Timothy J. Lewis and Michael R. Guevara- Chaotic Dynamics in an Ionic Model of the Propagated Cardiac Action Potential

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  • 8/3/2019 Timothy J. Lewis and Michael R. Guevara- Chaotic Dynamics in an Ionic Model of the Propagated Cardiac Action Pot

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    J. theor. Biol. (1990) 146, 407-432

    C h a o t i c D y n a m i c s i n a n I o n ic M o d e l o f t h e P r o p a g a t e d C a r d i a cA c t i o n P o t e n t i a lTIMOTHY J. LEWlSt~ AND MICHAEL R. GUEVARA

    D e p a r tm e n t o f P h y s io lo g y a n d C e n t re f o r No n l in e a r D y n a m ic s in P h y s io lo g yan d Medic ine , M cG i l l Universi ty , M ontrea l , Quebec, C ana da H 3 G 1 Y6

    ( R e c e i v e d a n d a c c e p te d o n 20 J u n e 1990)We simulate the effect of periodic stimulation on a strand of ventricular muscle bynumerically integrating the one-dimen sional cable equation using the Beeler-Reutermodel to represent the transmembrane currents. As stimulation frequency isincreased, the rhythms of synch ronization {1 : 1 -* 2 : 2 -* 2 : 1 -* 4: 2 -* irregular-* 3 : 1 -*6: 2 -* irregular-* 4: 1 -* 8 : 2 -* . .. --~ 1 : 0} are successively encountered . We show thatthis sequence of rhythms can be account ed for by considering the response of thestrand to premature stimulation. This involves deriving a one-dimensional finite-ditierence equation or "'map" from the response to premature stimulation, and theniterating this map to predict the response to periodic stimulation. There is goodquantitative agreement between the results of iteration of the map and the resultsof the numerical integration of the cable equation. Calculation of the Lyapunovexponent of the map yields a positive value, indicating sensitive dependence oninitial conditions ("chaos"), at stimulation frequencies where irregular rhythms areseen in the corresponding numerical cable simulations. The chaotic dynamics occursvia a previously undescribed route, following two per iod-doubling bifurcations.Bistability (the presence of two different synchron izat ion rhythms at a fixed stimula-tion frequency) is present both in the simulations and the map. Thus, we have beenable to directly reduce consider ation of the dynamics of a partial differential equat ion(which is of infinite dimens ion) to that of a one-dimensional map, incidentallydemonstra ting that concepts from the field of non -linear dynamic s--s uch as period-doubling bifurcations, bistability, and chaotic dynamics--can account for thephe nome na seen in numerical simulations of the cable equation. Finally, we sketchout how the one-di mensional description can be extended, and point out someimplications of our work for the generation of malignant ventricular arrhythmias.

    1 . In troduc t ionVentr icular musc le , which does not bea t spontaneously, i s normal ly dr iven by aperiod ic electr ical inpu t orig inatin g in the sinoatr ial node of the heart . Periodicsti mula tio n appli ed at a high rate can lead to a variety of periodic and aperiodi crhythms, i ncl udi ng alter nans (a rhythm in which there is a beat- to- beat al ternati onin one or more ac t ion potent ia l parameters) and ventr icular f ibr i lla t ion (Savino &

    t Presented by T. J. L. at the "Theory of Heart" workshop held at the University of California at SanDiego (La Jolla) in July, 1989.Reprint requests to: T. Lewis, Department of Physiology, McGill University, 3655 Drummond St.,Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1Y6.4O 7

    0022-5193/90/019407 +26 $03.00/0 1990 Academic Press Limited

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    4 0 8 T . J . L E WI S A N D M . R . G U E V A RAV a l e n t i n u z z i , 1 9 88 ). W i t h i n t h e l a st d e c a d e , t h e i d e n t i f ic a t i o n o f t h e o n s e t o f d i t t e r e n tf o r m s o f a l t e rn a n s w i th a p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e i n s e v er a ld i f fe r e n t c a r d i a c p r e p a r a t i o n s ( G u e v a r a e t a i . , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 0 ; A d a m e t a l . ,1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 4 ; G o l d b e r g e r e t a t , 1 9 8 4 ; G u e v a r a , 1 9 8 4; C h i a l v o & J a l i f e , 1 9 8 7; S m i t he t a l . , 1 9 88 ; H e s c h e l e r & S p e i c h e r , 1 9 8 9 ; S a v i n o e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ; C h i a l v o e t a l . , 1990) .I n m a n y o f th e s e r e p o r t s , t h e a l t e r n a n s is o f t e n s e e n j u s t p r i o r t o t h e p h a s e o fi n d u c t i o n o f i r r e g u l a r r h y t h m s , i n c l u d i n g v e n t r i c u l a r f i b r i l l a t i o n . S i n c e i t i s w e l l -k n o w n t h a t a c a s c a d e o f p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t i o n s c a n l e a d to c h a o t i c d y n a m i c s( M a y , 1 9 76 ; T h o m p s o n & S t e w a r t , 1 9 8 6) , t h e h y p o t h e s i s h a s b e e n p u t f o r t h t h a ti r r e g u l a r r h y t h m s , s u c h a s f ib r i ll a ti o n , m i g h t b e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c h a o t i c d y n a m i c so c c u r r i n g a s t h e r e su l t o f a c a s c a d e o f p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t io n s ( G u e v a r a e t a l . ,1 9 81 ; G u e v a r a & G l a s s , 1 98 2 ; A d a m e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ; C h i a l v o & J a l i f e , 1 9 8 7 ; S m i t h e ta l . , 1 9 8 8 ; S a v i n o e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ) . W e t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d t o c a r r y o u t a s y s t e m a t i c s t u d yo f t h e e f f e c t o f p a c i n g a t d i f f e r e n t r a te s i n a n i o n i c m o d e l o f a s t r a n d o f v e n t r i c u l a rm u s c l e . O u r g o a l w a s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t c h a o t i c d y n a m i c s c o u l d b ep r o d u c e d , a n d i f s o, to s t u d y t h e b i f u r c a t i o n s e q u e n c e l e a d i n g t o c h a o s .

