TlingitGrammarHandbook · 2015. 1. 23. · héeni~heeni inaquative:intowater gági abumbrative:fromshadowintoopen éeg̱i~eeg̱i absilvative:fromwoodstoshore dáag̱i~daag̱i abaquative:fromwatertoshore

Tlingit Grammar Handbook

James A. Crippen DzéiwshKaaḵáak’w Hít yeedáx̱, Deisheetaan naax̱, Shtax’héen ḵwáanDepartment of Linguistics, University of British Columbia

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August

Copyright © – James A. Crippen, all rights reserved.

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This handbook is a summary of various aspects of Tlingit grammar andgrammatical analysis in tabular form. It is abstracted from work by Naishand Story ( , , , etc.), Leer ( , , etc.), Cable ( , ,etc.), and from the author’s own research.

The tables here aim to be comprehensive for all Tlingit dialects exceptwhere they are explicitly noted to be speci ic for a single dialect. Wherespace is limited, dialectal forms are indicated with a subscript uppercaseletter: x Tongass Tlingit, x Southern Tlingit (but x Sanya Tlingit versus xHenya Tlingit when the two are distinct), x Northern Tlingit, x TransitionalTlingit (Wrangell, Kake, etc.), x Gulf Coast Tlingit (Yakutat, Dry Bay, etc.), xInland Tlingit. Lack of dialect speci ication indicates that an element is ei-ther identical in all dialects (except for certain details like variable vowellength) or that the element has only been documented in Northern Tlingit.Tongass Tlingit forms are often presented in opposition to forms which areidentical in all the other dialects, in which case the latter forms are left un-marked.

The Tongass dialect has only been published in an orthographic formonce (Williams, Williams & Leer ). That system depends on distinguish-ing the vowelsVVʻ andVVʼ from ordinaryVV, a dif icult reading requirement.The revised orthography used here is based on the Revised Popular orthog-raphy with adaptations from Michael Krauss’s Eyak orthography which hasa similar vowel system. Thus Vh is used for prior VVʻ and Vʼ for prior VVʼ.Leer’s use of Vʻ in transcription has been converted to Vh as well. Since hcannot occur at the end of a syllable in Tlingit this new system is unambigu-ous. Note however that the old Naish-Story system used h for single-lettervowels at the end of words, though this did not indicate a different length orquality.

Southern Tlingit has never been written extensively in an orthographythat preserves its tone distinctions. The system used here is adapted fromthe Revised Popular orthography. It represents falling tone as an acute ac-cent on the irst letter and a grave accent on the second letter of long vowels,i.e. VV, which is conceptually a sequence of high and low tones.

This document has been designed to be printed and bound as a pocket-book so it can be easily carried everywhere. The ideal format is two logicalpages per printed page (“ up”), double sided, folded in half widthwise andstapled along the fold. To keep the printed form small, there is no discussionother than what is presented in the tables.

This is a living document. Contributions are welcome and encouraged.

Na-Dene language family relationships:• Na-Dene (Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit) family

– Tlingit– Athabaskan–Eyak family

⋄ Eyak⋄ Athabaskan family

· Northern Athabaskan: Ahtna, Carrier, Gwichʼin, Slave, …· Paci ic Coast Athabaskan: Hupa, Mattole, Tolowa, …· Southern Athabaskan (Apachean): Navajo, W. Apache, …

Tlingit dialects and major settlements:• Tongass Tlingit (T): Duke Island Yiʼx̱, Metlakatla Tahkw Ahni (Coast

Tsim. Maxɬakxaaɬa), Port Stewart G̱ahnax̱, Tongass Katuḵx̱uka• Southern Tlingit (S)

– Sanya Tlingit (S): Cape Fox G̱áàsh, Kah Shakes Cove G̱unéiḵʼanHéènakʼu, Naha Bay Náà.á, Unuk River Jóònáx̱, Chickamin RiverX̱éèl, Yes Bay Yéès G̱éèyí

– Henya Tlingit (H): Craig Sháànséet, Klawock Laawaak, TuxekanTʼaḵjik.áàn, ?Kuyu Kooyú

• Northern Tlingit (N)– Transitional Tlingit (R): Wrangell Ḵaachx̱ana.áakʼw,

Petersburg Gantiyaakw Séedi, Kake Ḵéex̱ʼ, ?Kuyu Kooyú,?Sumdum Sʼaawdáan, some in Angoon Aangóon

– Greater Northern Tlingit (N)⋄ Central Tlingit (N): Sitka Sheetʼká, Angoon Aangóon,

Killisnoo Kenasnoow, Tenakee Tʼanag̱eiy, Hoonah Xunaa,Auke Bay Áakʼw, Juneau Dzántikʼi Héeni ~ Jóonu, DouglasXʼaatʼtʼáak, Taku Tʼaaḵú, ?Sumdum Sʼaawdáan, HainesDeishú, Klukwan Tlaakw.aan, Skagway Shg̱agwéi

⋄ Gulf Coast Tlingit (G): Lituya Bay Ltu.áa, Dry Bay G̱unax̱oo,Yakutat Yaakwdáat, Icy Bay Ÿaasʼé, Kaliakh G̱alyáx̱

⋄ Inland Tlingit (I): ?Sumdum Sʼaawdáan, Atlin Áatlein,Teslin Deisleen, Tagish Taagish, Carcross Naadaashaahéeni

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop (p) t k kʷ q qʷaspirated stop tʰ kʰ kʰʷ qʰ qʰʷejective stop tʼ kʼ kʼʷ qʼ qʼʷ ʔ (ʔʷ)nasal stop (m) nplain fricative s ʃ ɬ x xʷ χ χʷ h (hʷ)ejective fricative sʼ ɬʼ xʼ xʼʷ χʼ χʼʷunaspirated affricate ts tʃ tɬaspirated affricate tsʰ tʃʰ tɬʰejective affricate tsʼ tʃ ʼ tɬʼapproximant (l) j (ɰ) w

Tlingit consonants in IPA transcription.

See also http://www.drangle.com/~james/tlingit/transcription-conventions.html

Cons. Explanation

p only occurs in Inland [pátʰàː] ‘butter’, elsewhere [kʷátʰàː]m occurs for some /w/ in Carcross-Tagish and Teslin Inland Tlingitl only occurs in Inland [tàːlèːjí] ‘lake trout’ (Ath. borrowing?); also

Jennie Manton (Hoonah) consistently used [l] for /n/ everywhereɰ split merged with /j/ and /w/ except in Tongass and some elsewhereʔʷ idiosyncratic: onset [ʔʷe…] of apophonic /ʔu…/ roots for some peoplehʷ idiosyncratic, as [ʔʷ]; also [ʔùˑhʷàːn] ‘us’ and [jìˑhʷàːn] ‘you (pl.)’ for

more usual [ʔùˑhàːn]~[ʔùˑwàːn] and [jìˑhàːn]~[jìˑwàːn] etc.

Explanation of marginal consonants in Tlingit.

http://www.drangle.com/~james/tlingit/transcription-conventions.html

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop (b) d g gw g̱ g̱waspirated stop t k kw ḵ ḵwejective stop tʼ kʼ kʼw ḵʼ ḵʼw . .wnasal stop m nplain fricative s sh l x xw x̱ x̱w h hwejective fricative sʼ lʼ xʼ xʼw x̱ʼ x̱ʼwunaspirated affricate dz j dlaspirated affricate ts ch tlejective affricate tsʼ chʼ tlʼapproximant (ḻ) y ÿ w

Tlingit consonants in the Revised Popular orthography.

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop b d g gw gh ghwaspirated stop t k kw kh khwejective stop tʼ kʼ kʼw khʼ khʼw . .wnasal stop m nplain fricative s sh ł x xw xh xhw h hwejective fricative sʼ łʼ xʼ xʼw xhʼ xhʼwunaspirated affricate dz j dlaspirated affricate ts ch tłejective affricate tsʼ chʼ tłʼapproximant l y ÿ w

Tlingit consonants in the YNLC orthography.

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop b d g gw gh ghwaspirated stop t k kw kh khwejective stop tʼ kʼ kʼw khʼ khʼw . .wnasal stop m nplain fricative s sh l x xw xh xhw h hwejective fricative sʼ lʼ xʼ xʼw xhʼ xhʼwunaspirated affricate dz j dlaspirated affricate ts ch tlejective affricate tsʼ chʼ tlʼapproximant (ll) y ÿ w

Tlingit consonants in the E-mail orthography.

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop d g gᵒ g̣ g̣ᵒaspirated stop t k kᵒ q qᵒejective stop t! k! k!ᵒ q! q!ᵒ —nasal stop nplain fricative s c ł x xᵒ x̣ x̣ᵒ hejective fricative s! — k! k!ᵒ q! q!ᵒunaspirated affricate dz dj ʟ̣aspirated affricate ts tc ʟejective affricate ts! tc! ʟ!approximant y ỵ w

Tlingit consonants in Swanton . Occasionally ᵘ for ᵒ.

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop d g gᵘ g̣ g̣ᵘaspirated stop tʻ kʻ kʻᵘ qʻ qʻᵘejective stop tʼ kʼ kʼᵘ qʼ qʼᵘ ʼnasal stop nplain fricative s c ł x xᵘ x̣ x̣ᵘ hejective fricative sʼ łʼ xʼ xʼᵘ x̣ʼ x̣ʼᵘunaspirated affricate dz dj ʟ̣aspirated affricate ts tc ʟejective affricate tsʼ tcʼ ʟʼapproximant y ỵ w

Tlingit consonants in Boas .

