Writing Handbook for Fundamentals of College

WritingUpdated: Winter 2011

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Table of Contents

5 Formatting Guidelines6 Parts of Speech7 Capitalization9 Prepositional Phrases

11 Sentences16 Run-Ons18 Fragments21 Apostrophes24 Dialogue25 Homophones and FMWs28 Academic Style29 Words to Avoid

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General Formatting Guidelines:There are two major rule books for academic writing: the Modern Language Association’s (MLA) and the American Psychological Association’s (APA).

MLA is typically used by Humanities Courses: English, information technology class, human relations/resources classes, and some history classes. APA is used by the social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and communication.

To be sure you are using the right style, ASK YOUR TEACHER.

Both styles have a few guidelines in common, so always format your document by using the following steps:

Press ‘Ctrl + A” to select all

In the HOME tab: In the ‘Home’ tab, select Times New Roman font size 12 In the ‘Home’ tab under paragraph click on the spacing icon

Click “2.0” Click “Remove Space After Paragraph”

In the PAGE LAYOUT tab: click ‘margins’ click ‘normal’ to choose 1” margins on all sides

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Parts of Speech:Before you can understand how a sentence works, you must understand what the words in the sentence are and how they function. The function of any given word in a sentence is determined by its part of speech. There are eight:

Noun: Person, Place, Thing, or IdeaCommon Nouns: Can be used to name any old object

Examples: sister, school, restaurantProper Nouns: Used to name particular objects; The official name of a thing, proper nouns are capitalized.

Examples: Susie, Metropolitan Community College, Taco Bell

Verb: Action or State of BeingExamples of Action Verbs: jump, run, believe, argueState of Being Verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been.

Adjective: Describes a noun or pronounAdverb: Describes a verb, adverb, or adjective; usually ends in –lyPronoun: Takes the place of a noun

Singular Plural1st Person I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours

2nd Person you, your yous, y’all

3rd Person he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, its they, their, theirs

Preposition: Describes the relationship between two nouns, anything that describes the relationship between a butterfly and a tree.

Examples: in, on, above, beyond, over, of, from, toInterjection: Expresses excitement or emotion

Examples: Wow! Gee Whiz! Golly Wallits!Conjunction: Combines words phrases and clauses

Coordinating: FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, soSubordinating: because, that, as, where, which, when, etc…

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Capitalization:Rules from the OWL-The Online Writing Lab at Purdue

Use capital letters in the following ways:1. The first words of a sentence

When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

2. The pronoun "I"The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.

3. Official Names of things: Proper Nouns Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names

She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

Names of Specific Places:Taco Johns Taj MahalOmaha, Nebraska Elmwood Park

Organizations and their members: Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groupsGreen Bay Packers DemocratsAfrican-Americans Friends of the Wilderness

Companies and their TrademarksPepsi IBMHonda Microsoft Word

The names of gods, religious figures, and religions Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the word "god."God the Father the Virgin Mary Shiva Zeus“Polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages

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Costa Rica FrenchBrazilian English

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.Halloween winterOctober springFriday The Fall 1999 semester

Periods, historical eras and events (but not century numbers)Victorian Era sixteenth centuryGreat Depression

Specific course names and names of courses that are also languages, but not general course names.Introduction to Psychology psychologyContemporary Literature literatureEnglish

4. Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The Patels have moved to the Southwest.Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

5. Title Case: The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

6. Family relationships (when used as proper names)I sent a gift to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.Here is a present I bought for Mother.Did you buy a present for your mother?

7. The first word in a sentence that is a direct quoteAmy said, “We’re almost home, I promise.”

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Prepositional Phrases:

Prepositional phrases (the most common phrases) can be used as adverbs or adjectives. They begin with a preposition and carry through the object. (remember, a preposition relates two subjects. One comes before the phrase and one is contained within the phrase.):

In a flash, she realized that the tofu had been underneath her chair all along.

After midnight, Egbert's mother was on the roof dancing with a Ukranian bullfighter.

Phrases, particularly prepositional phrases, are non-essential to the meaning of the sentence. You could remove them and the sentence as a whole would still make sense. It would be a little less specific. but the sentence still works.

After midnight, Egbert's mother was on the roof dancing with a Ukranian bullfighter.