    2 . C a b l e S i m u l a t i o n sT h e t r a n s m e m b r a n e p o t e n t i a l a l o n g a 6 .2 5 m m l o n g c y li n d r ic a l s t r a n d o f v en -

    t r i c u l a r m u s c l e w a s c a l c u l a t e d ( S h a r p & J o y n e r , 1 9 80 ; V i c t o r r i e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ; G u e v a r a ,1 9 88 ), as s u m i n g t h a t t h e s t ra n d o b e y e d t h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a b l e e q u a t io n :

    ( a / 2 R , ) d 2 V / a x 2 = C O V / O t + I n , ( 1 )w i t h x th e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e c a b l e ( c m ) , t t h e t im e ( m s e c ) , V t h e t r a n s m e m b r a n ep o t e n t i a l ( m V ) , a t h e c e l l r a d i u s ( 7 . 5 I ~m ) , R~ t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s ti v i t y (2 0 0 f ~ - c m ) , Ct h e c a p a c i t a n c e (1 ~ F c m - 2 ) , a n d I ,, t h e n e t m e m b r a n e i o n i c c u r r e n t a s d e s c r ib e di n t h e B e e l e r - R e u t e r i o n i c m o d e l o f v e n t r i c u l a r m u s c l e ( B e e l e r & R e u t e r, 1 97 7) .T h i s c u r r e n t i s t h e s u m o f si x i n d i v i d u a l c u r r e n t s : t h e f as t i n w a r d s o d i u m c u r r e n t( IN a ), t h e s l o w c a l c i u m c u r r e n t ( I , ) , t h e d e l a y e d r e c t i f y i n g p o t a s s i u m c u r r e n t ( lx ~ ),a n d t w o b a c k g r o u n d o r t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n t c u r re n t s ( I K ~ , I N a . C ) . S e a l e d - e n d ( D i r ic h -l e t) b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s w e r e se t , a n d t h e s t r a n d d i v i d e d i n t o 1 00 s e g m e n t s , e a c hh a v i n g a l e n g t h ( A x ) o f 62 "5 p .m . N u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t o n a C R A YX - M P c o m p u t e r ( 1 4 s i g n i fi c a n t d e c i m a l d i g i ts ) , u s i n g a m i x e d i m p l i c i t - e x p l i c i th a l f - s t e p i n t e g r a t i o n r o u t i n e ( H i n e s , 1 9 8 4 ) w i t h a v a r i a b l e t i m e - s t e p ( A t ) a l g o r i t h m( V i c t o r r i e t a l . , 1 9 85 ). W i t h 1 p . s e c - A t ~ 8 . 1 9 2 m s e c , t h e c h a n g e i n t r a n s m e m b r a n ep o t e n t i a l A V f r o m t i m e t t o t i m e t + A t w a s a l w a y s l e s s t h a n 0 . 4 m V i n a l l s e g m e n t s .W h e n A V w a s le ss t h a n 0 . 2 m V , A t w a s d o u b l e d f o r t h e n e x t it e r a t io n . T h e s t r a n dw a s p e r i o d i c a l l y s t i m u l a t e d b y i n je c ti n g d e p o l a r i z i n g c u r r e n t p u l s e s o f a m p l i t u d e1 0 0 I~ A c m - 2 a n d d u r a t i o n 1 0 m s e c i n t o i ts f i r st s e g m e n t . T h e f ir s t s t i m u l u s p u l s ew a s a l w a y s d e l i v e r e d a t t = 5 0 m s e c . T h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n s u c c e s s iv e s t im u l i d u r i n gp e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n is d e n o t e d b y L - T o r e d u c e t h e l e n g t h o f t r a n s i e n t s, u n l e s ss t a t e d o t h e r w i s e , i n i ti a l c o n d i t i o n s a t t = 0 i n a l l s e g m e n t s w e r e s e t t o v a l u e s t a k e nf r o m c o m p u t a t i o n s e m p l o y i n g a n i so p o t en t ia l p a t c h o f B e e l e r - R e u t e r m e m b r a n e

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    CHAOS 1N A MODEL OF VENTRI CULAR MUSCLE 4 0 9s t i m u l a t e d a t ts - - 5 0 0 m s e c : V = - 8 3 . 4 2 m V , m = 0 . 0 1 2 7 5 , h - - 0 . 9 8 2 1 , j - - 0 . 9 6 8 3 ,d = 0 - 0 0 3 2 8 0 , f = 0 . 9 9 7 3 , x t = 0 . 1 5 3 3 , [ C a 2 + ] i = 0 " 1 8 6 0 m M .

    W i t h t h e a b o v e p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s , t h e s u r f a c e - t o - v o l u m e r a t io o f th e s t r a n d( 2 6 6 7 c m - t ) a n d t h e s p a c e c o n s t a n t ( 1 . 0 7 m m ) a r e c l o se to th e e x p e r i m e n t a l l ya c c e p t e d v a l u e s f o r h e a l t h y v e n t r i c u l a r m u s c l e , as a re th e c o m p u t e d c o n d u c t i o nv e l o c i t y ( 6 6 c m s e c - ~) a n d t h e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l u p s t r o k e v e l o c i t y ( 9 9 V s e c - ~) i n t h em i d d l e o f t h e c a b l e a t ts = 5 0 0 m s e c . T h u s , t h e s m a l l d i s c r e t i z a t io n f a c t o r ( A x / s p a c ec o n s t a n t ) o f 0 .0 6 , to g e t h e r w i th t h e u p p e r b o u n d o f 0 .4 m V o n A V , l e ad s t o ar e l a t i v e l y l o w n u m e r i c a l e r r o r ( V i c t o r r i e t a l . , 1984) .

    W e i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f c h a n g i n g ts i n 1 m s e c d e c r e m e n t s . A t e a c h t~, e q n ( 1 )w a s i n t e g r a t e d t o p r o d u c e a t i m e s e r i e s a t l e a s t 1 0 s e c lo n g . W h e n ts i s s u f f ic i e n t lyl a rg e , e a c h s t i m u l u s p r o v o k e s a n a c t i o n p o t e n t ia l i n th e p r o x i m a l e n d o f th e s t r a n d ,w h i c h s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o p a g a t e s t o i ts d i st a l e n d , t h u s r e s u l ti n g i n a 1 : 1 r h y t h m [ F i g .l ( a ) ] . A n N : M r h y t h m ( N _ > I , M - > 0 ) i s p e r i o d ic w i th p e r i o d N t s , c o n s i s t i n g o fr e p e a t i n g N : M c y c le s , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g N s t im u l u s p u l s e s a n d M a c t i o n p o te n t i a lsw i t h d i s t i n c t m o r p h o l o g i e s . A s ts is d e c r e a s e d , t h e 1 : 1 r e s p o n s e is m a i n t a i n e d d o w nt o ts = 3 0 7 m s e c , w i t h t h e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l d u r a t i o n i n t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e d e c r e a s i n g .A t ra n s i e n t a l t e r n a t i o n in a c t io n p o t e n t i a l m o r p h o l o g y i s i n c r e a si n g l y a p p a r e n t a sts d e c r e a s e s , w i t h b o t h t h e d e g r e e o f t h e a l t e r n a t i o n a n d t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t r a n s i e n ti n c r e a s i n g .