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop d g gᵒᵒ ġ ġᵒᵒaspirated stop t c~k kᵒᵒ ḵ~ḳ quejective stop dt g ́ g ́ᵒᵒ ḵ~ḳ — —nasal stop nplain fricative s sh hl ch chᵒᵒ ʻh ʻhᵒᵒ hejective fricative sz dl g` g`ᵒᵒ g̈ g̈ᵒᵒunaspirated affricate — j dlaspirated affricate ts ch tlejective affricate dts dj ᴅʟapproximant y w~ŭ

Tlingit consonants in Willard & Kelly .

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop d g gʷ ɢ ɢʷaspirated stop t k kʷ q qʷejective stop t̓ k kʷ q̓ q̓ʷ ʼnasal stop nplain fricative s c ł x xʷ x̣ x̣ʷ hejective fricative s̓ ł x̓ x̓ʷ x̣̓ x̣̓ʷunaspirated affricate dz ǰ dłaspirated affricate ts tc tłejective affricate ts̓ tc̓ tłapproximant y ỵ w

Tlingit consonants in De Laguna .

bilabial

alveolar

postalveolar

lateral

palatal

velar

labial-velar

uvular

labial-uvu

lar

glottal

labial-glotta

l

unaspirated stop d g gʷ g̣ g̣ʷaspirated stop t k kʷ q qʷejective stop t̓ k kʷ q̓ q̓ʷ ˀnasal stop nplain fricative s š ł x xʷ x̣ x̣ʷ hejective fricative s̓ ł x̓ x̓ʷ x̣̓ x̣̓ʷunaspirated affricate ʒ ǯ λaspirated affricate c č ƛejective affricate c̓ c̓̌ ƛapproximant y ỵ w

Tlingit consonants in Emmons & De Laguna .

tone height

short long

front back front back

high

high í ú íː úːmid é éːlow á áː

low

high ì ù ìː ùːmid è èːlow à àː

Northern Tlingit vowels in IPA.

tone height

short long


high

high í ú íː úːmid é éːlow á áː

low

high ì ù ìː ùːmid è èːlow à àː

falling high îː ûː

mid êːlow âː

Southern Tlingit vowels in IPA.

IPA Leer Leer New Orthography Name Description

V V V i, e, a, u short plain vowelVː Vˑ VV ee, ei, aa, oo long long vowelVʰ Vʻ VV` ih, eh, ah, uh fading breathy in last halfVˀ Vʼ VVˊ iʼ, eʼ, aʼ, uʼ glottalized followed by glottal stop

Tongass Tlingit vowel types. Vowel qualities {i, e, a, u} as other dialects.

tone height

short long


high

high í ú ée óomid é éilow á áa

low

high i u ee oomid e eilow a aa

Northern Tlingit vowels in Revised Popular orthography.

tone height

short long


high

high í ú î ûmid é êlow á â

low

high i u ì ùmid e èlow a à

Northern Tlingit vowels in YNLC orthography.

tone height

short long


high

high í(h) ó(h) ée óomid é(h) éilow ú(h) á(h)

low

high i(h) o(h) ee oomid e(h) eilow u(h) a(h)

Northern Tlingit vowels in old Naish-Story ( s).

TongassSouthern

Northern LeerSanya Henya

V V V V VV V V ~ V V VVʰ Vː Vː Vː VʻVʰR VVR VVR VːR VʻRVˀ VV VV Vː VʼVː Vː Vː Vː VˑVːR VVR VVR VːR VˑRVː Vː Vː Vː VˑVːR VːR VːR VːR VˑR

Dialect tone correspondences in IPA. R = {/n/, /ɰ/, /j/, /w/}.

TongassSouthern

Northern Leer MeaningSanya Henya

V ta V tá V tá V tá tá sleepV ta ḵaʼ V tá ḵáa V ta ḵáa V ta ḵáa ta qáʼ sleeping manVʰ shah Vː shaa Vː shaa Vː shaa šaʻ mountainVʰR ahn VVR áàn VVR áàn Vː aan aʻn land, townVʼ ḵaʼ VV ḵáà VV ḵáà Vː ḵáa qáʼ manVː aa Vː áa Vː áa Vː áa áˑ lakeVːR heen VVR héèn VVR héèn VːR héen híˑn fresh waterVː haa Vː haa Vː haa Vː haa haˑ us, ourVːR VːR VːR VːR

Examples of tone correspondences between dialects.

Valence category S O Ptransitive + + ±subject intransitive + − ±object intransitive − + ±impersonal − − ±object intransitive + thematic S × + ±subject intransitive + thematic O + × ±impersonal + thematic S × − ±impersonal + thematic O − × ±impersonal + thematic S & O × × ±transitive + obligatory P + + +subject intransitive + obligatory P + − +object intransitive + obligatory P − + +impersonal + obligatory P − − +? × + +? + × +? × − +? − × +? × × +

Valency of Tlingit verbs. +: required present, −: required absent,±: optional, ×: thematic (lexically speci ied and nonreferential)

Position Theme elements In lectional elements

Order theme pre ixOrder ya-Order ka-

Order Benefactive pre ixOrder Irrealis pre ixOrder Continuative pre ixOrder (Im)perfective pre ixOrder Distributive pre ixOrder Pronominal pre ix

Extensor series Member of extensor seriesInvariable stem component In lected stem form

OrderOrder

Naish & Story verb template.

Position Name Type Examples

tu-, ji-, x̱ʼa-Theme pre ixes ÿa-

ka-Irrealis u-Continuative na-, ga-, g̱a-Aspectival In lectional pre ixes g̱a-, ÿu-Distributive dag̱a-Subject x̱a-, i-, tu-

Extensors ÿa-, di-, si-, dli-Stem .ee, goo, x̱aa

Consonantal In lectional suf ixes -ch, -kw, -x̱Functional -een, -eeḵ, -nee

Naish & Story verb template.

Cable & Crippen Leer

+ bound phrasal adjuncts — —+ preverbs ( – , , , ) + proclitic adjunct phrases+ reciprocal & outer distributive + b number pre ixes+ plural number has= ~ s- a+ objects + b incorp. obj. pronominals+ areal ḵu- — —+ alienable incorporates a incorp. alienable nouns+ inalienable incorporates + c incorp. inalienable nouns+ vertical surface ÿa- b+ horizontal surface ka- a+ self-benefactive ga- + e schetic pre ixes+ outer conjugation/aspect d+ irrealis c+ inner conjugation/aspect b+ perfective and g̱a-mode a+ inner distributive + distributive pre ix+ subjects + subject pronominals+ classi iers + classi ier

root− stem variation − inner mode suf ixes− derivation − derivational suf ixes− duration ( ?, ?) − durative suf ixes (a, b)− mode − outer mode suf ixes− epimode − epimode and− clause type clause type suf ixes− bound auxiliaries — —

Verb template structure.

Position Af ixes

+ P-xʼ, P-{t,x̱,dé}, P-náx̱, P-dáx̱, P x̱ʼé-ʼ, P dasé-ʼ, P g̱unaÿá-ʼ P eetéenáx̱, …

proclitics

+ g̱unayéi~g̱unéi=, áa=, shóo=, héeni=, gági=, éeg̱i=, daag̱i=ḵut=, yux̱=, yaax̱=, héenx̱=, ux̱=, ḵwáaḵx̱=, yedx̱=, ÿaanax̱~ÿahnax̱ =ÿan*=, neil*=, haa*=, yóo*=, ḵux̱*=, kux *=kei~keh =, yei~yeh =, ÿeiḵ~ÿeeḵ ~ihḵ =, daaḵ~dahḵ =, daak~dahk =yéi~yeh =ÿaa~ÿah =ÿaa~ÿah =, yoo~yuh =

+ woosh= , dax̱=+ has= ~ s-

preixe

s

+ x̱at~ax̱-, haa~hah -, i-, yi-, a~-, ash-, ḵaa~ḵu-, at-, aa-, sh~-+ ḵu-+ ÿaan-, shakux-, ÿata-, x̱ʼasakw-, g̱ax̱-, xee~xei-, ḵee~ḵei-, yee~yei-, lʼilʼ-,

kanik-, yaḵa-, saa-, aan-, naa-, sha.ax̱w-, yakw-, hin-, luxʼ-, hasʼ-, luk-+ ji-, x̱ʼa-, ḵʼa-, tu-, sha-, shu-, lu-, se~sa-, x̱a-, gu-, ta-, daa-, x̱oo-, x̱an-,

x̱ʼaa-, tʼéi-, tʼaa-, yik-, yee-, ḵi-, gin-, x̱i-, sʼaan-, lidíx̱ʼ, waḵ-, sʼaḵ-, x̱ʼus-,sʼee-, duk-, laka-, tlʼiḵ-, keey-, tóoxʼ-, x̱ʼatu-, tuḵx̱ʼe~tuḵʼe-, daa.it-, tax̱ʼ-

+ ÿa-+ ka-+ ga-+ ga-+ u-, w-, oo- (all )+ - , na- , g̱a- ̱+ ÿu- , u- . , g̱a- ̱+ dag̱a~dax̱-+ x̱a- . , tu- . , i- . , yi- . , - . , du- . , du- .+ [±D, S, ±I]: D ∊ {+ , − }, S ∊ {, s, l, sh}, I ∊ {+ , − }

root (CVC, CVCʼ, CVʼC, CV, CVʰ)

sufixes

− -ʼ, -ː, -h, -n, -ÿ (all )− -án, -shán, -ch, -áḵw, -aa, -x̱aa, -ÿí, -ee, -k, -álʼ~chʼálʼ, -ḵ, -nas, -násʼ, -kátʼ− ( ?) -h, -k, -x̱, -ch; ( ?) -t, -xʼ, -tʼ, -sʼ, -lʼ− -ch, -(n)ee~(n)ih , -ín− -een~ihn , -eeḵ~ihḵ ~ḵ− -ee~ih , -i

enclitic

s − =nóok ~néekw ~neekw , =nooch ~neech ~nihch ~nukch , =noojeen~neejeen ~?nihjihn , =núknee ~níkwnee ~níkwni ~nikwnih ,=g̱anúgun ~g̱anígun ~g̱aníkw ~g̱anikw

Verb morphemes.

