and survival on small islands thanclimate change and sea-level rise.

A field trip taken around the sugarcane belt inNadi, where various trees are planted aroundhomesteads and farms for food, shade, animal feedand building materials, provided a good picture ofthe importance of TOF. Participants reiterated theneed for government extension services to workclosely with communities, and stronglyrecommended that tree planting activities beintegrated with other developments going onwithin the community.

Outcomes of the workshop

While many issues and constraints faced bycountries were identified and discussed, a few arecommon throughout. These included:C insufficient in-depth knowledge of tree

species by technical agencies and the generalpublic;

C inadequate documentation of traditionalknowledge about indigenous trees and theiruses, that could benefit future generations’efforts to protect and plant TOF;

Forest News10

C failure to harmonize traditional localknowledge about tree roles and uses with localdevelopments, and neglecting to incorporatetraditional knowledge in forestry plans toimprove livelihoods and support ecologicallybased sustainable development;

C weak protection of TOF against processes ofdeforestation, agro-deforestation, fire, over-grazing by livestock, and other threats;

C lack of appropriate policies and legislationsupporting sustainable management of TOF;

C fa i lu re to deve lop appropr ia teframeworks/mechanisms to address landtenure issues, especially security of tenure,and to balance the distribution of benefitsamong resource owners;

C lack of awareness and communicationamongst communities, technical agencies andother stakeholders on the importance ofprotecting and promoting TOF; and

C lack of funds to sponsor replanting schemesand the adoption of new technologies.

The workshop made the fol lowingrecommendations for action:C Document traditional knowledge about the

roles and uses of TOF.

C Develop methodologies to assess and monitorthe status of TOF which can provide usefuldata and information for planning purposes.

C Increase awareness and actively promote treeplanting and protection in communities,including churches, schools and farms.

C Increase the capacities of extension servicesand provide adequate support to tree plantingprograms.

C Develop appropriate policies and legislationfor sustainable development and managementof TOF.

C Improve awareness, communication, andcoordination amongst stakeholders,government and donors at the national andregional level.

C Integrate tree planting and tree protection withother community activities and link treeplanting with other development initiatives.

Further information about the workshop, includingcopies of the workshop papers and the report canbe obtained from Mr. Aru Mathias, FAO Sub-Regional Forestry Officer, Apia, Samoa. His e-mail address is [email protected], and fax:685 22126.

“Ten Commandments” for protection and planting of trees as a foundation for sustainable living inthe Pacific Islands (as identified by workshop participants)

1. Protect all inland forest and tree groves2. Protect and replant all coastal, mangrove and river forests3. Plant and protect trees in villages, towns and agriculture areas4. Replace all trees that die or that you have killed and protect and nurture young

tree seedlings5. Protect and replant all endangered trees6. Do not burn and kill trees when clearing new land7. Protect native birds and animals that live in the forests and trees8. Fence, tie or pen your domestic animals9. Eliminate dangerous weedy trees and other serious weeds from our lands10. Teach children, the public and policy makers about the environmental, cultural

and economic importance of trees

Forest News 11

VIETNAMESE FORESTERS ASSESS PHILIPPINE ASSISTEDNATURAL REGENERATION (ANR) PRACTICES

Throughout Asia, assisted natural regeneration(ANR) is steadily gaining recognition as apractical, low-cost approach for restoring andrehabilitating denuded and degraded forest lands.In many circumstances, ANR offers considerableadvantages over conventional reforestationmethods, particularly in terms of greaterbiodiversity in regenerated forests andsignificantly lower costs.

ANR is a flexible approach to reforestation thatstimulates the growth of natural saplings andseedlings. It “assists” natural regeneration bypreventing fires and grazing, controllingcompetition from weeds (including pressingImperata grass to suppress its growth), andenhancing the growth of trees by mulching,fertilizing, or other practices. In areas wherenatural seedlings and saplings are lacking, ANRmay include enrichment planting. In some areas,techniques have been applied to attract wildlifeand birds that help disperse tree seeds.

Despite its advantages and demonstrated potential,ANR is not yet widely accepted or promoted bygovernments as a reforestation approach in theregion.

To promote greater understanding of ANR andpossible approaches for its implementation inVietnam, FAO recently supported a study tour fortwo Vietnamese forestry officials to review ANRpractices in the Philippines. The two-week studytour for Messrs. Dinh Huu Khanh and Hoang SyDong, of the Ministry of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment of Vietnam, was supported by the“Technical Support to the Five Million HectareReforestation Program” project (TCP/VIE/0066),which is funded under FAO’s TechnicalCooperation Programme. The study tour wasorganized and supported by the Bagong PagasaFoundation (BPF), a non-profit organizationinvolved in rural and forestry-sector developmentin the Philippines.