Note: The remaining idea: “Egbert’s mother was on the roof dancing” is a complete idea.

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A PHRASE is a group of words, which contains neither a subject nor a verb. (It may, however, contain a verbal form such as an infinitive, a participle, or a gerund.)

Common Prepositions There are a little over 100 prepositions in the English language. For a more complete list, do a Google search or check the Wikipedia entry.

about behind except outside

above below for over

across beneath from past

after beside in through

against between inside to

along beyond into under

among by near until

around despite of up

at down off with

before during on without

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What is a Sentence?

A sentence is a group of words that tells a complete thought. A sentence contains a subject (someone or something, a noun) and a predicate (what they did or their state of being, a verb).

Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class. Subject: Tells who or what the sentence is about, there are two ways to talk about the subject:

Simple Subject: This includes just the word/s that tell who or what the sentence is about.

Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.

Complete Subject: This includes the simple subject and all of the other descriptive words in the first half of the sentence

Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.

Predicate: Begins with the verb and explains what the subject is doing or tells the subjects state of being. There are two ways to talk about the predicate:

Simple Predicate: This includes ONLY the verb/s that describe what the subject is doing or being.

Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.

Complete Predicate: This begins with the verb/s and continues until the end of the thought (to the period or conjunction.)

Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.12

Four Types of Sentences:The Basics:Simple Sentence: A simple sentence has one subject and one predicate. The subject is the first part of the sentence and contains the who or what that the sentence is about, and the predicate is the second half of the sentence and tells what the thing or person did. You can draw a line between the subject and the predicate.

Examples:

subject predicateLaughing, Mary skipped enthusiastically down the hallway.

subject predicateMary and Ellen ran and laughed.

The second sentence contains a compound subject, a subject with more than one person/thing, and a compound predicate, two separate things the subject did (two separate verbs).

However, this is still a simple sentence because we can split the sentence easily in half, with both women being part of a single group that acts together. What’s more, the verbs are both separated into the predicate and make a list of what the women did.

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Vocabulary for the other three types of sentences:

To make the other types of sentences, we will use CONJUNCTIONS to combine simple sentences into more intricate pieces of writing. To avoid confusing what type of sentences we are making, we will call these simple sentences CLAUSES.

A conjunction: is the part of speech that is used to combine words phrases and clauses. The conjunction will ALWAYS come at the beginning of the clause. It is a sign that you should be looking for a new set of subject and predicate. There are two types of conjunctions:

Coordinating: FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, soThere are only seven coordinating conjunctions, ever.

Subordinating: There are quite a few subordinating conjunctions and this is certainly not a complete list. However, the most common of these conjunctions are listed here, and the top six are in bold.

after how till ( or 'til)although if unlessas inasmuch   untilas if in order that whenas long as lest wheneveras much as now that whereas soon as provided (that)   whereveras though since whilebecause so that whichbefore thaneven if thateven though    though

Conjunctive Adverbs: These words look and feel like conjunctions, but they cannot combine clauses. Rather, these words are simply transitional, and will need to start a new sentence.

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accordingly furthermore moreoverhowever nevertheless thentherefore thus likewiseindeed now still

A clause is a group of words containing a subject, a predicate, and an idea. There are two types of clauses:

Independent: An independent clause can stand alone. It contains a subject, a predicate, and a complete idea.

A simple sentence is a single independent clause which contains no conjunctions.

Examples: Sheila studied hard to become a nurse.

An independent clause may also be a simple sentence that has a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) attached to it. Remember, independent people have fanboys!

Example: …, and Sheila studied hard to become a nurse. Because ‘and’ is a conjunction, it cannot start a sentence, despite what the newspaper seems to think. However this independent clause is relatively autonomous, and makes sense all on its own.

Dependent: A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It contains a subject and a predicate but is an incomplete idea. The dependent clause contains a subordinating conjunction, which makes it meaning incomplete.

Example: When Shelia studied hard to become a nurse… Because ‘when’ is a subordinating conjunction, it leaves us hanging. The thought is not completed.

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The type of clause, type of conjunction, and type of sentence are all related. Once you find all of the conjunctions, you will know how many clauses you have, what kind you have, and what type of sentence.

1. Simple Sentence: 1 independent clause with no conjunctions

Rachel ran to class.