    A t ts = 3 0 6 m s e c , t h e 1 : 1 r h y t h m is r e p l a c e d b y a 2 : 2 r h y t h m . I n a 2 : 2 r h y t h m ,t h e r e is s ti l l o n e p r o p a g a t e d a c t io n p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c e d b y e a c h s t i m u l u s , b u t t h e reis a st r ic t b e a t - t o - b e a t a l t e r n a t i o n i n t h e m o r p h o l o g y o f t h e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l a n d i tsc o n d u c t i o n v e l o c i t y [ F i g . l ( b ) ] . A s ts is l o w e r e d f u r t h e r , t h e d e g r e e o f a l t e r n a t i o nin t h e s t e a d y - s ta t e b e c o m e s m o r e m a r k e d . A t t~ = 2 9 3 m s e c , t h e r e i s a n a b r u p tt r a n s i t i o n t o a 2 : 1 r h y t h m , i n w h i c h e v e r y s e c o n d s t i m u l u s is b l o c k e d , i .e . d o e s n o tp r o d u c e a p r o p a g a t e d a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l [ F ig . l ( c ) ] . F u r t h e r d e c r e a s e i n t~ t o 151 m s e cl e a d s t o a 4 : 2 r h y t h m , i n w h i c h e v e r y s e c o n d r e s p o n s e i s s ti ll b l o c k e d , a s in th e2 : 1 r h y t h m , b u t a g a i n w it h a n a l t e r n a t io n in t h e m o r p h o l o g y o f t h e p r o p a g a t e da c t i o n p o t e n t i a l [ F i g . l ( d ) ] . F o r 1 50 m s e c - > ts -> 1 40 m s e c , p e r i o d i c r h y t h m s a r e n ol o n g e r s e en : o n l y i r r e g u la r , a p p a r e n t l y a p e r i o d i c r h y t h m s o c c u r [ F ig . l ( e ) ] . T h e s ea p e r i o d i c r h y t h m s a r e c o m p o s e d o f l a m i n a r s t re t c h e s c o n s is t in g o f 4 : 2 c y c le s inw h i c h t h e d e g r e e o f a lt e r n a t i o n i n c r ea s e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y un t i l a n i n t e r m i t t e n t s e q u e n c eo f o n e o r m o r e c o n s e c u t i v e 1 : 1 c y c l e s a p p e a r s , a f t e r w h i c h t h e r e is a r e tu r n t o as t re t c h o f 4 : 2 c y c le s . T h e a v e r a g e d u r a t i o n o f t h e l a m i n a r p h a s e c o n s i st in g o fs u c c e s s i v e 4 : 2 c y l e s d e c r e a s e s a s ts d e c r e a s e s w i t h in t h e r a n g e o f t s o v e r w h i c h a ni r r e g u l a r r h y t h m is p r o d u c e d . T h e f r a c t i o n o f a c t io n p o t e n t i a ls g e t t in g t h r o u g h t ot h e d i s t a l e n d o f t h e c a b l e i s s l ig h t ly g r e a t e r th a n 1 / 2 t h r o u g h o u t t h is i r r e g u l a r z o n e ,w h e r e a s i t i s e x a c t l y 1 / 2 f o r t h e 4 : 2 r h y t h m . T h e r e i s t h u s a p a r a d o x i c a l r e d u c t i o ni n th e d e g r e e o f b l o c k p r o d u c e d b y d e c r e a s i n g t~ t h r o u g h 1 50 m s e c .

    F o r 1 39 m s e c - t~ -> 1 05 m s e c , t h e i r r e g u l a r r h y t h m s a r e r e p l a c e d b y a 3 : 1 r h y t h m( n o t s h o w n ) . A s ts i s r e d u c e d i n th e r a n g e 1 05 m s e c > t~ _> 44 m s e c i n 1 m s e c s t e p s ,o n e r e p e a t e d l y s e es t r a n s it i o n s a n a l o g o u s t o t h e { 2 :1 ~ 4 : 2 ~ i r r e g u l a r ~ 3 : 1}s e q u e n c e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e : i .e . { n : 1 ~ 2 n : 2 ~ i r r e g u l a r ~ n + 1 : 1 }, w i t h 3 -< n -< 6 . F o r4 3 m s e c _ > ts _> 2 5 m s e c , o n e s e e s o n l y i r r e g u l a r r h y t h m s ( e x c e p t a t ts = 3 8 m s e c , w h e r e

  • 8/3/2019 Timothy J. Lewis and Michael R. Guevara- Chaotic Dynamics in an Ionic Model of the Propagated Cardiac Action Pot

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    4 1 0 T . J . L E W I S A N D M . R . G U E V A R A

    ( a ) I : 1

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    I I I I I

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    ( b ) 2 : 2 ( c ) 2 :1 ( d ) 4 : 2

    I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

    i r r e g u l a r

    ] ~ o o ~ VI l l l l l l l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l' I sec

    F I G . 1. R e s p o n s e o f o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a b l e to p e r io d i c s t im u l a t i on . ( a ) , l : l r h y t h m , t.~ = 4 0 0 m s e c ,( b ) , 2 : 2 r h y t h m , t., = 3 0 1 m s e c , ( c ) , 2 : 1 r h y t h m , t~ = 2 9 0 m s e c , ( d ) , 4 : 2 r h y t h m , t , = 1 5 1 m s e c , ( e ) , i r r e g u l a rr h y t h m , t~ = 1 4 3 m s e c . I n ( b ) , t h e A P D i n t h e s e g m e n t 9 0 a l t e r n a te s b e t w e e n 6 2 a n d 2 4 9 m s e c , a n d t h ec o n d u c t i o n v e l o c i t y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e st r a nd b e t w e e n 6 2 a n d 6 7 c m s e c - 1 . ( a ) - ( e ) , B o t t o m t o to p :s t i m u l u s p u l s e s a n d t r a n s m e m b r a n e p o t e n ti a l ( V ) v s . t i m e ( t ) i n s e g m e n t s 1 , 1 0 , 2 0 , . . . , 9 0 , 1 0 0 o f s tr a n d .V o l t a g e t r a c e s a r e d i s p l a c e d v e r t i c a l ly w i t h a n o ff s et o f 1 2 5 i n V . T r a c e s i n ( a ) - ( d ) t a k e n f r o m n e a r e n do f a 1 0 - s e e s i m u l a t i o n r u n , at w h i c h p o i n t t h e t r a n s i e n t d u e t o i n it i al c o n d i t i o n s h a s l a r g e l y d a m p e d o u t .N o t e t h e s m a l l - a m p l i t u d e v o l t a g e r e s p o n s e s i n ( c ) - ( e ) t h at d e c r e m e n t i n a m p l i t u d e w i t h d is t a n c e d o w nt h e s t ra n d . C a l i b r a t i o n b a r in ( e ) a l s o r e f e r s t o ( a ) - ( d ) .