The study tour included visits were made to threefield sites, meetings with senior officers of thePhilippine Department of Environment andNatural Resources (DENR), and discussions withmembers of the academe. The various study tourcomponents provided opportunities to assess ANRfrom the perspectives of government policy, forestscience, and community involvement. Theinsights gained are expected to contribute toVietnam’s on-going Five Million HectaresReforestation Program, which includes plans forregenerating large areas of forest through naturalregeneration.

Field visits highlighted ANR experiences onrecently logged-over forests in Palawan, lands inLuzon that were formerly forested but which wererepeated burned and invaded by Imperata grass,and residual (secondary) forests in Leyte province.The sites exemplify the significant potential ofANR under a broad range of edaphic and socio-cultural conditions. While noting the successesattained through ANR, the study tour participantsnonetheless identified the need for more carefuldocumentation of biological succession, includingthe number and frequency of emergent species,growth rates, and related data. They pointed outthat information on these topics could helpfacilitate ANR planning and promote its adoptionand implementation.

Encouraged by results of the study tour, FAO iscurrently exploring the feasibility of organizing astudy tour for a larger number of participants andcountries.

1Tan Hon Tat and Ravi Hegde are Chief Technical Adviser and Associate Professional Officer, respectively, for theRegional Model Forest Project.

Forest News12

CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR MODEL FORESTSContributed by Tang Hon Tat and Ravi Hegde1

The third regional workshop on “Criteria andIndicators for Sustainable Forest Management inModel Forests,” was held in Pyay, Myanmar, 25-29 November 2001. The workshop was organizedand sponsored by the Regional Model ForestProject (RMFP), in collaboration with the ForestDepartment, Union of Myanmar, and the JapanInternational Forestry Promotion and CooperationCenter (JIFPRO).

More than 60 people participated in the workshop,including representatives from the RMFPcountries, FAO, Japan Forestry Agency (FAJ),International Tropical Timber Organization(ITTO), Center for International Forestry Research(CIFOR), Forestry Research Support Programmefor Asia and the Pacific (FORSPA), JIFPRO, theRegional Community Forestry Training Center forAsia and the Pacific (RECOFTC), the MalaysianTimber Certification Council (MTCC), KyotoPrefectural University (KPU), and the ForestDepartment of Myanmar, among others. Theworkshop was opened by U Shwe Kyaw, DirectorGeneral, Forest Department, Myanmar, and thekeynote address was delivered by Ms. MetteLoyche Wilkie of FAO, Rome.

Papers were presented on the C&I development ofthe RMFP countries (China, Myanmar,Philippines and Thailand), and by resourcepersons from RECOFTC, ITTO, CIFOR, JIFPRO,FAO, FAJ, FORSPA and MTCC. Field visits weremade to the Paukkhaung Model Forest.

Among the recommendations of the workshopwere:C The process of developing field level C&I

should start with a limited number ofindicators and simple guidelines for data

collection.C Countries should enhance the development of

their C&I initiatives by exchangingexperiences and identifying common sets ofindicators on key model forest attributes.

C More training on C&I should be provided toMF stakeholders and facilitators.

C Awareness and understanding of the conceptsof C&I should be enhanced, especially amonglocal stakeholders, using simple terms.

C Management guidelines for soil and waterconservation, social aspects and forestworkers’ welfare should be strengthened.

C Efforts to implement codes of harvestingpractices in production forests should beaccorded high priority.

C Support efforts to promote wider involvementof local people in the development of C&I.

C Monitoring and evaluation systems should bedeveloped based on local conditions andmanagement objectives set by local groups.

C Increased collaboration among internationalorganizations in C&I processes is desirable toenhance capacity building, sharing ofexperiences, etc.

C A few key indicators should first be used as afirst step in carrying out monitoring,assessment and reporting activities for thosewith limited resources.

C Ensure that standardized and replicablemethods for data collection are used.

C Make use of existing documentation andnetworks to guide development of initial C&Iand data collection guidelines/protocols.

C The RMFP should continue to provide supportwhere needed and explore the possibility offunding a training workshop for thepreparation of data collection guidelines.

