Title The Theme of Variety in the Georgics

Author(s) YAMASHITA, Taro

Citation 西洋古典論集 (1991), 9: 51-69

Issue Date 1991-12-20

URL http://hdl.handle.net/2433/68598

Right

Type Departmental Bulletin Paper

Textversion publisher

Kyoto University

The Theme of Variety in the Georgics

Taro Yamashita

I .

In the Georgics" as in the·fourth Eclogue and the Aeneid, the

idea that the golden age will recur in Rome is presented *1. This

theme is especially strong in the so-called Praises of Italy (2.136-

176) and the Praises of Rustic Life (2.458-542) *2. The Theodicy

(1.118-159) *3, however, explains why Jupiter put an end to the

Saturnian age, which is similar to the golden age described by

Hesiod *4. This passage, together with the description of civil war

(1.463-514), gives an impression that the Jovian age can be compared

with the traditional iron age*5. But here arises a simple question:

how can Virgil proclaim the arrival of a new golden age, while he

describes the conditions of human life as quite like those in the

iron age? We may conclude that there is a conflict of thought in

the poem *6. Johnston, however, asserts that there is a synthesis

in Virgil's concept of the golden age. The golden age of the fourth

Eclogue is too fanciful to be considered a serious possibility.

However, in the Georgics, Virgil evolves a concept based on an agri-

cultural economy which could happen again in his own time *7. Her

view may lead us to feel that Virgil only wishes to emphasize that

our contribution to civilization is labor *8. However, the descrip-

tion of the community of bees (4. 149-227), for instance, throws

doubt on such a simple viewpoint *9. Therefore, to present a newperspective, I would like to consider the theme of variety *10.

This is an important theme that suggests Virgil's new interpretation

of the traditional golden age theme.

--51--

ll.

In the fourth Eclogue, spontaneity of the earth *11 is charac-

teristic of the new golden age (37-41); every land will give us

everything (40 omnis feret omnia tellus), so there will be no labor,

commerce, or conflict. In the Georgics, on the other hand, we find

a phrase suggesting that productivity of the earth is restricted by

region:

Nec uero terrae ferre omnes omnia possunt. (Geo. 2; 109)

Adding "Nec " to the phrase "omnis fert omnia tellus " (Ecl.4.40),

Virgil apparently denies the golden age described in the fourth

Eclogue. In the theodicy (1.118-159), he declares the spontaneously

beneficient world (cf.1. 127-128 ipsaQue tellus / omnia liberius

nullo poscente ferebat) is gone, replaced by the reality of toil and

failure *12. Thus 2.109, recalling the .harsh condition which

Jupiter imposed on human being~ is similar to the Theodicy *13.

However, this line also reflects the theme of variety *14. Just as

different trees grow better in different localities, so different

countries have their own special products (110-135).

This theme first appears just after the proem of the first book

(1.50-63), where the variety of nature and the need to learn its

rules are more strongly maintained;·before farmers cleave untried

land with iron, they must learn "et Quid QuaeQue ferat regio et

Quid QuaeQue recuset" (1.53). This phrase (1.53), together with

2. 109, forms a clear contrast to "omnis feret omnia tellus"

(Ecl.4.40) *15. In short, Virgil suggests here and at 2.109ff. that

nature#s variety also characterizes the Jovian age *16. At 1.56-59,

he generalises this theme from agriculture to the entire world, just

as he does at 2.114ff. *17. Thus not only nature#s diversity but

also the variety which civilization has brought about is emphasized

--52--

here. Viewed in the poem as a whole, 1.50ff. anticipates the

Theodicy, with a brief reference to the Flood and Deucalion~s

creation (1. 60-63), suggesting the transition from the Saturnian to

the iron age *18. On the other hand, 2.109ff., recalling 1.50ff.

and the Theodicy, prepares for the Praises of Italy, where the

mention of various countries (2.136-139) introduces the idea that

Rome is unique. Thus, the theme of variety, along with labor, seems

to be central to Virgil~s reinterpretation of the golden age theme.

But, as seen in the following, the deep influence of Lucretius is

reflected *19.

m.