2. Compound Sentence: 2 or more independent clauses combined with coordinating conjunctions

Rachel ran to class, and Megan saved her a seat.

3. Complex Sentence: 1 independent clause + 1 or more dependent clauses combined with subordinating conjunctions

Rachel ran to class, while Megan saved her a seat.

4. Compound/Complex Sentence: 2 or more independent clauses + 1 or more dependent clauses combined using both types of conjunctions.

Rachel ran to class, and Megan saved her a seat while the instructor took roll.

Conjunctions Clauses

Simple 0 1 Independent

Compound 1+ Fanboys 2+ Independent

Complex 1+ Subordinating 1 Independent1+ Dependent

Compound/Complex

Both 2+ Independent1+ Dependent

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Understanding and Fixing Run-onsAdapted From: The Online Writing Lab at Purdue

There are two kinds of Run-ons Sentences:

Fused Sentence: two independent clauses combined with no punctuation and no conjunctions.

Comma Splice: two independent clauses combined with a comma but no clauses.

The first two fixes use the two different conjunctions to COMBINE the sentences.

1. Join the two independent clauses with a comma and one of the FANBOYS.

___________________, so ___________________.

There was a big sale at Macy’s, so she wanted to go to the mall.

2. You can combine the clauses appropriately by using a subordinating conjunction.

_____________________when______________________.

She wanted to go to the mall when there was a big sale at Macy’s

The second two fixes use two kinds of punctuations to SEPARATE the sentences:

3. Semicolons say these two sentences are so closely related they are like cousins who share bunk beds.

____________________;________________________.

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She wanted to go to the mall; there was a big sale at Macy’s.

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4. You can simply separate the two sentences using a period.

______________________. _________________________.

She wanted to go to the mall. There was a big sale at Macy’s

To figure out if a sentence is a run-on, look for simple subjects and simple predicates. Then look for conjunctions. You should always have one more clause than the number of conjunction.

Incorrect:They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.

Here, the two sets of subject/predicate mean there are two clauses, but there are ZERO conjunctions, so this is a fused sentence.

Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.

The corrected sentence has two sets of subject/predicate but has separated them with a semi-colon to make a correct compound sentence.

Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted, I was too confused to decide.

Here, there are three sets of subject/predicate, one conjunction. and a comma, but a comma cannot combine or separated sentences, so this is a comma splice.

Correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, and I was too confused to decide.

Here, there are three sets of subject/predicate and TWO conjunctions. These three clauses have been combined correctly to make a compound/complex sentence.

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Understanding and Fixing FragmentsAdapted From: The Online Writing Lab at Purdue

Fragments are incomplete sentences.

Usually, fragments are a matter of punctuation. We don’t speak in fragments, so it’s really a matter of reconnecting things by fixing the punctuation.

There are several common types of fragments:

1. A sentence has too many conjunctions: Check for subject/predicate sets and then count the conjunctions. You should always have one more clause than conjunctions. If there’s an extra conjunction, use it to connect the fragment to something else.

Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because my current roomate isn't working out too well.

Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate b ecause my current roomate isn't working out too well.

2. Sentences that begin with –ing verbs: The real issue here is that the sentence is actually just a phrase. It does not contain a subject, and the –ing word that looks like a verb, can’t be the verb of your sentence because it isn’t conjugated into past, present, or future tense.

Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.

Notice that the second half begins with an –ing verb, and it’s connected to something else, but there’s still one conjunction and only one clause.

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Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game , l eaving her team at a time when we needed her.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last example above. Sometimes they will also start sentences with FANBOYS. These are conventional journalistic practices, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.

Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

No main verb

Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions. Possible Revisions:

o Add a Subject and Verb: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.

Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired. Two Possible Revisions:

o Add a subject and new verb: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired

o Add a Main verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.

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No Subject

Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product. Possible Revisions:

o Remove preposition: With The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.

Fragment: By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies. Possible Revisions: o Remove preposition: By Paying too much attention to polls

can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.

Fragment: For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired. Possible Revisions:

o Remove preposition: For Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.

o Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.

These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.

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The Apostrophe From: The OWL at Purdue

The apostrophe has three uses:

1. to form possessives of nouns 2. to show the omission of letters 3. to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters

Forming Possessives of Nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:

the boy's hat = the hat of the boy three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!

room of the hotel = hotel room door of the car = car door leg of the table = table leg

Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.

add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):

the owner's car James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable, just be consistent.)