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UNDERSTANDING FOREST MANAGEMENT CERTIFICATIONAND LOCAL AUDITING SYSTEMS IN INDOCHINA

Traditionally, forest problems have been tackledby governments using regulatory approaches,often supplemented in poorer countries by donor-funded programs. In general, these efforts haveproved insufficient to reduce either forest loss ordegradation. Regulation has suffered from a lackof political will, accountability and resources, andfrom weak monitoring and enforcement. Aid hasachieved some successes, but these have rarelypersisted beyond the lifetime of a particularprogram. In the meantime, public dissatisfaction(particularly in Europe and North America) withineffectual government efforts has resulted inmoves towards market-based voluntaryapproaches, the chief of which is certification.

Broadly speaking, certification is the procedure bywhich an independent third party gives writtenassurance that a product or process conforms tospecified requirements. This procedure may belinked with product labeling for marketcommunication purposes. In this form, and whenapplied to the process of forest management,certification gives consumers the means todiscriminate in favor of products from well-managed forests. This approach has two purposes:1) to improve forest management through market-based incentives; and 2) to improve market accessand share for the products of such management.

Although forest certification has existed for overa decade (originally as a program of one non-governmental organization, but later under severalnational and international initiatives), fewcountries in Indochina have experience in itsapplication. The uptake and impact of certificationin the region have been limited by the manyuncertainties and unresolved issues that surroundit (not least of which are its costs and benefits),and the practical challenges of developing, testingand implementing local certification systems.

Recognizing the need in Indochina for furtherunderstanding and exchange of information oncertification, the Forestry Research SupportProgramme for Asia and the Pacific (FORSPA)held a regional workshop on “Forest ManagementCertification and the Design of Local AuditingSystems” in Phnom Penh in December 2001. Theworkshop was organized together with the AsiaPacific Association of Forestry ResearchInstitutions (APAFRI), Cambodia’s Department ofForestry and Wildlife (DFW), the German Agencyfor Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the WorldBank’s Forest Concession Management andControl Pilot Project (FCMCP).

The objectives of the workshop were to:C review and exchange information on

certification and auditing systems worldwide;C explore potential opportunities for

certification in Indochina;C examine the potential markets for certified

products from Indochina;C review case studies and practical experiences

in certification from other regions;C examine the practical and institutional needs

of a national certification initiative; andC examine the methods available for developing

a local audit system.

In all, 45 participants from Cambodia, China, LaoPDR, Myanmar, Vietnam and Thailand attendedthe workshop. Most were senior scientists activelyengaged in researching or developing certificationsystems in their countries, or high-rankinggovernment officials who would be responsiblefor integrating certification into the managementof national forests.

The workshop was divided into two parts: a two-day theoretical seminar, in which participantslearned about the principles and practice ofcertification, backed up by experiences from

Forest News14

China, Malaysia and Thailand; and a one-daypractical exercise, in which participants carried outa mock certification assessment of a workingforest operation at a 149,000 hectare forestconcession at Bac Sna in Kompong ThomProvince. The aim of this exercise was not tojudge the quality of management as such, but tointroduce participants to the tools and workingmethods of an assessor, and to allow them to putinto practice some of the principles of assessmentdiscussed during the first part of the workshop.The outcomes of both parts of the workshop willbe detailed fully in the forthcoming proceedings(to be published in early 2002).

At the conclusion of the workshop, participantswere asked to suggest ways in whichFAO/FORSPA might develop and extend itssupport for certification and related standard-setting processes. The resulting suggestionscovered four broad themes:

C Implementing criteria and indicators forsustainable forest management. Participantsstressed the need for further support todevelop, implement and monitor criteria andindicators of forest management. In general, itwas felt that criteria and indicator processesshould continue to take precedence overcertification and verification schemes, at leastuntil the cost and benefits of the latter werebetter understood.

C Information and learning about certification.Participants pointed out that certification isdeveloping quickly and accumulating a largebody of experience. Keeping track of thisprogress is difficult for developing countries,

but essential if national debates oncertification are to be properly informed andbalanced. A strong desire was expressed forfollow-up workshops at the country level, ora regional information network along the linesof existing FORSPA-supported networks.

C Developing a regional certification scheme.Participants recognized that ultimately, thecountries of Indochina would have to decidewhether to adopt certification, and if so, whattype of auditing system to implement.Participants acknowledged the pre-eminenceof international schemes such as the ForestStewardship Council (FSC), but drawing onMalaysia’s experience, suggested the need toresearch and develop a home-grown schememore suited to Indochinese political systems,culture and environment.