Line 2. 109, which I have just compared with "omnis feret

omnia tellus" (Ecl.4. 40), is also an obvious echo of De Rerum

Natura 1.166 *20:

sed mutarentur, ferre omnes omnia possent. (DRN 1. 166)

Nec uero terrae ferre omnes omnia possunt. (Geo.2. 109)

The line of Lucretius reflects his fundamental idea that nothing can

be created from nothingness (DRN 1.155-156). If this were not so,

all kinds of things could be produced from all things, nothing would

require a seed (1.159-160) *21. A series of "adynata " showing dis-

·order of nature follows; men could arise from the sea, from the

earth ·scaly tribes.and birds. Cattle and beasts might burst from

the sky. Trees would not be constant in bearing the same fruit, but

they would interchange. All would be able to bear all (1.161-166).

Here the emphasis is on natural order under which all living things

preserve their kind (1. 167ff.). Lucretius deals with nature~s

--53--

variety in a manner which reinforces his atomic theory, particularly

on birth and death. After confirming that nothing could be created

from nothingness (1.155-156), and that nature does not reduce things'

to nothingness (1.215-216), he concludes that things do not utterly

pass away, since nature recreates one thing from another, and does

not allow one to be born unless aided by another~s death (1."262-64).

This view recalls the proem of the first book of De Rerum Natura

*22, where the principle of reproduction is attributed to the power

of Venus, who causes all creatures to beget generations after their

kind (1.20 efficis ut cupide generatim *23 saeclapropagent).

This view of Lucretius seems to have influenced the variety

theme found in the Georgics. After enumerating various species of

trees (cf. 2.9 Principio arboribus uaria est natura creandis) which

grow spontaneously (2. 11 sponte sua), Virgil sums up this section in

the following way:

hos natura modos primum dedit, his genus omne

siluarum fruticumque uiret nemorumque sacrorum: (Geo.2.20-21)

The thought that "natura" governs the variety of plants recalls that

of Lucretius *24, while "uiret" symbolizes the fruitful vitality

in nature, also reminiscent of the Lucretian expression (cf.DRN

1.18 virentis, 1.252 virescunt) *25. However, just after speaking

of the natural growth of plants (2.9-21), Virgil discusses several

methods of propagation which human experience (22 usus) has dis-

covered (22-34), contrasted with the "modi" (20) of "natura". This

contrast between "natura" and "ars " reappears at 47ff. Ccf.48

natura, 52 artis), where he speaks of the possibility that man can

change nature as he wish~s with the proper application of "ars"

tamen haec quoque, si quis

inserat aut scrobibus mandet mutata subactis,

--54--

exuerint siluestrem anlmum~ cuI tuque frequenti

in quascumque uoles artis haud tarda sequentur. (Geo.2.49-52)

Such a view contrasts well with that of Lucretius, who concludes

that all things grow from a fixed seed and preserve their own kind

(1.189-190). He definitely denies the possibility ofttansforming

nature in the following way:

Nam si de nilo fierent, ex omnibu~ rebus

omne genus nasci posset, nil semine egeret.

nee fructus idem arboribus constare solerent,

sed mutarentur, ferre omnes omnia possent. (DRN 1.159-166)

In the Georgics, the effect of grafting is described in the follow-

ing ways:

et saepe alterius ramos impune uidemus

uertere in alterius, mutatamque insita mala

ferre pirum et prunis lapidosa rubescere corna. (Geo.32-34)

nee longum tempus, et ingens

exiit ad caelum ramis felicibus arbos,

mirataque nouas frondes et non sua poma. (Geo. 2. 80-82)

The verbal correspondence between "mutarentur" (DRN 1. 116) and

"mutatamque" (Geo.2.33) or "mutata" (Geo.2.50) suggests strongly

that this contrast is very deliberate. For Lucretius, the word

symbolizes a catastrophe of nature, while in the Georgics, "ars"

has actually "changed" nature, always bringing about something

"new" and "miraculous" (cf.Geo. 2.82) *26 (As for the motif of

"miracle" , it will be discussed later). However, this should not

--55--

be considereda rejection, but a development of Lucretian ideas on

nature~s variety *27. Virgil, accepting the motif of regeneration,

emphasizes nature~s power by which plants flourish without man~s

care (cf.Geo. 2.9-21, 47-49), while he also praises the much wider

variety which human "ars" has added to the natural settings.

N.