Grp.

Preverb Gloss Conj.

Description

g̱unaÿéi~g̱unéi~g̱unaÿeʼ inceptive: beginning, startingaa~aʼ locative: thereáa~aʼ (+ ÿax̱) rotatory: turning overshóo~shuʼ (+ ÿax̱) adrotatory: turning over endwisehéeni~heeni inaquative: into watergági abumbrative: from shadow into openéeg̱i~eeg̱i absilvative: from woods to shoredáag̱i~daag̱i abaquative: from water to shoreḵut ga errative: astray, lost, excessively (-t)ÿan, ÿax̱, ÿande completive: completing, inishing (-*)yux̱ out na outside (-x̱)yaax̱~yahx̱ g̱a invehicular: into vehicle (-x̱)héenx̱~heenx̱ g̱a inaquative: into water (-x̱)ux̱ (+ kei~keh ) uncontrolled: blindly, out of control (-x̱)ḵwáaḵx̱ (+ daaḵ~dahḵ ) wrong by mistake, wrongly (-x̱)yetx̱~yedax̱ initial: starting off, taking off (-dáx̱)ÿanax̱~ÿahnax̱ under g̱a underground (-náx̱)ÿan, ÿax̱, ÿánde abmarine: ashore, onto ground, restingneil(t), neilx̱, neildé home inside, homeward, into buildinghaat, haax̱, haadé hither hither, this way, toward speakeryóot, yóox̱, yóode hence hence, away, off (inde inite location)ḵux̱, ?ḵux̱x̱, ḵúx̱de revertive: aback, reversed directionkux , kuxx̱ , kúxde aground, into shallow water (IT only)kei~kéi~keh up upwardyei~yéi~yeh down downward, out of vehicleÿeiḵ~ÿéèḵ ~ihḵ adlitoral: down to shore, beachwarddaaḵ~dáàḵ ~dahḵ ablitoral: inland from shore, back from

open, off of iredaak~dáàk ~dahk admarine: seaward, into open, falling

from sky, onto ireyéi~yeʼ ~yeh thus manner: thus, so (yeh = is thematic)ÿaa~ÿa~ÿah mental state or activityyoo~yuh alternating: back and forth, to and froÿaa~ÿah along na along, down, obliquely, progressive

Preverbs (+ ).

Gloss Source Unmarked Punctual Pertingent Allative

Form Trans. -t -x̱ -déNo

rthe

rn

ÿán ‘shore’ ÿan- ÿan- ÿax̱- ÿánde-home neil ‘home’ neil- neilt- neilx̱- neildé-hither haa ? ‘us’ ? — haat- haax̱- haadé-hence yóo ‘distal’ yóo- yóot- yóox̱- yóode-

? ? ?ḵux̱- ḵux̱- ḵux̱- ḵúx̱de-aground ? ? ?kux - kux - kuxx̱ - kúxde -

Southe

rn

ÿan- ÿan- ÿax̱- yándei-home néìl- néìlt- néìlx̱- néìldéi-hither ?háà- háàt- háàx̱- háàdéi-hence ?yóo- yóot- yóox̱- yóodéì-

?ḵux̱- ḵux̱- ?ḵux̱x̱- ḵúx̱déì-

Tong

ass

ÿan- ÿan- ÿax̱- yandeh-home ?nehl- nehlt- nehlx̱- nehldei-hither ?hah- haht- hahx̱- hahdei-hence ?yoo- yoot- yoox̱- yoodeh-

?ḵux̱- ḵux̱- ?ḵux̱x̱- ḵux̱deh-

Group preverb (+ ) variants. kux only in Inland Tlingit.

Pre ix Source noun

yaan ~yáàn ~ÿahn - yaan ‘hunger’shakux- shakoox~shakuhx ‘thirst’ÿata- –ÿá ‘face, vertical surface’ (?) + tá ‘sleep’x̱ʼasakw- x̱ʼaséikw ‘breath, life’g̱ax̱- g̱aax̱ ‘crying, weeping’xei ~xee ~xih - xee ‘dusk, shadow’ (cf. shaa xeiyí ‘mtn. shadow’)ḵei ~ḵee ~ḵih - ḵee ‘dawn’ (cf. ḵee.á ‘dawn’, ḵeex̱ʼé ‘daybreak’)yei ~?yee ~ÿih - ÿee ‘time’ (cf. yeedát ‘moment’)kanik- kaneek~?kanéèk ~kanihk ‘report, news’kayik- kayéik ‘noise’yaḵa- yaḵá ‘curse, reproach, rebuke’saa~sah - saa ‘name’aan ~áàn ~ahn - aan‘land, town, settlement’naa~nah - naa ‘clan, nation, people’sha.ax̱w- sha.aax̱w ‘bundle’yakw- yaakw~yáàkw ~yahkw ‘canoe, boat’hin- héen ‘fresh water, river, stream’

Alienable incorporated nouns (+ ).

Pre ix Source noun

ji- –jín ‘hand, arm’, –jee ‘possession’x̱ʼa~ḵʼa- –x̱ʼéi ‘mouth’tu- –tú ‘inside, mind, emotions’sha- –shá ‘head’shu- –shú ‘end’lu- –lú ‘nose, point’se(i)~sa- –séi ‘voice’x̱a- –x̱aaw ‘fur’gu- –gú ‘base, butt’ta- –tá ‘bottom’daa ~dáà ~dah - –daa ~dáà ~dah ‘around, surrounding, periphery’x̱oo- –x̱oo ‘among, amidst, within’x̱an- –x̱án ‘vicinity, near’x̱ʼaa- –x̱ʼaa ‘space between, interstice’tʼéi- –tʼéi ‘behind, screened by, obscured by’tʼaa- –tʼáa~tʼáak ‘landward side’yik- –yík ‘inside (concave)’yee- –yee ‘underneath, beneath’ḵi- ??gin- –geen ‘tail lipper’x̱i- –x̱ee ‘shoulder’sʼaan- ?? ‘limb’lidíx̱ʼ- –lidíx̱ʼ ‘neck, throat’waḵ- (+ ka-) –waaḵ ‘eye’sʼaḵ- (+ ka-) sʼaaḵ ‘bone’(alienable; a sʼaag̱í ‘its bone’)x̱ʼus- (+ ka-) –x̱ʼoos ‘foot, leg’sʼee- (+ ka-) –sʼee ‘eyebrow’duk- (+ ka-) dook ‘skin’(alienable; a doogú ‘its skin’)la- (+ ka-) –laká ‘inside of mouth’ (cf. –leitóox̱ʼ ‘in the throat’)tlʼiḵ- (+ sha-) –tlʼeeḵ ‘ inger’ + –shá ‘head’ = –tlʼiḵshá ‘ ingertip’keey- –keey ‘knee’tóoxʼ- (+ ka-) –tóoxʼ-ká ‘kneeling’x̱ʼatu- –x̱ʼéi ‘mouth + –tú ‘inside’tuḵx̱ʼe~tuḵʼe- –tuḵx̱ʼé ‘anus’ (< –túḵ ‘butt’ + –x̱ʼéi ‘mouth’)daa.it- –daa.éet ‘joint’tax̱ʼ- –téix̱ʼ ‘heart’

Inalienable incorporated nouns (+ ).

−D +D−I +I −I +I

S(Se

ries) - ÿa- da- di-

s sa- si- s- dzi-l la- li- l- dli-

sh sha- shi- sh- ji-

Classi ier pre ixes (+ ).

Ci- Ca- C-Form Features Form Features Form Features

di- + + da- + −si- − s + sa- − s −dzi- + s + s- + s −li- − l + la- − l −dli- + l + l- + l −shi- − sh + sha- − sh −ji- + sh + sh- + sh −

Classi iers by phonological shape, excluding - and ÿa-.

l s shCa- da- + la- − sa- − sha- −C- - − l- + s- + sh- +

Phonological shapes of classi iers with − .

Pre ixesClassi ier shape

Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-ÿu-x̱a- x̱waCi x̱waCa x̱waC x̱wa x̱waaÿu-tu- wutuCi wutuCa wutooC wutoo wutuwaÿu-i- ÿiCi ÿiCa ÿiC ÿi ÿee ~ iÿa*ÿu-ÿi- ÿeeÿCi ÿeeCa ÿeeÿC ÿeeÿ ÿeeÿÿu-du- wuduCi — wuduC wudu wuduwaÿu-- wuCi — wuC wu woo ~ uwa*CV-ÿu-x̱a- CVx̱wCi CVx̱waCa CVx̱waC CVx̱wa CVx̱waaCV-ÿu-tu- CVwtuCi CVwtuCa CVwtooC CVwtoo CVwtuwaCV-ÿu-i CVÿCi CVÿCa CVÿiC CVÿi CeeÿaCV-ÿu-ÿi- CVÿeeÿCi CVÿeeÿCa CVÿeeÿC CVÿeeÿ CVÿeeÿCV-ÿu-du- CVwduCi — CVwduC CVwdu CVwduwaCV-ÿu-- CVwCi — CVwuC CVwu CVːwa

Northern pre ix contractions with + perfective ÿu-.*: actually + telic perfective u- rather than ÿu-.