C Market pragmatism. Enthusiasm for aregional certification scheme was tempered byparticipants from Thailand and other countrieswith practical experience of certification.They stressed the importance of marketpragmatism (i.e. giving the market what itwants). Though an attractive idea, a regionalscheme could face high costs in promotingitself unilaterally in a marketplace dominatedby one or two international schemes.Significantly, both the Malaysian andIndonesian national initiatives have soughtrecognition from FSC, the current marketleader. Any support for a regional scheme,therefore, should be directed in part atharmonization and recognition by market-leading schemes.

“For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public relations, for Nature cannotbe fooled.”

– Richard Feynman

Forest News 15

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

B A C K Y A R D B I O D I V E R S I T Y I NAUSTRALIA

The Australian government is spendingA$500,000 on a program to encourage nativebiodiversity in urban household gardens. The“Flora for Fauna” programme will promote theestablishment of backyard gardens that utilizeindigenous trees and plants to create attractivehabitats for native birds, insects and small reptilesand mammals. – Environment News Service –

NEW AUSTRALIAN CONSERVATIONRESERVE

Australia has announced the creation of a new 2.7million hectare conservation reserve in WesternAustralia. The State and Federal governmentshave spent A$5.7 million purchasing land in theGascoyne-Murchison region to enable theestablishment of the reserve. The conservationreserve constitutes an integral part of a GascoyneMurchison Rangelands Strategy aimed ataddressing the environmental, economic andsocial needs of the region.– Environment News Service –

CAMBODIA SUSPENDS ALL LOGGINGOPERATIONS

The Royal Government of Cambodia has ordereda suspension of all commercial logging, effective1 January 2002. The suspensions came as a resultof concessionaires’ failure to submit acceptablelong-term forest management plans for theirconcessions by 1 September 2001, as had earlierbeen agreed. The logging industry in Cambodiahas been under heavy criticism during the pastseveral years for destructive logging practices andfailure to comply with Government regulations.The 17 concessions would reportedly be allowedto resume operations once acceptable managementplans are submitted and new concession

agreements are reached.– UPI Science News –

NEW ZEALAND FOREST INDUSTRYWORRIES ABOUT KYOTO

The New Zealand Forest Industries Council hasexpressed grave concerns over the implications ofratifying the Kyoto Protocol for the country’splantation industry. The Council believes theProtocol will increase costs to New Zealandplantation owners while subsidizing newcompetitors. New Zealand’s plantation forests arethe basis of the country’s US$1.5 billion forestryexport sector.– NZFIEA Offcuts –

SUSTAINABLE RUBBERWOOD MANAGE-MENT IN THAILAND

The Office of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund inThailand is to become FSC-certified. To date,around 700 hectares of Thai rubberwoodplantations have FSC certification, but the countryhas almost 2 million hectares of rubberwoodplantations and the Office anticipates all of thesebeing certified during the next decade.– Bangkok Post –

CHINA’S LOGGING BAN IMPACTS RURALLIVELIHOODS

Nearly 1,000 wood processing factories and 38timber markets and mills located near Chongqingin the catchment area of the upper Yangtze Riverand the Three Gorges Reservoir have closedbecause of reductions in the local log harvest sincesevere restrictions were placed on logging in theregion. Log harvest in the region was 650,000cubic meters in 2000, down from 3.84 millioncubic meters in 1997.– ITTO Tropical Timber Market Update –

SOLOMON ISLANDS RESTRUCTURES

Forest News16

FORESTRY AGENCY

The Solomon Islands recently reorganized itsMinistry of Natural Resources, renaming it theMinistry of Forests, Environment & Conservation.The former Forestry Department has become theForestry Division within the new ministry. Mr.Gideon Bouro, who is also the Head of Research,is now acting Commissioner of Forests.

N E P A L E X P A N D S L E A S E H O L DFORESTRY

Buoyed by the success of pilot leasehold forestryprograms (supported in part by IFAD and FAO)designed to directly benefit the poorest of Nepal’srural population, the Government has decided toextend the Leasehold Forestry Program to anadditional 16 districts. Under the pilot phases, theprogram operated in 10 districts, directlybenefitting 11,500 poor families. The leaseholdforestry approach effectively targets familiesliving below the poverty line an effort to enhancefood security and raise income levels. Degradedand barren forest land is leased to small groups ofpoor families and support is provided for forestryand forage development.– The Kathmandu Post –

PAKISTAN ASSESSES BAN ON FELLINGTREES

In past years, Pakistan imposed a ban on thefelling of trees, but recently relaxed the ban toencourage greater investment in forestry. TheGovernment is now assessing reports fromprovinces on the effects of the relaxation and theCabinet may decide to extend the lifting of the banfor a longer period.– Dawn - the internet connection –