In the second book of De rerum Natura, Lucretius develops the

theme of variety by noting that appearences are very different. He

explains that there are many diversities among atoms (333~337). It

is due to this principle that there are variations within species

which are superficially alike (342-348):

praeterea genus humanum mutaeque natantes

squamigerum pecudes et laeta armenta feraeque

et variae volucres, laetantia quae loca aquarum

concelebrant circum ripas fontisque lacusque,

et quae pervulgant nemora avia pervolitantes;

quorum unum quidvis generatim sumere perge,

invenies tamen inter se differe figuris. (DRN.347-348)

Farrel compares these lines with Georgics 2.83-88, pointing out that

the theme of both passages is the same, variety within species *28:

Praeterea genus haud unum nec fortibus ulmis

nec salici lotoque neque Idaeis cyparissis,

nec pingues unam in faciem nascuntur olivae,

orchades et radii et amara pausia baca,

pomaque et Alcinoi siluae, nec surculus idem

Crustumiis Syriisque piris grauibusque volemis. (Geo.83-88)

--56--

The phrase "genus haud unum" , altered deliberately from Lucretius'

"genus humanum ", emphasizes the common theme, that might need a

careful observation *29.

Virgil stated earlier that various trees grow in various ways

(2.9-34) *30, but here the variety of trees extends even to sub-

species. Behind this development we-perceive the influence of

Lucretius as well as Virgil's particular high regard for "ars " ,

mentioning different methods of cultivation (47-72) *31 and even

variations on a single method, such as the different grafting

techniques (73-82) *32. But the problem is still left unsolved:

what is the role of this theme in the Georgics as a whole, which

Virgil surely derived from Lucretius *33 ?

There is a hint in Lucretius. After mentioning the principle

of variety within species, he goes on to say, "Nor is there any

other way by which the young could recognize the mother or the

mother her young" (2.349-350). Then he introduces a moving vignette

of a cow searching in vain for her calf, which has become a victim

of human religion (352-366) *34. Here the very fact that the childis the only one in existence for the mother is emphasized: the sight

of other calves (364 vitulorum aliae species) does not divert her

mind or diminish her concern; so she persistently seeks for some-

thing of her own that she knows well:

nec vitulorum aliae species per pabula laeta

derivare queunt animum curaque levare:

usque adeo quiddam proprium notumque requirit. (DR~2.364-366)

The motif of uniqueness found here emphasizes the tragedy of the

calf's mother. In the Georgics, on the other hand, after the

catalogue of wines, Virgil tells that there is no meaningful number

for the many kinds and names, and that attempting to comprehend them

with a number is worthless (2.103-104):

--57--

sed neque quam multae species nec nomina quae sint

est numerus: neque enim numero comprehendere refert;

The enumeration of various kinds of olives or vines emphasizes the

affection or pride which people have toward each kind. In fact, it

would be nonsense to regard this section as merely a factual list of

names. By contrast, Virgil is showing that different kinds appeal

to different tastes, and each has its virtues. In short, the

"unique" character of each vine has "unique" value, just as

Lucretius, who expresses the "unique" value of the lost calf. But

there is a great difference. Virgil never suggests that each

particular existence is different from another. Strictly speaking,

the Virgil ian theme of variety within species, connected not so much

with the uniqueness of each tree as with each subtype within the

species, is on a different level than Lucretius. Another important

difference may lie in the fact that Lucretius introduces the motif

of mother and child. The affection people have felt for each kind

of vine is, of course, quite different from feelings between mother

and child (the influence of this motif on the Georgics will be

discussed later). However, it is very probable that Virgil was well

aware of this difference, and knew quite well how Lucretius develop-

ed this theme by introducing the emotional story about the cow.

v.

As has been seen, the phrase "Nec uero terrae ferre omnes

omnia possunt " CGeo.2.109), reflecting the Lucretian theme of

variety, introduces the catalogue of special products of Eastern

nations, and then the Praises of Italy *35. In the list of the

various Italian vines, Virgil praises the good points of each kind.

In the same way, he takes advantage of this motif in the Praises of

--58--

Italy to express the excellence of Rome *36. It is suggestive that

he begins this eulogy by "comparing" the glory of Rome (2.138

laudibus Italiae) with the East-s wealth (cf.136 ditissima terra).

Such preeminence of Rome is the product of human labor (cf. 2. 155

adde tot egregias urbes operumque laborem) *37, but the variety of

nature should also be considered an important contribution to the

history of Rome. In fact, if it were not for this principle of

variety in nature, the name of-Rome would be meaningless; in a

golden age when every land prod~ces everything (cf. Ecl.4.40), it

would be impossible to distinguish one nation from another, still

less the motif of Roman glory. In the Georgics, however, by

declaring that every land cannot produce everything (2. 109), the

poet sugg~sts that under this condition of nature the "unique"

character of each nation can be cultivated, hence the excellence of

Rome.