Ca- C- -

ga-w-g̱a-x̱a-{ kuḵaCa kuḵaC kuḵa

kḵwaCa kḵwaC kḵwaga-w-g̱a-tu- gax̱tuCa gax̱tooC gax̱tooga-w-g̱a-i-

{ gag̱iCa gag̱eeC gag̱eekg̱iCa kg̱eeC kg̱ee

ga-w-g̱a-ÿi- gax̱ÿiCa gax̱ÿiC gax̱ÿiga-w-g̱a-du- gax̱duCa gax̱duC gax̱duga-w-g̱a-- gux̱Ca gug̱aC gug̱akg̱waC kg̱waCV-ga-w-g̱a-x̱a- CVkwḵaCa CVkwḵaC CVkwḵaCV-ga-w-g̱a-tu- CVgax̱tuCa CVgax̱tooC CVgax̱tooCV-ga-w-g̱a-i- CVkg̱iCa CVkg̱eeC CVkg̱eeCV-ga-w-g̱a-du- CVgax̱duCa CVgax̱duC CVgax̱duCV-ga-w-g̱a-- CVgux̱Ca CVkwg̱aC CVkwg̱aNorthern pre ix contractions with future ga-w-g̱a-… [− ]-.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa--x̱a- x̱aCi x̱aCa x̱aC x̱a x̱aa-tu- tuCi tuCa tooC too tuwa-i- iCi iCa eeC ee iÿa-ÿi- ÿiCi ÿeeÿCa ÿiC ÿi ÿeeÿ-du- duCi — duC du duwa-- Ci Ca iC ÿa

u--x̱a-{ x̱waCi x̱waCa x̱waC x̱wa x̱waaux̱Ci ux̱Ca ux̱a ux̱aa

u--- uCi — uC u uwau--du-

{ — — uduC udu —— — duC du —

CV--x̱a- CVx̱Ci CVx̱Ca CVx̱aC CVx̱a CVx̱aaCV--tu- CVtuCi CVtuCa CVtooC CVtoo CVtuwaCV--i- CeeCi CeeCa CeeC Cee CeeÿaCV--ÿi- CVÿeeÿCi CVÿCa CVÿiC CVÿ CVÿeeÿCV--du- CVduCi — CVduC CVdu CVduwaCV--- CVCi CVCa CVC CV CVÿaka--- kaCi kaCa kaC ka kaaCV-u--x̱a- CUːx̱Ci CUːx̱Ca CUːx̱aC CUːx̱a CUːx̱aaCV-u--- CUːCi CUːC CUː CUːÿaCV-u--du-

{ — — CUːduC CUːdu —— — CVduC CVdu —

CV-oo--x̱a- Cux̱Ci Cux̱Ca Cux̱aC Cux̱a Cux̱aaCV-oo--- CooCi CooCa CooC Coo CuwaCV-w--- CuCi CuCa CuC Cu Coo

Northern pre ix contractions with + -conjugation.Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-g̱a-x̱a- ḵaCi ḵaCa ḵaC ḵa ḵaag̱a-tu- g̱atuCi g̱atuCa g̱atooC g̱atoo g̱atuwag̱a-i- g̱iCi g̱iCa g̱eeC g̱ee g̱iÿag̱a-ÿi- g̱aÿCi g̱aÿCa g̱aÿiC g̱aÿ g̱aÿeeÿg̱a-du- g̱aduCi — g̱aduC g̱adu g̱aduwag̱a-- g̱aCi — g̱aC g̱a g̱aau-g̱a-x̱a- ḵwaCi ḵwaCa ḵwaC ḵwa ḵwaau-g̱a-- g̱waCi g̱waCa g̱waC g̱wa g̱waaCV-g̱a-x̱a- CVḵaCi CVḵaCa CVḵaC CVḵa CVḵaaCV-g̱a-tu- CVx̱tuCi CVx̱tuCa CVx̱tooC CVx̱too CVx̱tuwaCV-g̱a-i- CVg̱iCi CVg̱iCa CVg̱eeC CVg̱ee CVg̱iÿaCV-g̱a-ÿi- CVx̱ÿiCi CVx̱ÿiCa CVx̱ÿiC CVx̱ÿi CVx̱ÿeeÿCV-g̱a-du- CVx̱duCi — CVx̱duC CVx̱du CVx̱duwaCV-g̱a-- CVx̱Ci CVx̱Ca CVg̱aC CVg̱a CVg̱aaCV-u-g̱a-x̱a- CUːḵaCi CUːḵaCa CUːḵaC CUːḵa CUːḵaaCV-u-g̱a-- CUːx̱Ci CUːx̱Ca CUːg̱aC CUːg̱a CUːg̱aaCV-oo-g̱a-x̱a- CuḵaCi CuḵaCa CuḵaC Cuḵa CuḵaaCV-oo-g̱a-- Cux̱Ci Cux̱Ca Cug̱aC Cug̱a Cug̱aa

Northern pre ix contractions with + g̱a-conjugation or + g̱a-mode.Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-na-x̱a- nax̱Ci nax̱Ca nax̱aC nax̱a nax̱aana-tu- natuCi natuCa natooC natoo natuwana-i- niCi niCa neeC nee niÿana-ÿi- naÿCi naÿCa naÿiC naÿ naÿeeÿna-du- naduCi — naduC nadu naduwana-- naCi — naC na naa

u-na-x̱a-{ unax̱Ci unax̱Ca unx̱aC unx̱a unx̱aa

nax̱wCi nax̱wCa nax̱waC nax̱wa nax̱waau-na-- unCi — unaC una unaaCV-na-x̱a- CVnax̱Ci CVnax̱Ca CVnx̱aC CVnx̱a CVnx̱aaCV-na-tu- CVntuCi CVntuCa CVntooC CVntoo CVntuwaCV-na-i- CVniCi CVniCa CVneeC CVnee CVniÿaCV-na-ÿi- CVnaÿCi CVnaÿCa CVnaÿiC CVnaÿ CVnaÿeeÿCV-na-du- CVnduCi — CVnduC CVndu CVnduwaCV-na-- CVnCi CVnCa CVnaC CVna CVnaa

CV-u-na-x̱a-{ CUːnax̱Ci CUːnax̱Ca CUːnx̱aC CUːnx̱a CUːnx̱aa

CVnax̱wCi CVnax̱wCa CVnx̱waC CVnx̱wa CVnx̱waaCV-u-na-- CUːnCi CUːnCa CUːnaC CUːna CUːnaaCV-oo-na-x̱a- Cunax̱Ci Cunax̱Ca Cunx̱aC Cunx̱a Cunx̱aaCV-oo-na-- CunCi CunCa CunaC Cuna Cunaa

Northern pre ix contractions with + na-conjugation.Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-ga-x̱a- gax̱Ci gax̱Ca gax̱aC gax̱a gax̱aaga-tu- gatuCi gatuCa gatooC gatoo gatuwaga-i- giCi giCa geeC gee giÿaga-ÿi- gaÿCi gaÿCa gaÿiC gaÿ gaÿeeÿga-du- gaduCi — gaduC gadu gaduwaga-- gaCi — gaC ga gaaga-u-x̱a- goox̱Ci goox̱Ca goox̱aC goox̱a goox̱aaga-u-- ?gooCi — gooC goo ?goowaCV-ga-x̱a- CVgax̱Ci CVgax̱Ca CVkx̱aC CVkx̱a CVkx̱aaCV-ga-tu- CVktuCi CVktuCa CVktooC CVktoo CVktuwaCV-ga-i- CVgiCi CVgiCa CVgeeC CVgee CVgiÿaCV-ga-ÿi- CVgaÿCi CVgaÿCa CVgaÿiC CVgaÿ CVgaÿeeÿCV-ga-du- CVkduCi — CVkduC CVkdu CVkduwaCV-ga-- CVkCi CVkCa CVgaC CVga CVgaaCV-ga-u-x̱a- CVgoox̱Ci CVgoox̱Ca CVkwx̱aC CVkwx̱a CVkwx̱aaCV-ga-u-- ?CVgooCi — CVgooC CVgoo ?CVgoowa

Northern pre ix contractions with + ga-conjugation.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-g̱a-g̱a-x̱a- ḵaaḵaCi ḵaaḵaCa ḵaaḵaC ḵaaḵa ḵaaḵag̱a-g̱a-tu- g̱aax̱tuCi g̱aax̱tuCa g̱aax̱tooC g̱aax̱too g̱aax̱tuwag̱a-g̱a-i- g̱aag̱iCi g̱aag̱iCa g̱aag̱eeC g̱aag̱ee g̱aag̱iÿag̱a-g̱a-ÿi- g̱aax̱ÿiCi g̱aax̱ÿiCa g̱aax̱ÿiC g̱aax̱ÿi g̱aax̱ÿeeÿg̱a-g̱a-du- g̱aax̱duCi — g̱aax̱duC g̱aax̱du g̱aax̱duwag̱a-g̱a-- g̱aax̱Ci g̱aax̱Ca g̱aag̱aC g̱aag̱a g̱aag̱aag̱a-u-g̱a-x̱a- ḵwaaḵaCi ḵwaaḵaCa ḵwaaḵaC ḵwaaḵa ḵwaaḵaag̱a-u-g̱a-- g̱waax̱Ci g̱waax̱Ca g̱waag̱aC g̱waag̱a g̱waag̱aaCV-g̱a-g̱a-x̱a- CVḵaaḵaCi CVḵaaḵaCa CVḵaaḵaC CVḵaaḵa CVḵaaḵaaCV-g̱a-g̱a-tu- CVg̱aax̱tuCi CVg̱aax̱tuCa CVg̱aax̱tooC CVg̱aax̱too CVg̱aax̱tuwaCV-g̱a-g̱a-i- CVg̱aag̱iCi CVg̱aag̱iCa CVg̱aag̱eeC CVg̱aag̱ee CVg̱aag̱iÿaCV-g̱a-g̱a-ÿi- CVg̱aax̱ÿiCi CVg̱aax̱ÿiCa CVgaax̱ÿiC CVg̱aax̱ÿi CVg̱aax̱ÿeeÿCV-g̱a-g̱a-du- CVg̱aax̱duCi — CVg̱aax̱duC CVg̱aax̱du CVg̱aax̱duwaCV-g̱a-g̱a-- CVg̱aax̱Ci CVg̱aax̱Ca CVg̱aag̱aC CVg̱aag̱a CVg̱aag̱aaCV-g̱a-u-g̱a-x̱a- CUːḵaaḵaCi CUːḵaaḵaCa CUːḵaaḵaC CUːḵaaḵa CUːḵaaḵaaCV-g̱a-u-g̱a-- CUːg̱aax̱Ci CUːg̱aax̱Ca CUːg̱aag̱aaC CUːg̱aag̱a CUːg̱aag̱aaCV-g̱a-oo-g̱a-x̱a- CuḵaaḵaCi CuḵaaḵaCa CuḵaaḵaC Cuḵaaḵa CuḵaaḵaaCV-g̱a-oo-g̱a-- Cug̱aag̱aCi Cug̱aag̱aCa Cug̱aag̱aC Cug̱aag̱a Cug̱aag̱aa