CHINA’S FURNITURE PRODUCTIONBOOMS

The last 10 years have seen a huge expansion ofthe Chinese furniture industry. There are nowmore than 50,000 furniture manufacturers in thecountry, with a total work force of nearly 3

million. The industry generated 12 billion yuan in2000, up 15 percent from 1999. Furniture exportswere valued at US$3.6 billion in 2000, up fromUS$2.7 billion the previous year.– ITTO Tropical Timber Market Update –

SARAWAK PUSHES FOR SKILLEDFOREST WORKERS

The Malaysian state of Sarawak announced latelast year that it will amend its Forest Ordinance torequire timber licensees, contractors, and sub-contractors to employ only properly trainedworkers in logging operations and reforestationand forest management activities. The move isaimed at reducing accidents in the loggingindustry and enhancing forest management.– The Star Online –

TRADE NOTESC Indonesia placed a ban on the export of

unprocessed logs and wood chips in October2001. The ban will be reviewed in the next sixmonths to determine its impacts on forestmanagement.

C Malaysia abolished its export quotas on sawnrubberwood in February 2002. The exportlevy was also reduced to US$16 per cubicmeter.

C Japanese imports of North American logsdropped to 3.9 million cubic meters in 2001,dipping to below 4 million cubic meters forthe first time since 1965. Imports of NorthAmerican logs were as high as 12 millioncubic meters as recently as 1989.

C China imported 132,000 cubic meters ofradiata pine logs from New Zealand inNovember 2001, for the first time topping the100,000 mark for a single month.

C Papua New Guinea reduced log export dutiesby 5 percent at the beginning of 2002;plantation logs can now be exported duty free.

C Chinese import duties on plywood have beencut to 10 percent (from 15 percent) and from8 percent to about 4 percent for veneer. Importduties on logs and sawnwood are zero.

– ITTO Tropical Timber Market Update –

Forest News 17

NEW RAP FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS

Auditing of Sustainable Forest ManagementA practical guide for developing local auditing systems based on ITTO’s criteria andindicatorsFORSPA Publication No. 26/2001

A new and significant development is taking placein forest management. The market place isbeginning to exert influence on the way wemanage forests. Buyers are beginning to look fora guarantee that their purchase is coming from awell-managed forest (e.g., it is certified by anindependent verification process). At the UnitedNations Conference on Environment andDevelopment held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,nations agreed to a set of Forest Principles. As aresult, there has been a plethora of initiatives toestablish the specific principles for forestmanagement, identify the criteria to assess thequality of management, and the indicators toassess the performance. Certification systems arenow being promoted in many areas of the world.

Despite the many new initiatives, the extent offorests that has been certified as sustainablymanaged in the Asia-Pacific region remainsinsignificant, due to many factors. Firstly, veryfew institutions in the region have sufficientknowledge about certification procedures, whatare the opportunities and benefits, and how theirmanagement procedures will have to be upgradedto achieve certification. Secondly, there is noexpertise within most countries in the region totrain their field staff in the procedures and auditingsystems. Thirdly, there are few documents thatoffer the means and methods to translate thesecriteria and indicators to the level ofimplementation, at the forest unit level. Nor domost forest managers know how to go aboutauditing their own efforts.

This FORSPA publication is an attempt to bridgesome of these gaps. The guide can assist nationaland/or regional institutes in developing local audit

systems. The biggest breakthrough in the work isthat it offers a weighting system for the variouscriteria and activities, thereby identifying the onesthat accord the highest benefits in terms ofsustainable practices, the ones that should receivemaximum attention from forest managers andauditors. It is a highly practical guide presentingclear and simple auditing approaches.

For copies of the guide, contact:

S. AppanahSenior Programme AdviserFORSPAc/o FAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificPhra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, ThailandFax: 0-2697-4411E-mail: [email protected]

Forest News18

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

19-21 March 2002. Manila, Philippines. Informal Workshop on Incentives for Forest PlantationDevelopment. Contact: Thomas Enters, Forestry Sector Analysis Specialist, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion,Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4328; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

26-29 March 2002. Nanning, China. Workshop on Strategic Planning on Forestry. Contact: DarmoSuparmo, NFP Adviser (Asia-Pacific), FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200,Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4142; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

April 2002 (tentative). Manila and Palawan, Philippines. Workshop and Study Tour on Assisted NaturalRegeneration. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4139; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