Lucretius emphasizes the tragedy of the cow with the motif of

uniqueness, while Virgil employs it to praise Rome. However, we

should also remember that in Lucretius this motif is closely

connected with the principle of regeneration. The contrasting

poetic effects between the Lucretian passage of the cow and the

Praises of Italy rest on the reflection of different views regarding

birth and death *38: the former passage reminds us of a harshrecognition of reality that death is the end of life, while the

latter reflects the opposite view that death is the beginning of new

life, the very Lucretian principle of regeneration. This principle

is one of the basic conditions that gurantees "eternal Rome" *39.

But, we should also understand that these two views concerning life

and death do not contradict, but complement each other. In truth,

Lucretius tries to reject the fear of death based on the idea of

death as the beginning of new life (cf.3.830ff.). For him, under-

standing the principle of regeneration means attaining "ataraxia" ,

the ultimate goal of life *40. Virgil, however, leads us to realize

-59-

the fact that "ars". making full use of this principle. has

brought about and will bring about the prosperity of Rome. His firm

belief that she will flourish for ever is confirmed by this prin-

ciple, while the theme of variety. as seen above. is employed to em-

phasize the supremacy of Rome.

There is another influence of Lucretiusthat we should not miss.

The motif of mother and child found in Lucretius also plays an

important role in the Praises of Italy; Virgil glorifies Italy

because she is his "mother" country. He makes this point clear

particularly in the following lines. the climax of this eulogy:

salue. magna parens frugum. Saturnia tellus.

magna uirum: (Geo~2. 173-174)

The motif of identifying one s native country as the mother may not

be unique. but the word "parens" *40 becomes noteworthy when com-

pared with "mater" (DRN 2.349. 350) in Lucretius. After enumerat-

ing the wealth of the East, Virgil mentions the glory of Rome. But

this comparison should not be taken literally; it involves Virgil's

intention of expressing a sense of patriotism. The poet's love for

Rome is "absolute" in its nature. quite different from the affec-

tion that he feels for Italian wines. It is incompatible with any

sort of comparison, since Rome is "mother". herself. Here we are

reminded of the Lucretian passage of the mother cow whose maternal

love is expressed as "absolute". To sum uP. this theme of variety.

along with the motif of mother and child. had much influence on the

Praises of Italy; these Lucretian themes and motifs are used to

emphasize one of the main themes - the eternal prosperity of Rome.

But is this all Virgil does with them? In my view. the Praises of

Italy. together with the Theodicy. further reveal the poet's re-

interpretation of the Lucretian theme of civilization.

-60-

w.

The analysis above is quite in harmony with the Theodicy, where

the need to discover various arts is explained as the will of

Jupiter (cf.!.133). Lucretius. on the other hand. deals with

nature~s variety to reject the religio~s assumption that many things

happen by divine power (cf.DRN 1.151-154). Furthermore. the

Theodicy itself shows Virgil~s reworking of the second half of DRN 5

*42. in which Lucretius fully details the growth of civilization.

Although the two poets share the basic idea that man~s active mind

(cf.DRN 5.1455 ratioque, Geo. 1.133 meditando) caused civilization

to progress, the fundamental difference is that Virgil attributes

the motivation to divine will (Geo.1.118-121). The close relation-

ship between the Theodicy and the Praises of Italy makes it clear

that Virgil has Rome in mind when explaining the will of Jupiter.

while Lucretius neither justifies the development of high civilizat-

ion as the realization of divine will nor connects it with the theme

of the Roman prosperity.

Regarding civilization. Lucretius suggests that "ataraxia"

can be achieved without concern for it, even implying the possibili-

ty of its collapse *43. He further predicts the collapse of the

earth on the basis of his atomic theory *45. According to his

theory. the earth was created by "natura" (2.1058). so it cannot

avoid decaying (2.1087-1089; 1105ff.). As evidence, he says that

fertile land once produced everything abundantly, but now the yield

decreases and man is compelled to work to cultivate ·it (2.1150-74).

Lucretius thus interprets the traditional golden age theme in a way

that would never contradict with his atomic theory.