Northern pre ix contractions with g̱a-conjugation and g̱a-mode.Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-na-g̱a-x̱a- naḵaCi naḵaCa naḵaC naḵa naḵaana-g̱a-tu- nax̱tuCi nax̱tuCa nax̱tooC nax̱too nax̱tuwana-g̱a-i- nag̱iCi nag̱iCa nag̱eeC nag̱ee nag̱iÿana-g̱a-ÿi- nax̱ÿiCi nax̱ÿiCa nax̱ÿiC nax̱ÿi nax̱ÿeeÿna-g̱a-du- nax̱duCi — nax̱duC nax̱du nax̱duwana-g̱a-- nax̱Ci nax̱Ca nag̱aC nag̱a nag̱aa

u-na-g̱a-x̱a-{ unḵaCi unḵaCa unḵaC unḵa unḵaa

naḵwaCi naḵwaCa naḵwaC naḵwa naḵwaau-na-g̱a--

{ unax̱Ci unax̱Ca nag̱waC ung̱a ung̱aanax̱wCi nax̱wCa nag̱wa nag̱waaCV-na-g̱a-x̱a- CVnḵaCi CVnḵaCa CVnḵaC CVnḵa CVnḵaaCV-na-g̱a-tu- CVnax̱tuCi CVnax̱tuCa CVnax̱tooC CVnax̱too CVnax̱tuwaCV-na-g̱a-i- CVng̱iCi CVng̱iCa CVng̱eeC CVng̱ee CVng̱iÿaCV-na-g̱a-ÿi- CVnax̱ÿiCi CVnax̱ÿiCa CVnax̱ÿiC CVnax̱ÿi CVnax̱ÿeeÿCV-na-g̱a-du- CVnax̱duCi — CVnax̱duC CVnax̱du CVnax̱duwaCV-na-g̱a-- CVnax̱Ci CVnax̱Ca CVng̱aC CVng̱a CVng̱aa

CV-u-na-g̱a-x̱a-{ CUːnḵaCi CUːnḵaCa CUːnḵaC CUːnḵa CUːnḵaaCVnḵwaCi CVnḵwaCa CVnḵwaC CVnḵwa CVnḵwaa

CV-u-na-g̱a--{ CUːnax̱Ci CUːnax̱Ca CUːng̱aC CUːng̱a CUːng̱aa

CVnax̱wCi CVnax̱wCa CVng̱waC CVng̱wa CVng̱waaCV-oo-na-g̱a-x̱a- CunḵaCi CunḵaCa CunḵaC Cunḵa CunḵaaCV-oo-na-g̱a-- Cunax̱Ci Cunax̱Ca Cung̱aC Cung̱a Cung̱aa

Northern pre ix contractions with na-conjugation and g̱a-mode.Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.


Ci- Ca- C- - ÿa-ga-g̱a-x̱a- gaḵaCi gaḵaCa gaḵaC gaḵa gaḵaaga-g̱a-tu- gax̱tuCi gax̱tuCa gax̱tooC gax̱too gax̱tuwaga-g̱a-i- gag̱iCi gag̱iCa gag̱eeC gag̱ee gag̱iÿaga-g̱a-ÿi- gax̱ÿiCi gax̱ÿiCa gax̱ÿiC gax̱ÿi gax̱ÿeeÿga-g̱a-du- gax̱duCi — gax̱duC gax̱du gax̱duwaga-g̱a-- gax̱Ci gax̱Ca gag̱aC gag̱a gag̱aau-ga-g̱a-x̱a- gooḵaCi gooḵaCa gooḵaC gooḵa gooḵaau-ga-g̱a-- goox̱Ci goox̱Ca — goog̱a goog̱aaCV-ga-g̱a-x̱a- CVkḵaCi CVkḵaCa CVkḵaC CVkḵa CVkḵaaCV-ga-g̱a-tu- CVgax̱tuCi CVgax̱tuCa CVgax̱tooC CVgax̱too CVgax̱tuwaCV-ga-g̱a-i- CVkg̱iCi CVkg̱iCa CVkg̱eeC CVkg̱ee CVkg̱iÿaCV-ga-g̱a-ÿi- CVgax̱ÿiCi CVgax̱ÿiCa CVgax̱ÿiC CVgax̱ÿi CVgax̱ÿeeÿCV-ga-g̱a-du- CVgax̱duCi — CVgax̱duC CVgax̱du CVgax̱duwaCV-ga-g̱a-- CVgax̱Ci CVgax̱Ca CVkg̱aC CVkg̱a CVkg̱aaCV-u-ga-g̱a-x̱a- CVkwḵaCi CVkwḵaCa CVkwḵaC CVkwḵa CVkwḵaaCV-u-ga-g̱a-- CVgoox̱Ci CVgoox̱Ca CVkwg̱aC CVkwg̱a CVkwg̱aa

Northern pre ix contractions with ga-conjugation and g̱a-mode.

Stem Var. Suf ixClosed roots Open roots

CVC CVCʼ CVʼC CV CVʰ-n CVC CVCʼ CVC CVː-n CVː-n*-ÿ

habitual -ch CVC CVCʼ CVC CVːÿ-ch CVːÿ-chotherwise CVː CVː-ː CVːC CVːCʼ CVʼC CVː CVː-h

imperative CVhC CVʼCʼ CVʼC CV CVotherwise CVh CVh-X ∈ {-k, -x̱, -ch, -h, -t, -xʼ, -tʼ, -sʼ, -lʼ}−

two suf ixes CVC-X CVCʼ-X CVC-X CV-X-X CV-X-Xone suf ix CVː-X CVh-X

-ʼ (open roots only)no other suf ix CV CVauxiliary or prohib.-opt. -ḵ CVː-… CVː-…decessive -een CVʼ-een CVʼ-eenother suf ixes with i~ee CVh-… CVh-…

closed plainrelative clause CVC CVCʼ CVCotherwise CVC CVCʼ CVC

* Exception: CVʰ stems √niʰ ‘become’ and √ÿaʰ ‘resemble’ have neen~nihnand ÿein~ÿehn instead of *néen~neen and *ÿéin~ÿein .

Stem variation across Tlingit dialects (Leer : ).

Stem Var. Suf ixClosed roots Open roots

CVC CVCʼ CVʼC CV CVʰ-n CVC CVCʼ CVC CVː-n CVː-n*-ÿ

habitual -ch CVC CVCʼ CVC CVːÿ-ch CVːÿ-chotherwise CVː CVː-ː CVːC CVːCʼ CVːC CVː CVː-h

imperative CVːC CVːCʼ CVːC CV CVotherwise CVː CVː-X ∈ {-k, -x̱, -ch, -h, -t, -xʼ, -tʼ, -sʼ, -lʼ}−

two suf ixes CVC-X CVCʼ-X CVC-X CV-X-X CV-X-Xone suf ix CVː-X CVː-X

-ʼ (open roots only)no other suf ix CV CVauxiliary or prohib.-opt. -ḵ CVː-… CVː-…decessive -een CVː-een CVː-eenother suf ixes with i~ee CVː-… CVː-…

closed plainrelative clause CVC CVCʼ CVCotherwise CVC CVCʼ CVC

* Exception: CVʰ stems √niʰ ‘become’ and √ÿaʰ ‘resemble’ have neen andÿein instead of *néen and *ÿéin.

Stem variation in Northern Tlingit.

Stem var. Tongass Northern Translation

CVC — kei=O-S- [− ,l]-.at (; -ch Rep Mot) ‘S pick up plural O’-X keh x̱la.atch kei x̱la.átch I keep picking them up-ÿ keh x̱wli.at kei x̱li.át I picked them up-ː keh kwḵala.aat kei kwḵala.áat I will pick them up-h tleil keh kwḵala.aht tléil kei kwḵala.aat I won’t pick them up

CVCʼ — kei=O-S- [− ,l]-lʼatʼ (; -ch Rep Mot) ‘S pick up O with tongs’-X keh x̱lalʼatʼch kei x̱lalʼátʼch I keep picking it up with…-ÿ keh x̱wlilʼatʼ kei x̱wlilʼátʼ I picked it up with tongs-ː keh kwḵalalʼaatʼ kei kwḵalalʼáatʼ I will pick it up with tongs-h tleil keh kwḵalalʼaʼtʼ tléil kei kwḵalalʼaatʼ I won’t pick it up with…

CVʼC — kei=O-S- [− ,]-shaʼt (; -ch Rep Mot) ‘S pick up O quickly’-X keh x̱ashatch kei x̱ashátch I keep grabbing it up-ÿ keh x̱wahshat kei x̱waashát I grabbed it up-ː keh kwḵashaʼt kei kwḵasháat I will grab it up-h tleil keh kwḵashaʼt tléil kei kwḵashaat I won’t grab it up

Illustration of closed stem variation in Tongass and Northern Tlingit.Themes are derived with kei= (; -ch Rep) ‘upward’.