6-8 May 2002. Bogor and Jakarta, Indonesia. RILSIM$ Workshop. (Participation by invitation only.)Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4139; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

13-17 May 2002. Kathmandu, Nepal. FAO Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific. Contact: T.C. Ti,Conference Secretary, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel: (66-2)697-4195; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

10-13 June 2002. Rome, Italy. World Food Summit: five years later. More information is available at thefollowing website: www.fao.org/worldfoodsummit/

26-30 August 2002. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. 19th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. Contact:Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200,Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4139; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

2-11 September 2002. Johannesburg, South Africa. World Summit on Sustainable Development (“Rio+10").More information is available at the following website: www.johannesburgsummit.org

7-10 October 2002. Bringing Back the Forests: Policies and Practices for Degraded Lands and Forests.Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Organized by APAFRI, FAO, FORSPA, FRIM and IUFRO. Contact: Mr. AliasAbd Jalil, APAFRI, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Tel:6003-62722516; Fax: 603-62773249; E-mail: [email protected]; Website: apafri.upm.edu.my

21-28 September 2003. XII World Forestry Congress. Québec City, Canada. Contact: Secretariat General,XII World Forestry Congress 2003, P.O. Box 7275, Québec City, Canada G1G 5E5; E-mail: [email protected]

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER.This issue of FOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

Readers who are interested in obtaining any of the following publications can order up to three titles. For copies, please write to: Forestry Section, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand

1. Leucaena Psyllid in the Asia Pacific Region:

Implications for its Management in Africa (RAPA Publication 1994/13)

2. Asia-Pacific Tropical Forestry: Ecological Disaster or Sustainable Growth? (RAPA Publication 1994/18)

3. Workshop Report: Reform of the Forestry Sector: Towards a Market Orientation in China, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, and Vietnam (RAPA Publication 1995/4)

4. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 1995/13)

5. A Guide to the Identification of Diseases and Pests of Neem (Azadirachta indica) (RAP Publication 1995/41)

6. Non-Wood Forest Products in Bhutan (RAP Publication 1996/6)

7. Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Profiles: Second Edition (APAN Field Doc. No.4/RAP Publication 1996/20)

8. The Khao Kho Story: Reclaiming the Barren Hills of Thailand's Central Highlands (RAP Publication 1996/27)

9. Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus - Vol.II (RAP Publication 1996/44)

10. Forests and Forest Management in Mongolia (RAP Publication 1997/4)

11. Non-wood Forest Products: Tropical Palms (RAP Publication 1997/10)

12. Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity (RAP Publication 1997/16)

13. Directory of Selected Tropical Forestry Journals and Newsletters (2nd Edition) RAP Publication 1997/17 - FORSPA Publication No.19/1997.

14. Forest Dependent Survival Strategies of Tribal Women: Implications for Joint Forest Management in Andhra Pradesh, India (RAP Publication 1997/24)

15. Labor-Intensive Harvesting of Tree Plantations in the Southern Philippines (RAP Publication 1997/41)

16. Ecotourism for Forest Conservation and

Community Development (RAP Publication 1997/42

17. Leasing Degraded Forest Land: An Innovative Way to Integrate Forest and Livestock Development in Nepal (RAP Publication 1998/4)

18. Carbon Dioxide Offset Investment in the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector: Opportunities and Constraints (RAP Publication 1998/9)

19. Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - Executive Summary: The Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study (RAP Publication 1998/22)

20. Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study

21. Regional Strategy for Implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific 22. Trees Commonly Cultivated in Southeast Asia - An Illustrated Field Guide 2nd Edition. (RAP Publication 1999/13) 23. Decentralization and Devolution of Forest

Management in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2000/1 - RECOFTC Report No.18)

24. Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Fifty Years (RAP Publication 2000/2

25. Development of National-level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia: Workshop Report (RAP Publication 2000/07); Background Papers (RAP Publication 2000/08)

27. Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Eighteenth Session (RAP Publication 2000/11)

29. Forests Out of Bounds: Impacts and Effectiveness of Logging Bans in Natural Forests in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/08); Executive Summary (RAP Publication 2001/10)

30. Regional Training Strategy: Supporting the Implementation of the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/15)

28. Trash or Treasure? Logging and Mill Residues in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/16)

31. Proceedings of the International Conference on Timber Plantation Development

32. Information and Analysis for Trees Outside Forests in India (Working Paper No.1. EC-FAO Partnership Programme)

Periodicals Tigerpaper

Documents

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