    a n 8 : 1 r h y t h m i s s e e n ) . F i n a l l y , f o r 2 4 m s e c > ts -> 1 1 m s e c , a 1 : 0 r h y t h m i s e n c o u n -t e r e d in w h i c h a ll s t im u l i a r e b l o c k e d , p r o d u c i n g o n l y l o c a l , s p a t i a l l y d e c r e m e n t i n g ,s u b t h r e s h o l d r e s p o n s e s i n t h e p r o x i m a l p a r t o f th e s tr a n d .

    A l l th e a b o v e s i m u l a t i o n s w e r e s t a rt e d f r o m t h e s a m e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n a lls e g m e n t s o f t h e c a b le , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p a c i n g t h e s p a c e - c l a m p e d m e m b r a n e a tt , = 5 0 0 m s e c ( s e e M e t h o d s ) . W h e n t h e i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n s a r e c h a n g e d t o t h o s ec o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a n in f i n i t e r e s t ( i. e . a ll a c t i v a t i o n a n d i n a c t i v a t i o n v a r i a b l e s s e t t ot h e i r a s y m p t o t i c v a lu e s ) , th e { 2 : 2 - ~ 2 : 1 } t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s b e t w e e n t s = 2 9 6 a n d2 9 7 m s e c i n s t e a d o f b e t w e e n ts = 2 9 3 a n d 2 9 4 m s e c . F i g u re 2 s h o w s a n e x a m p l e a tt , = 2 9 5 m s e c , i n w h i c h a 2 : 2 r h y t h m i s s e e n s ta r t in g f r o m o u r s t a n d a r d i n it ia l

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    C H A O S I N A M O D E L O F V E N T R 1 C U L A R M U S C L E 4 11( o ) 2 : 2 ( b ) 2 :1

    I l i i l i

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    F I G . 2 . B i s t a b i l it y i n t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e c a b l e t o p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n , t~ = 2 9 5 m s e c . ( a ) , 2 : 2 r h y t h m ,o b t a i n e d s t a r t i n g n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n f r o m s ta n d a r d i n i t ia l c o n d i t i o n s ( g i v e n in M e t h o d s ) . ( b ) , 2 : 1r h y t h m , o b t a i n e d s t a r ti n g n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n f r o m a s y m p t o t i c r e s t i n it i al c o n d i t i o n s . T r a c e s t a k e nf r o m n e a r e n d o f a 1 0 - s e c s i m u l a t i o n r u n i n o r d e r t o a l lo w t r a n s i e n ts t o d i s s ip a t e . APD o f f i r s t a c t i o np o t e n t i a l a t s ta r t o f s i m u l a t i o n r u n f r o m w h i c h ( b ) i s t a k e n w a s 2 2 m s e c g r e a t e r t h a n t h a n i n ( a ) . APDi n s e g m e n t 9 0 i n t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e : 2 5 0 a n d 4 3 m s e c ( a ) , 2 5 4 m s e c ( b ) .

    c o n d i t i o n s [ F i g . 2 ( a ) ] , w h i l e a 2 : 1 r h y t h m o c c u r s s t a rt in g f ro m a s y m p t o t i c i n it ia lc o n d i t i o n s [ F i g . 2 ( b ) ] . T h u s b i s t a b i l i t y - - t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s c o e x i s t e n c e o f t w od i f f e r e n t p e r i o d i c r h y t h m s ( v i z 2 : 2 a n d 2 : l ) - - i s p r es en t b e t w e e n t ~ = 2 9 3 a n d2 9 7 m s e c .

    3 . R e d u c t i o n t o a O n e - d i m e n s i o n a l M a pT h e r e a r e s ev e r a l e x p e r i m e n t a l r e p o r ts s h o w i n g t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e o f a v a r i et y o f

    c a r d i a c p r e p a r a t i o n s t o p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h a t r ai n o f p u l s e s t i m u l i c a n b ea c c o u n t e d f o r b y t h e ir r e s p o n s e t o p r em a t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h a s in g l e s u c h s t i m u l u s( M o e e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 ; S c o t t , 1 9 7 9 ; G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 8 1 ; S h r i e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 7 ; C h i a l v o e ta l . , 1 9 9 0 ; G u e v a r a , 1 9 9 0 ) . I n f a c t , it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e v a r i o u s r e s p o n s e s i n F i g . 1 a r ed u e t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f re f r a c t o ri n e s s i n t h e m e m b r a n e . W e t h e r e f o r e i n v e s t i g a t e dt h e r e c o v e r y p r o p e r ti e s o f t h e c a b l e u s i n g a p r em a t u r e s t i m u l a t io n p r o t o c o l , w h i c hi s a s t a n d a r d t e c h n i q u e u s e d i n e x p e ri m e n t a l c a r d i a c e l e c t r o p h y s i o l o g y . T h e s y s te mi s p a c e d a t a b a s i c c y c l e l e n g t h l o n g e n o u g h t o p r o d u c e a 1 : I r h y t h m a n d a p r e m a t u r es t i m u l u s a p p l i e d e v e r y s o o f t e n s o a s t o p r o b e t h e r e c o v e r y o r r e s t i tu t i o n p r o c e s s

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    CH A O S I N A M O D E L O F V E N T RI CU L A R M U SCL E 4 1 3( s e g m e n t 9 0 ) . T h e r e s t i t u t i o n c u r v e s h o w s t h a t t h e r e i s a m o n o t o n i c d e c r e a s e i nA P D w i t h d e c r e a s i n g tr u n t i l t,m~ ( 5 3 . 5 0 m s e c ) , t h e m i n i m u m r e c o v e r y in t e r v a l f o rw h i c h c o n d u c t i o n is s u c c e s sf u l . T h i s c u r v e i s f it v e r y w e l l ( r 2 = 0 . 9 9 6 ) b y t h e s u mo f t w o e x p o n e n t i a l s , w h i c h a g r e e s w i th t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f i n d i n g in v e n t r i c u l a r m u s c l e( E l h a r r a r & S u r a w i c z , 1 9 8 3 ; R o b i n s o n e t a l . , 1 9 8 7 ) . O n e o b t a i n s