Furthermore, Lucretius suggests th~re is no "center" in the

universe (1.1070), because no limit can be found (1. 958ff., 2.. 1048

ff.). He even asserts that there are other worlds in other regions

(2.1064-1066; 1074-1076), saying that "there is no one thing in the

--61--

whole sum which is created unique, and grows up unique and alone,

not belonging to some species and to be one of many like it "

(2. 1077-1079). By contrast, Virgil suggests in the Praises of

Italy that Rome is "unique" as the "center" of the world*46, where a

new golden age is about to begin. He might not be able to accept

the idea that there are other worlds where nations like Rome are to

be found and that they will collapse into crumbling ruin. Virgil,

taking full advantage of such Lucretian themes of variety and

regeneration, displays original viewpoints on the golden age theme.

Many scholars have paid attention to the theme of labor suggest-

ed in the Theodicy. But the character of the Jovian age can be

summarized in the phrase "Nec uero terrae ferre omnes omnia possunt "

(2.109). If we compare this line with "omnis fert omnia tellus "

(Ecl.4.40), the theme of labor is emphaised. However, if compared

with the expression "ferre omnes omnia possent " (DRN 1.166), it

reminds us of Virgil-s acceptance and refinement of the Lucretian

themes and motifs, making use of them to assert his original stance

as a Roman "vates "*47. In our interpretation, therefore, Jupiter

should no longer be regarded as a mere force that compels man to

work hard, but as a guarantor of the fundamental conditions of Rome-

s perpetual prosperity. It may be ironic that Virgil justifies the

Jovian age by using the very principles with which Lucretius denies

"religio " :

w.

Lastly, I-d like to supplement the above discussion with another

glance at the motif of "miracle " in the Georgics. We have seen

that "ars " is shown to have the potential of changing nature,

always creating something "new" and "miraculous" (cf.2.82). In

Lucretius, on the other hand, this motif appears in a peculiar con-

text. For him, any miraculous phenomena can be understood intellec-

-~-

tually. In the second book, for example, after considering varia-

tions in atoms, Lucretius declares "this is no wonder" (2.338 nec

mirum). Then the "nam" clause (338ff.) explains this on the basis

of the atomic theory referred to above. Another example can be

found in the same book, where Lucretius gives the following advice

prior to giving his interpretation of the universe:

Nunc animum nobis adhibe veram ad rationem.

nam tibi vementer nova res molitur ad auris-- .accedere et nova se species ostendere rerum.

sed neQue tam facilis res ulla est Quin ea primum

difficilis magis ad credendum constet, itemQue

nil adeo magnum neQue tam mirabile QuicQuam,

Quod non paulatim minuant mirarier omnes. (DRN 2.1023-1029)

Here, the motifs of "novelty" and "miracle" are found where

Lucretius is diminishing the "wonder" of nature. According to him,

the spectacle of the sky, the moon, and the sun must have been

"wonderous ". (1037 miranda) when they were revealed for the first

time to mortals, but now familiarity has diminished the awe

(1030ff.) *48. Then he advises us not to allow mere "novelty"

(1040 novitate) to overwhelm our reason, but rather ponder it with

keen judgement (1040-1042). In short, Lucretius seems to emphasize

that a thorough understanding of nature, which he believes possible

with his theory, could diminish man~s awe of the mysterious exis-

tence of the universe and dispel terror from the mind. He maintains

that those who do not understand "rerum natura" tend to ascribe

phenomena to divine power and suffer great dread (1.151-154):

Quippe ita formido mortalis continet omnis,

Quod multa in terris fieri caeloQue tuentur

Quorum operum causas nulla ratione videre

-63-

possunt ac fieri divino numine rentur.

Virgil, on the other hand, confesses his wish to understand the

science of nature, but, if it is intellectually too difficult, he

will be satisfied with an unsophiscated love of her marvels. In the

following lines, he suggestively contrasts his beatitude with that

of Lucretius *49:

felix qui potuitrerum cognoscere causas,

atque metus omnis et inexorabile fatum

subiecit pedibus strepitumQue Acherontis auari:

fortunatus et ille deos qui nouit agrestis

Panaque SiluanumQue senem NymphasQue sorores. (Geo.2.490-494)

For Lucretius the motif of "miracle" ,linked with that of religion,

has a negative connotation. Mysteries of nature will diminish if

one is able to "know" (cognoscere) the cause of things. Virgil pro-

claims that he "knows" (nouit) rural gods, that is to say, he ad-

mits "divinum numen " working behind the natural phenomena. This is

the very stance that Lucretius criticizes intensely. In the

Georgics, the motif of "miracle" can be related not only' with the

development of civilization, but also with the workings of divinity

*50, thus making a clear contrast to the Lucretian interpretation.