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add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:

the children's game the geese's honking

add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:

two cats' toysthree friends' lettersthe countries' laws

Showing omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

don't = do not I'm = I am he'll = he will who's = who is shouldn't = should not didn't = did not could've= could have (NOT "could of"!) '60 = 1960

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Forming plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them).

APOSTROPHY QUIRKS and COMMON ERROS

the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969

The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.

The '60s were a time of great social unrest.

Don't use apostrophes for personal pronouns, the relative pronoun who, or for noun plurals.

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession — they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. However, indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, other, no one, and anybody, can be made possessive. Here are some examples:

wrong: his' book correct: his bookcorrect: one's bookcorrect: anybody's book

wrong: Who's dog is this?correct: Whose dog is this?

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wrong: The group made it's decision. correct: The group made its decision.

(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

wrong: a friend of yours' correct: a friend of yours

wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket. correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Proofreading for apostrophes

A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies to proofread for apostrophes:

If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it needs an apostrophe.

If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it with a rule for using apostrophes.

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Homonyms and Frequently Misused Words allowed permitted aloud spoken

affect verb—to create change/reactioneffect noun—like special effects

accept to receiveexcept to exclude

allot verb—to set aside, to reserve fora lot adjective—a bunch/manyalot this is not an actual word

are present plural for of ‘to be’our possessive pronoun: it belongs to us

board a plank bored not interested brake/break

capital most important capitol center of government

dear beloved deer Bambi

die to become dead dye coloring agent

fair even-handed fare payment

feat an accomplishment feet look down

fewer refers to things that can be counted easilyless refers to thing that must be measured to be counted

flour powdered grain flower a bloom

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forth a direction fourth following the third

knew past tense of know new not old

heal to cure of disease heel hind part of foot he’ll he will

hi a greeting high way up

hole round opening whole entirety

it's contraction of "it is" its possessive pronoun

lie to tell an untruth or to set down followed by a prepositional phraselay to set down followed by the item that was set down

meat animal flesh meet to connect

passed approved; moved on past before now

peace what hippies want piece a part

plain not fancy plane a surface or flying machine

principal head of school principle accepted rule of conduct

read to get the meaning by looking reed tall, thin water plant

sea ocean see to look

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stair a step stare look intently

stationary not moving stationery writing paper

steal take unlawfully steel iron alloy

their belonging to them there a place they're contraction of "they are"

threw to propel by hand through from end to end thorough painstakingly accurate

till not a real worduntil up to the point

to toward too also two a couple

waist between ribs and hips waste make ill use of

wait remain in readiness weight an amount of heaviness

ware merchandise wear attire where a place were past tense of are

weather meteorological conditions whether if it be the case

who's contraction of "who is" whose belonging to whom

you're contraction of "you are" your belonging to you

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Writing in “Academic Style”Anytime you are asked to write an essay for class, you must evaluate

if it is an informal essay, or if it is a formal essay that should be written in academic style. For most papers in classes like

psychology, sociology, history, geography, upper-level English, or science, you are probably writing a formal essay. Your teacher is

looking for a number of specific things in terms of structure and style. We call this list of rules, “Academic Style.”

What to do: Use Times New Roman, 12 Point Font Include a thesis statement as the last sentence of the first

paragraph Write in 5-10 sentences paragraphs that are organized around

a single main idea When using quotations, lead into them before you state the

quote and explain the relevance after the quote Review your thesis in the conclusion and summarize the

important points. Do not include any new information in the conclusion. Make sure it is fully developed in 5-10 sentences.

Use a tone that is objective and confident Proofread carefully for grammar and clarity

What not to do: Do not use “I” Do not use “you” Do not ask questions; rephrase possible questions as strong,

bold statements. Do not put quotations in the first or last paragraphs Do not put quotations in the first or last sentence of any

paragraph Avoid Slang and other informal language Avoid words from “The Cut List”

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Quick Reference: Words to Avoid

There are certain words that lead to weak and uninteresting writing almost every time. Avoid the words on this list and you’ll be taking a big step in the right direction:

howaboutalwaysused to usuallynormally

State of Being Verbs:

amisarewaswerebebeingbeenhavehashad

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