    A P D = g ( t r ) = A - B l e x p [ - t r / ~ h ] - B 2 e x p [ - t J 7 2 ] , t r > t r m i n , (2 )w h e r e A = 2 7 0 m s e c , B I = 2 4 4 1 m s e c , B 2 = 9 0 . 0 2 m se c, ~-~ = 1 9- 60 m se c , an d ~'2 =2 0 0 .5 m s e c. T h e a s y m p t o t i c v a l u e o f A P D ( A ) w a s o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y b y s e t t in g i n i ti a lc o n d i t i o n s i n t h e m o d e l t o t h e i r a s y m p t o t i c q u i e s c e n t v a l u e s a n d s t i m u l a t i n g o n c et o p r o d u c e a s i n g l e p r o p a g a t e d a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l ; i t is n o t a r e su l t o f t h e f i tt in gp r o c e d u r e . O n t h e s c a l e o f F ig . 3 ( b ) , t h e f it g i v e n b y e q n ( 2 ) s u p e r i m p o s e s w i t h th ed a t a s h o w n t h e r e .M a k i n g t w o a s s u m p t i o n s , w e n o w u s e t h e r e s p o n s e to p r e m a t u r e s t i m u l a t io n [ F ig .3 ( b ) ] t o p r e d i c t t h e r e s p o n s e t o p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n ( F i g s 1 a n d 2 ) . T h e f ir sta s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t d u r i n g p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n a t a r b i t r a r y ts, t h e A P D o f a n y g i ve na c t i o n p o t e n t i a l i s c o n t r o l l e d o n l y b y i ts i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g r e c o v e r y ti m e a n dt h a t t h i s d e p e n d e n c e i s g i v e n b y t h e A P D r e s t i t u t i o n c u r v e o f F i g . 3 ( b ) . O n e c a nt h e n w r i t e [ F i g . 4 ( a ) ]

    A P D i + 1 = g ( t ~ , + ~ ) , (3 )w h e r e A P D I + ~ i s the A P D o f t h e ( i + l ) s t a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l , t . . . is it s a s s o c i a t e dr e c o v e r y ti m e , a n d g i s t h e d o u b l e - e x p o n e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f e q n ( 2) d e s c r ib i n g t h er e s t i tu t i o n c u r v e o f F ig . 3 ( b ) . F r o m F i g. 4 ( a ), i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t L ~ - A P D i + tr,+,,a n d s o

    tr,+, -- ts - A P D i . (4 )S u b s t i t u t i n g e q n ( 4 ) i n t o e q n ( 3 ) , o n e h a s

    A P D , + , ~- g ( t s - A P D , ) . (5 )W e n o w m a k e o u r s e c o n d a s su m p t i o n : s h o u l d o n e o r m o r e s t i m u li b e b l o c k e d ,p r o d u c i n g o n l y a s p at i a ll y d e c r e m e n t i n g s u b t h r e s h o l d r e s p o n s e i n t h e c a b le , th er e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e A P D o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l a n d i ts r e c o v e r yt i m e i s n o t a f f e c t ed b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s u b t h r e s h o l d r e s p o n s e ( s) . O n e t h e n h a s

    A P D i + I = g ( n t s - A P D , ) = f ( A P D , ) , (6 )i f ( n - 1 ) b l o c k e d s t i m u l i o c c u r in t h e r e c o v e r y in t e r v a l t . . . ( i. e. n i s t h e s m a l l e sti n t e g e r s u c h t h a t nt~ - A P D ~ + ~ >~ t ,m~o).

    E q u a t i o n ( 6 ) w a s f ir st d e r i v e d b y G u e v a r a e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) , b u t w i t h g e x t r a c t e df r o m t h e r e s p o n s e d u r i n g p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n r u n s c a r r i e d o u t o v e r a r a n g e o fs t i m u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s , a n d n o t f r o m a p r e m a t u r e s t im u l a t i o n p r o t o c o l a s d e s c r i b e da b o v e . N o l a s c o & D a h l e n ( 1 9 6 8 ) u s e d a g r a p h i c a l i t e r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e , e x t r a c t i n gg f r o m t h e t r a n s i e n t f o l l o w i n g a s te p c h a n g e i n ra t e . T h u s , i n b o t h o f t h e s e s t u d ie s ,t h e r e s p o n s e t o p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t io n w a s u s e d t o r e t r o s p e c ti v e l y a c c o u n t f o r t h a tv e r y r e s p o n s e . M a h l e r & R o g e l ( 1 9 70 ) , w h o s t u d i e d t h e c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e o f t h eh e a r t , d e r i v e d e q n ( 6 ) f o r th e s p e c i a l c a se n = 1 , e m p l o y i n g a p r e m a t u r e s t i m u l a t i o np r o t o c o l .

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    414 T . J . L E W I S A N D M . R . G U E V A R A( a )

    A0

    E

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    4 O d)

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    4 0 2 7 0 4 0 2 7 0APD, (msec )F IG . 4 . (a ) Schem at i c d iag ram used in d e r i v in g eqn (5 ) , as desc r ibed in t ex t . Pane ls (b ) - (e ) show