Forms shown are (-X) Realis -ch Repetitive Imperfective, (-ÿ) Realis TelicPerfective, (-ː) Realis Future, and (-h) Irrealis Future.

Suf ix Modes

-ÿ -ÿ stative imperfective, -ÿ extensional stative imperfective,realis telic perfective, some active atelic potentials, telic habitual,some telic imperatives, some hortatives

-n -n active imperfective, -n positional imperfective, progressive,-n stative imperfective, conditional, contingent

-ː realis -ː active imperfective, realis -ː positional imperfective,realis -ː stative imperfective, realizational, realis future,admonitive, consecutive

-h irrealis -ː active imperfective, irrealis -ː positional imperfective,-h active imperfective, -h positional imperfective,irrealis -h stative imperfective, realis -h stative imperfective of√tiʰ ‘be’, -h extensional stative imperfective, irrealis telicperfective of closed roots, atelic perfective, irrealis future,most potentials, some telic habituals, most telic imperatives,some hortatives

-ʼ -ʼ active imperfective (open roots only), irrealis -ÿ stativeimperfective of open roots, irrealis -ÿ extensional stativeimperfective of open roots, irrealis telic perfective of open roots

-X -k repetitive imperfective, [+ ]-…-k repetitive imperfective,yoo=[+ ]-…-k repetitive imperfective, -x̱ repetitive imperfective,-ch repetitive imperfective, -t active (repeated) imperfective,-xʼ active (plural) imperfective, -tʼ active (plural) imperfective,-sʼ active (serial) imperfective, -lʼ active (serial) imperfective

Distribution of stem variation suf ixes across modes.

Mode Preverb Asp./Conj. I-Cpnt. Var Suff.+ + – + + − −

Dimperfectives-ː active & -ː positional

realis - − -ːirrealis u-- − -h

-h active & -h repetitiverealis - − -hirrealis u-- − -h

-ʼ active & -ʼ positional (open roots only)realis - − -ʼirrealis u-- − -ʼ

-n active & -n positionalrealis - − -nirrealis u-- − -n

-X active (-sʼ, -lʼ ,-t, -xʼ, -tʼ) & -X repetitive (-x̱, -ch, -k)realis ( =) - − -Xirrealis ( =) u-- − -X

[+ ]-…-k active & repetitiverealis - + -kirrealis u-- − -k

yoo=[+ ]-…-k active & repetitiverealis yoo= - + -kirrealis yoo= u-- − -k

progressiverealis = na- − -nirrealis = u-na- − -n

Non-stative imperfective (declarative) modes.= ∈ {= if - or na- but ÿaa= in progressive; kei= if ga-; yei= if g̱a-}

X ∈ {-x̱, -ch, -k, -sʼ, -lʼ, -t, -xʼ, -tʼ}Active = “act”, “eventive”, “processive”; Repetitive = “iterative”

The -X Repetitive suf ix is thematically speci ied.-X Active is derived but such verbs are treated as distinct themes.


D (cont’d)imperfectives (cont’d)-ː stative

realis - + -ːirrealis u-- − -h

-ÿ stativerealis - + -ÿ

realis √ti-h ‘be’ - + -hirrealis

closed root u-- − -ÿopen root u-- − -ʼ

-n stativerealis - + -nirrealis u-- − -h?

stative with invariable rootrealis - +irrealis u-- −

-h extensional stativerealis - + -hirrealis u- - − -h

-ÿ extensional stativerealis - + -ÿirrealis u- - − -ʼ

-k multipositional stativerealis

closed root - + -kopen root - + -kw-t

irrealisclosed root u- - − -kopen root u- - − -kw-t

Stative imperfective (declarative) modes.- ∈ {-, na-, ga-, g̱a-}

Stative = “state”, “neuter”; Multipositional = “multiple-positional”


D (cont’d)perfectives

telic (-) perfectiverealis ÿu- ~ u- + -ÿirrealis

open root ÿu- ~ u- − -ʼclosed root ÿu- ~ u- − -h

atelic (na-, ga-, g̱a-) perfectiverealis ÿu- + -hirrealis ÿu- − -h

realizational — always realisrealis - + -ː

futurerealis = ga-u-g̱a- − -ːirrealis = ga-u-g̱a- − -h

potentialclosed root

non-decessive u- -g̱a- + -hdecessive u- -g̱a- − -h

open rootnon-decessive u- -g̱a- + -hdecessive u- -g̱a- − -h

some active telic (-) themes with open rootnon-decessive u--g̱a- + -ÿdecessive u--g̱a- − -ÿ

habitualstelic (-) habitual

closed root u-- − -h ~ -ÿ -chopen root u-- − -ÿ -ch

atelic (na-, ga-, g̱a-) habitual - − -ch

Non-imperfective declarative modes.- ∈ {-, na-, ga-, g̱a-}

= ∈ {= if -; yoo= if na-; kei= if ga-; yei= if g̱a-}


Dimperatives — always realis

telic (-) imperativeopen root - − -h ~ -ÿclosed with = = - − -hclosed otherwise - − -ÿ

atelic (na-, ga-, g̱a-) imperative - − -hhortative — always realis -g̱a- − -h ~ -ÿ (-ih)admonitive — always irrealis u- - − -ːCconsecutive - − -ːconditional - − -n -(n)ihcontingent -g̱a- − -n -ín

Deontic and circumstantial (non-declarative) modes.- ∈ {-, na-, ga-, g̱a-}

= ∈ {kei= up, yei= down, ÿeeḵ= , daaḵ= , daak= , neil-home, g̱unayéi= }

Epimode Clause type

Mode

Decessive

Proh

ib.-O

pt.

Subo

rdinate

Attributive

Realis

Declarative modesImperfectives ± ± ± ± ±Perfectives ± ± ± ± ±Realizational − − − − +Future ± − ± ± ±Potential ± − − ± ±Habitual* ± − ± ± ±Deontic modesImperative* − − − − +Hortative* − − ± − +Admonitive − − − − ±Circumstantial modesConsecutive − − − − ±Conditional − − − − ±Contingent − − − − ±Composite modes with auxiliariesImperfective habitual − − ± ± ±Imperfective consecutive − − − − ±Imperfective conditional − − − − ±Imperfective contingent − − − − ±Future habitual ± − ± ± ±Future consecutive − − − − ±Future conditional − − − − ±Future contingent − − − − ±

Modes and their subtypes.Epimodes are mutually exclusive as are clause types. Habituals lack realissubordinate and realis decessive subordinate. Imperatives and hortativeirrealises are replaced by the imperfective and perfective prohibitives.

Note imperative and hortative are [− ] despite being realis.

Suf ix Name Gloss Meaning

-án restorative restore previous state-x̱aa amissive miss the target of action-áḵw deprivative remove, deprive, lacking-aa play playing, pretending-jaa radiative ? give off something?-shán intensive ? intensi ies meaning?-ḵ coplural ? occurs with plural -xʼ-í property have, have the property of-k ? unknown-(á)chʼ ? unknown-álʼ ? unknown-g̱ákw ? unknown-nás ? unknown-násʼ ? unknown-átʼ ? unknown-x̱ ? unknown

Derivational suf ixes (− ).

Sfx. Stem Pg. Root Stem meaning

-án

haanán haan (sg.) restore con idence by reelectionnaag̱án naaḵ (pl.) restore con idence by reelectiontaanán taan reconsider; reset bone/jointxeexán xeex be restored to normality; become normalx̱eenán x̱een get back into joint by itself

-x̱aa

.únx̱aa .oon miss target when shootingtʼáchx̱aa tʼaach miss target when slappingdzéix̱aa dzoo miss target when throwing round objectshátx̱aa shaat miss target when grabbing somethinggwálx̱aa gwaal miss target when punching with istḵʼíshx̱aa ḵʼeesh miss target when hitting with stickx̱íchx̱aa x̱eech miss target when hitting with stick

Some verbs with – derivational suf ixes in Naish & Story .


-áḵw

.éiyáḵw .eik ? have a useless/injured limbnóoxʼáḵw nóoxʼn remove shell, esp. from gumbootschʼéeyáḵw be slowtlʼéiláḵw tlʼeiln remove milt from ishg̱eiyáḵw scoop out, esp. from clamshellx̱aayáḵw x̱aaw shed hair, esp. of animal in springx̱oonáḵw S : x̱oon ? drowning ?séewchʼáḵw S : seewn tasteless, rain- lavoured

-aa

héix̱waa heex̱w make magic, perform positive riteswéinaa woo₂ powder face; have face powderedtʼáaxʼaa tʼaaxʼ play with marblestʼájaa tʼaach play at swimmingtsʼígwaa tsʼeek be a delicate issue, require diplomacytsʼíxaa sneeze (onomatopoetic?)chʼéitʼaa play with ball, esp. basketballdlénx̱aa dlaan ? tempt, try out, testkítsʼaa keetsʼ play on seesawkʼéinaa kʼein play at jumping or twirling aroundgóolʼaa S : goolʼ wink

-jaasáyjaa saay give off lots of heat; be sweatyg̱íx̱ʼjaa g̱eex̱ʼ creak, squeak; play bowed instrumentxʼéelʼjaa S : xeelʼ ? groan

-shán

.áax̱chʼán .aax̱ be fascinating to listen totéesʼshán teesʼ be fascinating to watch; be fascinatedx̱éetlʼshán x̱eetlʼ be dangerousx̱ʼwáalʼshán x̱ʼwaasʼ₁? be soft like down; (neg.) lack softness

-ḵ

xʼwásʼḵ be numbyátʼḵxʼ S : yaatʼ be long (pl.)tsínḵxʼ S : tseen be expensive (pl.)yáshḵ S : yaachʼ ? be scarce

More verbs with – derivational suf ixes in Naish & Story . xn noun.