As we have noticed, Lucretius introduces the theme of variety to

confirm his atomic theory, which denies divinity and compels the

fear of death. From this comes "ataraxia", which is described as

the essence of a "golden life" (cf.3.12-13).

omnia nos itidem depascimur aurea dicta,

aurea, perpetua semper dignissima vita.

He suggests here we could actually enjoy the golden age life again,

--64--

if only we understand the words of Epicurus (i.e. the atomic theory),

however harsh external conditions might be. This may be another

Lucretian interpretation of the golden age theme; he believes firm-

ly that life without "cura" or "labor" (i.e. the golden age life)

would be possible with the working of "ratio". According to

Virgil, however, Jupiter didn't permit human society to be "inactive"

(1. 121ff. ) :

... pater ipsecolendi

haud facilem esse uiam uoluit, primusque per artem

mouit aggros, curis acuens mbrtalia corda

nec torpere graui passus sua regna ueterno.

If all Romans were too keen on dispeling "cura" from their heart to

privately achieve the Lucretian goal of "ataraxia", would it not

be possible for Rome to become "inactive"? Or would man himself

become "inactive" , once he attains "ataraxia"? Paradoxically,

the more one uses "ratio" to diminish the "wonder" of nature, the

more interest man may lose in the outer world *51. Giving a differ-

ent interpretation of the motif of "miracle" ,Virgil states

emphatically that the Jovian age could not be regarded simply as a

harsh age, but also as a "wonderful" age, when man's creative mind

can always be activated to contribute in some way to the prosperity

of Rome.

-65-.

NOTES

*1. Cf. Ecl.4.6: redeunt Saturnia regna; Aen.6. 791ff.

*2. Cf. Geo.2.173: Saturnia tellus; 2.536-538.

*3. On the Theodicy. see L.P. Wilkinson. Virgil~s Theodicy. CQ n.s.

13. ·1963. 75-84.·

*4. For the similarity between the two ages. see P.A.Johnston.

Vergil~s Agricultural Golden Age. Leiden 1980. 15ff.

*5. Ibid.. 52.

*6. Wilkinso~ o~cit .• 82-84. for example. admits that the

country life praised at the end of Book 2 is similar to the life of

the Golden Age. but he concludes that this passage seems out of

place. He suggests that Virgil may have been prompted by Hesiod,

who dwelt for once on relief and pleasure (Erga 582-96). He con-

jectures that Virgil was anxious to adjust what might otherwise have

seemed a too discouraging over-all effect.

*7. Johnston, op.cit .. 2.

*8. Johnston~s interpretation ( ibid.. 129) seems to be rather

historical. She is allegorizing the reality with the Golden Age

theme. She concludes that the new generations of farmers will

transform war-torn fields into billowing plains of golden wheat.

*9. Cf. C.Segal. Orpheus and the fourth Georgic: Vergil on Nature

and Civilization. AJP 87. 1966. 310; C. G. Perkell, A Reading of the

Fourth Georgic, Phoenix 32. 1978. 212; J.Griffin. The Fourth

Georgic, Virgil. and Rome. G&R 26. 1979. 63.

*10. J.Farrel. Vergil~s Georgics and the Traditions of Ancient

Epic, Oxford 1991. 169ff.• argues that the theme of variety in the

Georgics reflects that of Lucretius.

*11. Cf. Ecl.4.18-20: nullo munuscula cultu... tellus... fundet. The

new Golden Age in the fourth Eclogue is consistent with that of

Hesiod. an age characterized by freedom from toil. Cf. Erga 117-118.

*12. Cf. Thomas. Virgil: Georgics. Cambridge 1988. ad 1.118-46.

-66-

*13. Ibid, ad 2. 109.

*14. Cf. Farrel, op.cit., 193ff.

*15. Cf. Thomas, op.cit., ad 1.53.

*16. Cf. Wilkinson, op.cit., 82.