    p l o t s o f t h e m a p o f e q n ( 6 ) a t f o u r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f t ,. I t e r a t i o n s a r e a l s o s h o w n , s t a r t i n g f r o m a ni n it ia l c o n d i t i o n o f A P D i = 2 4 0 m s e c , w h i c h i s c lo s e t o t h e A P D o f t h e f ir st a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n t h es i m u l a t i o n s o f F i g . 1 . T h e a r r o w s g i v e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i te r a t i o n . T r a n s i e n t s a re s u p p r e s s e d i n ( c ) - ( e ) .( b ) , h = 4 0 0 m s e c . I t e r a te s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y c o n v e r g e to t h e s t a b l e p e ri o d - 1 o r b i t, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 1 : 1r h y t h m . ( c ) , t , = 3 0 1 m s e c . I t e r a te s c o n v e r g e to t h e s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t s h o w n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 2 : 2r h y t h m . F o r s o m e i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n s , i t e ra t e s c o n v e r g e t o th e s t a b l e p e r i o d - I o r b i t o n t h e r i g h t - h a n db r a n c h o f t h e m a p [ n = 2 i n e q n ( 6 ) ], c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 2 : 1 r h y t h m . B i s ta b i li ty is t h u s p r e s e n t ( s e et e xt ). ( d ), L = 1 5 0 m s e c . A t h ir d b r a n c h h a s n o w a p p e a r e d o n t h e m a p c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o n = 3 i n e q n( 6 ). T h e p e r i o d - I o r b i t o n t h e r i g h t - h a n d b r a n c h ( n = 2 ) in ( c) a b o v e h a s p e r i o d - d o u b l e d , l e a d i n g t o ap e r i o d - 2 o r b i t o n t h e m i d d l e b r a n c h h e r e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 4 : 2 r h y t h m . (e ) , G = 1 46 m s e c . A p e r i o d i co r b i t, v i s i t in g t h e l e f t m o s t ( n = 1 ) a n d m i d d l e ( n = 2 ) b r a n c h e s o f t h e m a p . T h e r i g h t m o s t ( n = 3 ) b r a n c hh a s n o t y e t i n t e r s e c t e d t h e l i n e o f id e n t i t y A P D i + ~ = APD~.

    E q u a t i o n ( 6 ) i s a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l f i n it e -d i f fe r e n c e e q u a t i o n o r m a p , i n th a t g i v e nt . , a n d th e fu n c t io n g, APDi+~ is a f u n c t i o n ( f ) o f APDi a l o n e . F r o m a n y s t ar t in gv a l u e o r i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n A P D ~ , o n e c a n c a l c u l a t e APD2; o n c e A P D 2 i s f o u n d ,APD3 c a n t h e n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m A P D 2 ; a n d s o o n . I n t h is f a s h i o n , o n e c a n i te r at et h e m a p t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d y n a m i c s .

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    CHAOS IN A MODEL OF VENTRI CULAR MUSCLE 4 1 5F i g u r e s 4 ( b ) - ( e ) s h o w p l o t s o f APD~+Iv s . APD~ ( i. e. t h e f u n c t i o n f d e s c r i b i n g

    t h e m a p ) a n d i t e r a ti o n s o f t h e f u n c t i o n f f o r v a r i o u s t~. T h e i n t e r s e c t io n o f f a n dt h e d i a g o n a l l in e o f i d e n t i ty (APDi+~ = APDI) g i v e s th e s t e a d y - s t a t e ( s ) . T h e i t e ra t i o n ss h o w n i n F ig . 4 ( b ) ( ts = 4 0 0 m s e c ) d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e s ta b l e - s t e a d y s ta t e o r p e r i o d - 1o r b i t a t APD~ = APDi+I = 2 3 1 m s e c i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y a p p r o a c h e d i n a n a l t e r n a t i n gm a n n e r . T h i s s t e a d y - s t a te c o r r e s p o n d s t o a 1 : 1 r h y t h m w i th a n APD o f 2 3 1 m s e c .A s ts is d e c r e a s e d , t h e m a p m o v e s d o w n a n d t o th e l e ft , s o th a t t h e s t e a d y - s t a t ev a l u e o f APD d e c r e a s e s a n d t h e a l t e r n a t i n g t r a n s i e n t b e c o m e s m o r e m a r k e d , a sf o u n d i n t h e c a b l e s i m u l a t i o n s . A l s o , t h e s l o p e o f t h e m a p a t t h e s t a b l e s te a d y - s t a t eb e c o m e s m o r e n e g a t i v e. E v e n t u a l l y , as t h is s l o p e b e c o m e s m o r e n e g a t iv e t h a n - 1 ,t h e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i t b e c o m e s u n s t a b l e a n d i s r e p l a c e d b y a s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t ,c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 2 : 2 r h y t h m [ F ig . 4 (c ) ]. T h i s p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t ar is e s o u t o f ap e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t i o n ( M a y , 1 9 7 6 ; T h o m p s o n & S t e w a r t , 1 9 8 6 ) t h a t o c c u r sa t t~ = 3 0 1 . 8 m s e c .

    T h e v a l u e o f t~ h a s b y n o w b e c o m e s u f fi c ie n t ly s m a l l s o t h a t b l o c k e d s t im u l i c a no c c u r s h o u l d APD~ b e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e , t h u s m a k i n g tr,,< t . . . . T h e m a p t h u s h a st w o b r a n c h e s : t h e l e f t - h a n d b r a n c h o b t a i n e d f r o m e q n ( 6) w i t h n = 1, a n d t h er i g h t - h a n d b r a n c h w i t h n = 2 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s in g l e b l o c k e d s t im u l u s p r e c e d i n gt h e ( i + l ) s t a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l . I n F i g . 4 ( c ) ( t , = 3 0 1 m s e c ) , f o r a n i n it ia l c o n d i t i o nAPD~ > 2 4 8 m s e c , t h e i t e ra t e s c o n v e r g e t o a p e r i o d - 1 o r b i t o n th e r i g h t - h a n d b r a n c ho f t he m a p a t APD~+t = APD~ = 2 5 4 m s e c , c o r re s p o n d i n g t o a 2 : 1 r h y th m . F o rAPD~ < 2 4 8 m s e c , th e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t i ll u s t r a te d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 2 : 2 r h y t h m , isa p p r o a c h e d a s y m p t o t i c a l ly . B i s t ab i li ty is t h u s p r e s e n t o n t h e m a p : i te r at e s c o n v e r g et o o n e o r b i t o r t h e o t h e r d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n ( i.e APDt) c h o s e n .T h e s e t o f in i ti al c o n d i t i o n s ( " b a s i n o f a t t r a c t i o n " ) l e a d in g t o e a c h o f t h e t w o o r b i tsi n F i g . 4 ( c ) i s a s i n g l e i n t e r v a l [ g ( t ,m , , ) - -- A P D ~ < 2 4 8 m s e c f o r t h e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t ;270>APD~>248 m s e c f o r th e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i t ] . I n c o n t r a s t , a s t , is r e d u c e d , t h eb a s i n o f a t t r a c t i o n o f th e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t is s p l it in t o t w o i n t e r v a ls ; i f APDt iss u f f ic i e n tl y l a r g e , t h e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t is a s y m p t o t i c a l l y a p p r o a c h e d . A s t , is d e c r e a s e df r o m t h e v a l u e u s e d t o p r o d u c e t h e p e r i o d -1 o r b i t o n t h e n = 1 b r a n c h o f F ig . 4 ( b ) ,t h e n = 2 b r a n c h i n t e r se c t s t h e APDi~ = APD~ l in e o f i d e n t i ty b e f o r e t h e p e r i o d - 1o r b i t o n t h e n = 1 b r a n c h p e r i o d d o u b l e s . T h u s , a { 1 : 1 ,,--> 2: 1 } b i s t a b i l i t y i s f ir s t s e e nw h i c h t u r n s i n t o t h e { 2 : 2 ~ - ~ 2 : 1} b i s t a b i l i t y a s t~ i s d e c r e a s e d f u r t h e r [ F i g . 4 ( c ) ] .