-í

lʼeedí S : lʼeetn have a tail or handlejíni S : jínn have arms or sleevesx̱ʼoosí x̱ʼoosn have feet or legssaayí saa₂ have an important namekoodzí be amazing, awesometleilkʼú make string igures

-k

sʼóoshkw pinch with ingers and thumbtléḵwk tleiḵw ? be greedy, eat fast, eat like a pigtlʼúnkw murmur, grumblexwáchk xwaach be paralyzed by sicknessḵáchk ḵaach be lame, limp

-(á)chʼ g̱eig̱áchʼ g̱eiḵ₁ swingséewchʼáḵw S : seewn tasteless, rain- lavoured-álʼ néegwálʼ paint; make jam, preserve fruit

-g̱ákw seig̱ákw saa₂ regain breath, get one’s wind back-nás ḵéenás ḵei₁ in-law property exchange-násʼ x̱aanásʼ x̱aa₂ travel by raft-átʼ tlʼéekátʼ tlʼeen ? thread stick through to stiffen-x̱ chʼáchʼx̱ chʼaachʼ be spotted (inanimate) (≡ ?)

Even more verbs with – derivational suf ixes in Naish & Story .

Form Name Gloss Meaning

-ch habitual usually, always-k ~ -kw repetitive repeatedly, over and over-x̱ ~ -x̱w frequentive frequently, often-xʼ ~ -xʼw plural object more than one object-tʼ

-sʼ serial repeatedly in sequence-lʼ ? unknown (≡ serial?)-t serial? repeatedly in sequence

Durational suf ixes (− ).The -ch, -k~kw, and -x̱~x̱w are thematically speci ied repetitives as well.


-ch habitual usually, always-(n)ee ~ -(n)ih conditional if-ín ~ -in contingent whenever

Inner modal suf ixes (− ).


-een ~ -ihn decessive used to-éeḵ ~ -eeḵ ~ -ḵ optative hopefullyprohibitive don’t, hopefully not (neg.)

Outer modal suf ixes (− ). (Leer’s ‘epimodes’.)

Form Name Gloss Function

-í ~ -i ~ -ih subordinate marks subordinate clauses ( [− ])

-i attributive marks attributive verbs andrelative relative clauses

Clause type suf ixes (– ).


nóokrepetitive auxiliary . repeatedly, over and overnéekw

neekw

nooch

habitual auxiliary . often, always, habituallyneechnukchnihch

noojeendecessive habitual aux. . always used toneejeen

?nihjihn

núknee

conditional auxiliary . if, whenníkwneeníkwninikwnih

g̱anúgun

contingent auxiliary . wheneverg̱anígung̱aníkwg̱anikw

Bound postverbal auxiliaries (− ).

Pronominals Pronouns

Object Subject Possessive Independent Postpositional

x̱at~ax̱- x̱a- ax̱ x̱át ax̱=ee~ x̱a-haa- tu- haa uháan haa=ee~ haa(n)-i- i- i wa.é i=eeyi- yi- yi yiháan yi=ee}- ~ a- - du hú du=eea á áash- — ash ? ash=ee— du- ? ? ?ḵu~ḵaa- du- ḵaa ḵáa ḵu=eeat- — at át ?sh~- — chush ~ sh ? chush=eewoosh-+ — woosh wóosh woosh=eeaa- — ? aa ?

( ) has-+ — has-du hás has-du=ee

Pronouns and pronominals in Northern Tlingit.

Form Abbv. Descriptiongrm. -ch transitive verb subject, agent

— transitive verb object, patient

obliq

uecases

-xʼ ~ -ː ~ -i locative, ‘at, in, by, on’-t punctual, ‘at, to, about’ (telic)-x̱ pertingent, ‘at, form of, concerning’-dé allative, ‘to, toward, until, in manner of’-dáx̱ ~ -dx̱ ablative, ‘from, out of’-náx̱ perlative, ‘along, by, via, during, across’-g̱áa adessive, ‘around, about, by, after, for’-een ~ -n instrumental, ‘with, using, as soon as’-teen comitative, ‘along with, accompanying’-u locative-predicate, verbless locative

postpo

sitions

ÿáx̱ similative, ‘like, as, similar to’yís ~ -s benefactive, ‘for, bene iting’g̱óot abessive, ‘without, lacking’náḵ elative, ‘away from, leaving behind’ÿáanáx̱ more superlative, ‘more than’ḵín less sublative, ‘less than’

Case suf ixes and postpositions.

Class Form Gloss Name

-CV*

-dé allative-dáx̱ ablative-náx̱ perlative-g̱áa adessive-teen instrumental

-C*

-xʼ locative-ch ergative-t punctual-x̱ pertingent-dx̱ ablative

-n -n instrumental-ː -ː locative

Classi ication of case suf ixes by phonological shape.

Dial. Unsuf. -CV* -C* -n -ː ( )

N á aa-CV* á-C* áan áaS á aa-CV* á-C* áàn áàT a ah-CV* a-C* ? aʼN –ká –kaa-CV* –ká-C* — –káaS –ká –kaa-CV* –ká-C* — –káàT –ka –kah-CV* –ka-C* — –kaʼN –ÿá –ÿaa-CV* –ÿá-C* –ÿáan –ÿáaS –yá –yaa-CV* –yá-C* –ÿáàn –yáàT –ÿa –ÿah-CV* –ÿá-C* ? –ÿaʼN x̱át x̱aa-CV* x̱áa-C* x̱áan x̱áaS x̱át x̱aa-CV* x̱áa-C* x̱áàn x̱áàT x̱át x̱ah-CV* ? ? ?x̱aʼN =ee =ee-CV* =ée-C* =éen =éeS =ee =ee-CV* =ée-C* =éèn =éèT =ee ? ? ? ?=iʼ

Unpredictable nominal allomorphy. Note that suf ixed is often ax̱=ee…using instead of x̱a…, but the choice between them is idiolectal.

Form Gloss MeaningNo

rthe

rn yáa~ yá proximal: ‘this near me’, ‘here’héi~ hé mesioproximal: ‘this not so near me’, ‘the other’wéi~wé mesiodistal: ‘that near you’, ‘there’yóo~ yú distal: ‘that far away from us’, ‘yonder’

Southe

rn yáà~ yá proximal: ‘this near me’, ‘here’héì~ hé mesioproximal: ‘this not so near me’, ‘the other’wéì~wé mesiodistal: ‘that near you’, ‘there’yóò~ yú distal: ‘that far away from us’, ‘yonder’

Tong

ass yaa proximal: ‘this near me’, ‘here’

hei mesioproximal: ‘this not so near me’, ‘the other’wei mesiodistal: ‘that near you’, ‘there’yoo distal: ‘that far away from us’, ‘yonder’

Demonstratives.

Noun Noun + dé Noun + naa Preverb Meaning(di)kée (di)kínde (di)kéenaa kei= up above(di)yée (di)yínde (di)yéenaa yei= down belownaakée nánde naan(ÿ)aa — upstream, north (naa ‘river’)éex ~ ixkée íxde ixinaa — downstream, southéeḵ ~ éiḵ íḵde ig̱inaa ÿeiḵ= landward, to land from seadáaḵ dáḵde dag̱inaa daaḵ= inland, back from opendeikée dákde daginaa daak= seaward, out into opendiyáa diyáade — yaa= across, along, other sideÿán ÿánde — ÿan*= ashore, onto groundneil néilde — neil*= inside, homegáan gá(a)nde — — outside— (gánde) — — (outhouse, toilet)— ḵúx̱de — ḵux̱*= revertive, back from— kúxde — kux* = aground, into shallow water

Northern Tlingit directionals.Note that naa < nyaa < niÿaa ‘direction’ ≠ naa ‘river’.

Direction Preverb Noun

Northe

rn

out to sea from shore daak= deikée ↑in to shore from sea ÿan= ÿán ⤓down to shore from land ÿeiḵ= éeḵ~éiḵ ⤒up into land from shore daaḵ= dáaḵ ↓

Southe

rn

out to sea from shore dáàk= ?deikée ↑in to shore from sea ÿan= ÿán ⤓down to shore from land ÿéèḵ= éeḵ ⤒up into land from shore dáàḵ= ?dáaḵ ↓

Tong

ass out to sea from shore dahk= deikee ↑in to shore from sea ÿan= ÿan ⤓

down to shore from land ihḵ= ihḵ ⤒up into land from shore dahḵ= dahḵ ↓

Shore-centered directional system.