*17. Cf. R.D. Williams, Virgil: The Eclogues and Georgics, New York

1979, ad 1.56; Thomas, op.cit., ad 1.56-9. On the movement from

the agricultural to the universal, see D.O.Ross, Virgil~s Element:

Physics and poetry in the Georgics, Princeton 1987, 40ff.

*18. Cf. Thomas, op~cit., ad 1.60-63.

*19. Cf. Farrel, op.cit.• 169ff.

*20. Cf. Thomas, op.cit.. ad 2.109.

*21. Translations from De Rerum Natura are mainly based on those of

J.H.D.Rouse in the Loeb Classical Library series.

*22. For the interpretation of this proem. see J. P. Elder, Lucretius

1. 1-49. TAPA 85, 1954. 88-120.

*23. Farrel. op.cit.. 196. points out the verbal correspondence

with "generatim " (Geo 2.35).

*24. The same idea is already exhibited in 1.60-63.

*25. We are also reminded of the Praises of Spring. where the myth

of the sacred marriage between the sky father and the earth mother

can be looked upon in such a way as will recall De Rerum Natura

1. 250-253.

*26. Cf. Thomas, op.cit.. ad 2.80-82, 82.

*27. Virgil regards this power of nature as the manifestation of

divinity. Cf. 1.21-23:

*28. Farrel. op.cit.. 196-197.

*29. Cf. Farrel. op.cit., 197.

*30. Cf. 2.9 : Principio arboribus uaria est natura creandis.

*31. Notice also 2.35: Quare agite 0 proprios generatim discite

cultus.

*32. Cf. 2.73: Nec modus inserere atQue oculos imponere simplex.

*33. Farrel. op.cit., 191. draws a conclusion that Virgil designs

-67-

the two central books of his poem as an "imitatio cum variatione "

of Lucretius' two final books.

*34. Farrel, op.cit., 198, compares this episode with the end of

the third Georgie.

*35. According to Miles, op.cit., 118, line 109 enforces a sense

not so much of confinement and limitation as of alternatives and

possibilities, thus leading to the eulogy.

*36. Miles, op.cit., 119-129, interprets that Virgil's praise must

be seen as an idealization of Italy and its people, a portrait of

them at 'their best. For the idea of the excellence of Rome, the

influence of Cicero might be traced.

*37. Cf. Cicero, De Officiis 2. 14.

*38. Cf. W.Liebeschuetz, The.Cycle of Growth and Decay in Lucretius

and Virgil, PVS 7, 1967-68, 30-40.

*39. For the idea of "eternal Rome" , cf. Aen. 1.278 his ego nee

metas rerum nee tempore pono. In relation to this idea, it is

noteworthy that in the Georgics, nature's law is regarded as

"eternal". Cf. 1.60-61: continuo has leges aeternaQue foedera

certis/imposuit natura locis, .... "Foedera" also has a Lucretian

ring, cf. DRN 1.586 foedera naturai.

*40. In the passage of the cow, the true stress is on the stupidity

of "religio " (2.352-354).

*41. Cf. 2. 116 diuisae arboribus patriae.

*42. Cf. Williams, op.cit., ad 1.133.

*43. Cf. Farrel, op.cit., 200ff.

*44. Cf. F.Solmsen, Epicurus on the Growth and Decline of the

Cosmos, AlP 74, 1953, 34-51.

*45. Cf. Johnston, op.cit., 28-33.

*46. The repetition of the word "extremus" (2.114, 123, 171)

emphasizes the idea that Rome is the center of the world.

*47. This stance of Virgil is well expressed in 2.174-176: tibi res

antiquae laudis et artis/ingredior sanctos ausus recludere fontis,/

--68--

Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.

*48. Cf. Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.95.

*49. For the interpretation of these lines, cf. F.Muecke, Poetic

Self-Consciousness in Georgics 2---Ramus Essays on the Georgics---,

Bristol 1979, 87-107; T. Yamashita, The Orininality of the Georgics,

JCS 39, 1991, 88-90.

*50. In the description of the society of the bees, for example,

Virgil states how they reproduce without sexual coitus (4. 197ff.):

ilIum adeo placuisse apibus mirabere morem,/quod neque concubitu

indulgent, nec corpora segnes/in Venerem soluunt aut fetus nixibus

edunt. He explained earlier that such "miraculous" nature of the

bees was first given by Jupiter as a reward (4. 149-152).

*51. We are reminded of the famous phrase "nil admirari" .

--69--