    A s t~ is d e c r e a s e d s ti ll f u r t h e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a n g e s o c c u r : t h e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t o fF ig . 4 ( c) g r o w s in a m p l i t u d e ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a n i n c r e a s e d d e g r e e o f a l t e r n a t i o nin APD), u n t i l a t t~ = 2 9 7 - 9 4 m s e c , i t c o l l i d e s w i t h a n u n s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t a n dd i s a p p e a r s i n a n a b r u p t f a s h i o n v i a a r e v e rs e s a d d l e - n o d e b i f u r c a t i o n ( T h o m p s o n& S t e w a r t , 1 9 8 6 ). H o w e v e r , t h e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i t o n t h e n = 2 b r a n c h ( c o r r e s p o n d i n gt o t h e 2 : 1 r h y t h m ) r e m a i n s , a n d a l l i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n s l e a d t o t h is s t a b l e o rb i t . A st~ i s r e d u c e d f u r t h e r , th e r i g h t - h a n d b r a n c h o f F ig . 4 ( c ) s t e e p e n s , a n d o n c e a g a i nt h e r e i s a p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t i o n a t ts = 1 5 0 .8 m s e c , in w h i c h t h e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i to n t h e n = 2 b r a n c h is re p l a c e d b y a p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t o n t h a t s a m e b r a n c h [ F ig . 4 (d ) ] :t h e 2 : 1 r h y t h m is t h u s r e p l a c e d b y a 4 : 2 r h y t h m . B y t h is p o i n t , t h e n = 3 b r a n c hh a s a l r e a d y a p p e a r e d , a n d c a n b e s e e n a t t h e e x t r e m e r i g h t - h a n d s id e o f F ig . 4 ( d ).T h e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t o n t h e n = 2 b r a n c h i n F ig . 4 ( d ) d i s a p p e a r s a t t~ = 1 4 8 .9 m s e c i n

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    4 1 6 T . J . L E W I S A N D M . R . G U E V A R Aa d i s c o n t i n u o u s w a y , u n l i k e t h a t o n th e n = 1 b r a n c h [ F i g . 4 ( c ) ] , w h i c h d i s a p p e a r e dv i a a s a d d l e - n o d e b i f u r c a t i o n . T h a t i s, a s ts is d e c r e a s e d , t h e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t o n t h en = 2 b r a n c h [ F i g . 4 ( d ) ] s i m p l y g r o w s u n t i l , a t ts = 1 4 8 . 9 m s e c , i t b e c o m e s t o o l a r g et o b e s u p p o r t e d b y t h a t b r a n c h a n d " f a ll s o f f " th e t o p l e f t -h a n d e d g e o f th e b r a n c h .A t t h is t ,, th e n = 3 b r a n c h d o e s n o t y e t i n t e r s e c t t h e l i n e o f i d e n t i t y , w h i c h w o u l dr e s u l t i n a 3 : 1 r h y t h m . T h e r e is t h u s n o b i s t a b i l it y b e t w e e n t h e 4 : 2 a n d 3 : 1 r h y t h m s .

    ( a )

    0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0t~ ( m s e c ) 4 0 0

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    - 2 1 4 0 1 4 5 1 5 0 15 5t , ( r e s e t )

    F I C . 5 . ( a ) , B i f u r c a t i o n d i a g r a m (APO~v s . t . ,) f o r t .~ = 10 -400 ms e c . A t eac h t~ , eqn ( 6 ) was i te ra ted2 0 0 0 0 t i m e s a n d t h e f ir s t 1 9 8 0 0 i te r a t e s d i s c a r d e d t o s u p p r e s s t r a n s i e n t s d u e t o i n i ti a l c o n d i t i o n s .I n c r e m e n t i n t , w a s 1 m s e c . T o d e m o n s t r a t e b i s t a b i li t y , tw o i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n s w e r e u s e d a t e a c h t ,( A P D I = 2 4 0 a n d 2 7 0 r e s e t ) . ( b ) , E x p a n d e d v i e w o f b i f u r c a t i o n d i a g r a m o f ( a ) i n r a n g e t , = 1 4 0 - 1 5 5 m s e c .T h e p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g o f t h e p e r i o d -I o r b it o n t h e , = 2 b r a n c h ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o th e 2 : 1 r h y t h m o f F ig .l ( c ) ] t o a p e r i o d - 2 o r b it [ c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e 4 : 2 r h y t h m o f F ig . l ( d ) ] i s c l e a r ly s h o w n , as is t h et r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e 4 : 2 r h y t h m t o a p e r i o d i c d y n a m i c s [ F i g s 1 ( e ) a n d 4 ( e ) ]. I n c r e m e n t i n t~ w a s 0 . 0 5 m s e c .( c ), L i a p u n o v n u m b e r ( ; t ) c a l c u l a t e d o v e r t h e s a m e r a n g e o f t~ a s d i s p l a y e d i n ( b ). A w a s c a l c u l a t e df r o m e q n ( 7 ) w i t h N = 2 0 5 0 0 . T h e f i rs t 5 0 0 i t e ra t e s w e r e d i s c a r d e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o ;t o fc h a o t i c t r a n s i e n t s s e e n c l o s e t o t h e 3 : 1 b o u n d a r y ( G r e b o g i e t a l . , 1 98 4) . C o m p u t a t i o n s s h o w n i n F i g s 4a n d 5 w e r e c a r d e d o u t o n a n H P I 0 0 0 m i n i c o m p u t e r in d o u b l e p r e c i s io n ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 s i g n if i c an td e c i m a l d i g i t s ) .