Form Translation

aakʼé ‘good, well’yées ‘young, new’chʼáagu ‘old, ancient’tlagu ‘ancient, archaic, long ago’ḵáa ‘male, he-’sheech ~ shich ‘female, she-’ḵustín ‘giant, humongous’ḵúnáx̱ ‘very, actual, real’aatlein ‘much, lots of’shóogu ‘ irst, initial’tatgéiÿi ‘of yesterday’ÿéisʼ ‘immature, dusky, dark’tlein ~ tlen ‘large, big’tlénxʼ ‘large, big’(plural)ḵʼáatlʼ ‘thin and lat’kʼwátʼ ‘spherical, egg shaped’xook ‘dry, dried’sákw ‘future, to be, for’ÿéeÿi ‘past, former, ex-’shaan ‘old, elderly’yádi ‘small, little, childlike’lélʼk ‘soft’

Tlingit prenominal and postnominal adjectives.


sá Q-particle marks wh-questionsgé YN-particle marks yes-no questionsá- focus particle focuses or topicalizes phraseá-gé focus question - focuses a yes-no questionásé deductive understanding of somethingásgé reportative secondhand information, hearsayḵu.aa ~ ḵu.ah contrastive ‘but’, ‘however’~ ḵwaa ~ ḵwax̱á ~ x̱áa softening softens assertion, ‘you see’shéi (- -gé) mirative mild surprisegu.áa ~ gwáa admirative strong surprise(s)dágáa assertive ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’, ‘certainly’shágdé dubitative likelihood, ‘perhaps’, ‘probably’gushéi ~ kwshé tentative unlikelihood, ‘maybe’, ‘I wonder’óosh ~ uhsh hypothetical ‘if only’, ‘as if ’, ‘even if’

Focus particles. All can take a demonstrative (- ) suf ix.


Northe

rn

-yá~ -ya proximal ‘this’, ‘here’-hé~ -he mesioproximal ‘this other’, ‘there’-wé~ -we mesiodistal ‘that’, ‘over there’-yú~ -yu distal ‘that way off’, ‘yonder’

Southe

rn

-ya~ -yáà proximal ‘this’, ‘here’-he~ -héì mesioproximal ‘this other’, ‘there’-we~ -wéì mesiodistal ‘that’, ‘over there’-yu~ -yóò distal ‘that way off’, ‘yonder’

Tong

ass -ya proximal ‘this’, ‘here’

-he mesioproximal ‘this other’, ‘there’-we mesiodistal ‘that’, ‘over there’-yu distal ‘that way off’, ‘yonder’

Demonstratives (- ) in focus particles.

Form Name Meaning

tléil~ tlél~ hél~ l negative no, not; none, not anylí (+ l neg.) prohibitive don’t; let it not be thatilí ~ eelí ~ ihí nd. sg. prohib. don’t! don’t you dare! stop!gu.aal~ gu.ahl optative hopefullygwál dubitative perhaps, maybeḵashde~ ḵashdeh cogitavissive it seemed that; I had thoughtaÿáx̱ interpretive and so; thus; that’s how; rightách explanatory because; that’s whychʼa.aan ~ chʼa.áàn resumptive however; anyway; nonethelessx̱ach~ ḵach counterfactual actually, in fact~ x̱aju~ ḵajuchaa ?? “denoting duration” (N : )

Sentence-initial discourse particles.

Form Meaning

chʼa just, the very, simplychʼas only, justchʼu even, exactlyyéi thus, so, as suchtlax̱ very, really, emphaticallychʼu tle then, when (not ques.), just thenchʼu tleix̱ foreverchʼu shóogu the samechʼu déix̱ bothchʼu násʼk all threechʼa tléixʼ just onechʼa ldakát all, everychʼa tlákw always, forever, continuallychʼa yóokʼ suddenly, immediately, all of a suddenchʼa g̱óot other, differentchʼa yéi ordinary, usual, typical, plain, just so

Prephrasal discourse particles in Northern Tlingit.

Form Gloss Meaning

tsá only.then only then, just thentsú~ tsóo also also, additionallysʼé irst irst, initiallydé~ déi now, immediately, this time; right now!xʼwán be sure to (imperative or hortative verbs)tsé be sure not to (admonitive verbs)Note: xʼwán & tsé cannot occur after focus particles.

Postphrasal discourse particles in Northern Tlingit.

FormMeaning

Northern Southern Tongass

tle~ tlei tle tleh just, simply, just thende~ dei de deh already, by nowtsu~ tsoo tsu tsuh again, still, some more

Mobile (pre-/postphrasal) discourse particles.

Form Meaning

tléixʼ onedéix̱ ~ déex̱ twonásʼk ~ násʼ threedaaxʼoon ~ daax.oon fourkeijín ~ keejín ivetleidooshú ~ tleitwooshú sixdax̱.adooshú ~ dax̱.atwooshú sevennasʼgadooshú ~ nasʼgatwooshú eightgooshúḵ ninejinkaat tenjinkaat ḵa tléixʼ eleven... ...tleiḵáa twentytleiḵáa ḵa tléixʼ twenty-one... ...násʼk jinkaat ~ tleiḵáa ḵa jinkaat thirty... ...daaxʼoon jinkaat ~ nasʼkḵáa forty

Cardinal number examples.

No. Times People At a time Ppl. at a time Groups

tledahéen tléináx̱ tlékʼg̱aa tlékʼg̱aanáx̱ tleiyeekádax̱dahéen dáx̱náx̱ dáx̱g̱aa dáx̱g̱aanáx̱ dax̱yeekánasʼgidahéen násʼgináx̱ násʼgig̱áa násʼgig̱áanáx̱ nasʼgiyeekádaaxʼoondahéen daaxʼoonínáx̱ daaxʼoong̱áa daaxʼoong̱áanáx̱ daaxʼoonyeekákeijindahéen keijínináx̱ keijíng̱aa keijíng̱aanáx̱ keijinyeeká

Ordinal number examples.

AbbreviationsX- pre ix XX= proclitic X-X suf ix X=X enclitic X–X inalienable noun X when cited without a possessor, , person

abaquative, ‘from water to shore’abessive, ‘without, lacking’ablative case, ‘away from, departing’ablitoral, ‘inland from shore, back from open, off of ire’abmarine, ‘ashore, aground, onto ground, resting’absolutive (unmarked or logically -)absilvative, ‘out of forest to shore’abumbrative, ‘from shadow into open’adessive case, ‘about, around, near, by, for’adlitoral preverb, ‘down to shore from upland’admarine preverb, ‘out to sea from shore, falling from sky, onto ire’admirative, strong surpriseadmonitive, ‘don’t you dare; be sure not to’adrotatory, ‘turning over endwise’agroundallative case, atelic, ‘to, towards’alternative, ‘back and forth, to and fro’assertive, ‘indeed, for sure, certainly’attributive, relativizing suf ixbenefactive postposition, ‘for, bene iting’meaningless postposition basecounterfactual, ‘actually, in fact’classi ier: voice, valency, realis, noun class, lexical

+ D component: middle voice or lexicalS component: {, s, l, sh}; valency, noun classi ication, or lexical

+ I component: realis or conjugationalcogitavissive, ‘it seemed that, I had thought that’comitative case, ‘along with, accompanying’conditional, ‘if ’coplural, occurs on verb stems with plural suf ixcontrastive, ‘but, however, nevertheless’completive, ‘completing, inishing’

conjugationcontingent, ‘whenever’decessive, ‘used to, was the case that’deductive, understanding reason for somethingdirectional preverbdistal deictic or demonstrative, ‘yonder’dubitative, ‘perhaps, probably’elative postposition, ‘leaving behind’errative, ‘astray, lost, excessively’ergative -ch, subject of transitive verb, agentexplanatory, ‘because, that’s why, since’focusfrequentive, ‘often, repeatedly, frequently’ga-conjugation, +

̱ g̱a-conjugation, +̱ g̱a-mode pre ix, +

human (possessor, pronoun, pronominal object)habitual, ‘usually, always’hortative, ‘you’d better; be sure to’horizontal surface, ‘top’ (noun and incorporated noun)hypothetical, ‘if only, as if, even if’inalienableinaquative, ‘into water’inceptive, ‘beginning, starting’inde inite (no explicit de inite marking)initial, ‘starting, taking off’instrumental case, ‘with, by, using’intensive, ‘stronger, moreso than normal’invehicular, ‘into vehicle’locative-predicate (verbless locative)locativemental state or activitymesiodistal deictic or demonstrative, ‘there’mirative, mild surpriseamissive, ‘missing the target’mesioproximal deictic or demonstrative, ‘near here’nonhuman (possessor, pronoun, pronominal object)negative, ‘no, not; none, not any’na-conjugation, +nominalizer

objectobviate (backgrounded discourse pronoun or pronominal subject)optative, ‘hopefully’partitive, ‘some, one’ (pronoun or pronominal)perlative case, ‘through, via, along’pertingent case, atelic, ‘in contact with, a part of, member of a set’perfective, +pluralplay suf ix, ‘playing, pretending’punctual case, telic, ‘at a point, around a point’property, ‘have, have the property of’prohibitive, ‘don’t, let it not be that’proximal deictic or demonstrative, ‘here’proximate (foregrounded discourse pronoun or pronominal object)possessivepurposive, ‘in order to do something’preverbwh-questionradiative, ‘giving off, making noise’reciprocalrelative, marks verb of a relative clauserepetitive, ‘repeatedly, over and over’reportative, secondhand information, hearsayrestorative, ‘back into place, back to proper state’resumptive, ‘however, anyway, nonetheless, in any case’revertive, ‘aback, reversed’rotatory, ‘turning over’re lexivesubject, +serial, ‘repeatedly in sequence’softening, ‘you see, you know’singular ( st and nd person only)similative postposition, ‘like, similar to’subordinatetentative, ‘maybe, possibly, I wonder’uncontrolled, ‘blindly, out of control’verb root variation; one of {-ː, -ʼ, -h, -ÿ, -n}vertical surface, ‘face’ (noun and incorporated noun)yes/no-question, polar question-conjugation

Documents

TlingitGrammarHandbook · 2015. 1. 23. · héeni~heeni inaquative:intowater gági abumbrative:fromshadowintoopen éeg̱i~eeg̱i absilvative:fromwoodstoshore dáag̱i~daag̱i abaquative:fromwatertoshore