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    C HAOS IN A MODEL OF VENTR IC ULAR MUSC LE 4 1 7

    I n f a c t , a t v a l u e s o f t~ l y i n g in t h e g a p b e t w e e n v a l u e s f o r w h i c h t h e 4 : 2 a n d 3 : 1r h y t h m s a r e se e n , o n e o b t a i n s c h a o t i c o r b it s : t r a je c t o r i e s s p i r a l o u t w a r d o n t h e n = 2b r a n c h i n a n a l t e r n a t in g f a s h i o n a n d a r e i n je c t e d o n t o t h e n = 1 b r a n c h , o n l y to b er e i n j e c t e d o n t o t h e n = 2 b r a n c h a f t e r o n e o r m o r e i t e r a t io n s o n t h e n = 1 b r a n c h[ F ig . 4 ( e )] . T h i s b e h a v i o u r is r e m i n i s c e n t o f t y p e - I I I i n te r m i t t e n c y a s d e s c r i b e d b yP o m e a u & M a n n e v i l l e ( 1 9 80 ) . F i n a l ly , a t ts = 1 4 4 .9 m s e c , a s t a b l e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i ta p p e a r s o n t h e r i g h t m o s t ( n = 3 ) b r a n c h i n F ig . 4 ( e ) (i .e . 3 : 1 r h y t h m ) , w i th th ec o n c u r r e n t a b r u p t d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f a p e r i o d ic d y n a m i c s . H o w e v e r , lo n g c h a o ti ct r a n s ie n t s r e s e m b l i n g th e n o n p e r i o d i c o r b i t s h o w n i n F i g. 4 ( e) a r e p r e s e n t b e f o r et h e n = 3 b r a n c h is a p p r o a c h e d , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e in i ti a l c o n d i t i o n A P D t i s c h o s e na p p r o p r i a t e l y . T h e a v e r a g e l if e ti m e o f t h e se " c h a o t i c t r a n s ie n t s " d e c r e a s e s a s o n em o v e s d e e p e r i n to t h e 3 : 1 z o n e ( G r e b o g i e t a l . , 1984) .

    F u r t h e r d e c r e a s e i n ts l e a d s to th e s u c c e s s iv e a p p e a r a n c e o f m o r e b r a n c h e s f r o mt h e r i g h t - h a n d e d g e o f t h e r a n g e o f t h e m a p , p r o d u c i n g s t a b l e p e r io d - 1 o r b i ts ( i. e.n : 1 r h y t h m , n -< 6 ). T h e s e o r b i t s p e r i o d - d o u b l e , p r o d u c i n g 2 n : 2 r h y t h m s , a n d t h e ng o o n t o a p e r i o d i c o r b it s . F o r t s < 5 0 . 3 3 m s e c , n : 1 o r 2n : 2 ( n - 7 ) o r b i ts a re n o ts e e n w h e n t, is d e c r e a s e d i n s t e p s o f 0.1 m s e c : o n l y a p e r i o d i c o r b i t s a re e v i d e n t .U n l i k e t h e c a s e i n F ig . 4 ( e ) , s o m e o f t h e s e a p e r i o d i c o r b i t s v is it m o r e t h a n t w ob r a n c h e s o f t h e m a p .

    F i g u r e 5 ( a ) s h o w s a b i f u r c a t i o n d i a g r a m ( A P D i v s . t s ) w h i c h s u m m a r i z e s t h ec h a n g e s i n s t e a d y - s t a t e d y n a m i c s o f t h e m a p . N o t e t h e { 1 : 1 - - ~ 2 : 1} b i s t a b il i ty f o r3 0 7 . 3 m s e c - ts > 3 0 1 -8 m s e c a n d t h e { 2 : 2 , ~ , 2 : 1} b is t a b i li t y f o r 3 0 1 .8 m s e c - ts >2 9 7 . 9 m s e c . F i g u r e 5 ( b ) i s a n e x p a n d e d v i e w o f t h e c h a o t i c r e g i o n b e t w e e n t h e 2 : 1a n d 3 : 1 z o n e s . T h e s t r u c t u r e s s e e n i n t h is c h a o t i c z o n e s o f t h e b i f u r c a t i o n d i a g r a m( th e g r a d a t i o n s in d e n s i t y ) a r e a re s u lt o f t h e s h a p e o f t h e m a p a n d t h e p r e s e n c eo f a n i n h e r e n t d i s c o n t in u i t y .

    W e h a v e c l a i m e d a b o v e t h a t th e a p e r i o d i c b e h a v i o u r s s h o w n in F i g s 4 (e ) a n d5 ( a ) a n d ( b ) a r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c h a o t i c d y n a m i c s . W e d o s o b a s e d u p o n c a l c u l at i o no f t h e L y a p u n o v e x p o n e n t (A )

    NA = l i m ~ In ] d f / d A P D , l A e D ,I, (7 )N~co i= I

    w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e a v e r a g e e x p o n e n t i a l d i v e r g e n c e o f tr a j ec t o r ie s s t a r t in g w i th v e r yc l o s e i n it ia l c o n d i t i o n s . A p o s i t i v e L y a p u n o v e x p o n e n t i n d i c a t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o fs e n s i t i v e d e p e n d e n c e o n i n i ti a l c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h is o f t e n t a k e n a s a d e fi n i ti o n o fc h a o t i c d y n a m i c s ( G r e b o g i e t a l . , 1 9 83 ). F i g u r e 5 ( c) g i v e s A o v e r t h e s a m e r a n g e o fts a s in F i g . 5 ( b ) , d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t A is n e g a t i v e i n r a n g e s o v e r w h i c h p e r i o d i co r b i t s e x i s t, b u t is p o s i t i v e in t h e i r r e g u l a r z o n e . I n t h e o t h e r i r r e g u l a r z o n e s o f F i g .5 ( a ) , A is a l s o p o s i ti v e ( n o t s h o w n ) . W e h a v e t h u s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t th e i r r e g u la rz o n e s a r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c h a o t ic d y n a m i c s i n t h e m a p .

    4. Comparison Between Cable S imulat ions and Map I terat ionsT h e a b o v e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m

    p r e m a t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n c a p t u r e s t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e p a r ti a l d if f er e n ti a l e q u a t i o n

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    418 T . J . L E W IS AND M. R. GUEVARA

    very well, provid ing not on ly qualitative agre ement (i.e. predictin g bistability, period -doubli ng bifurcations, chaos, etc), but good q u a n t i t a t i v e agreement with the simula-tions over a large range of ts. Figure 6 provides a quantitative comparison, givingthe range of ts over which a particular rhythm is seen in both the simulations andthe iterations, demonstrating that the iterative technique predicts the existence ofvarious rhythms to within a few msec of where they are actually found in thesimulations. The on ly majo r d iscre pancy o ccurs at very small ts, where a 1 : 0 rhythmis seen in the simulations, but not in the iterations. By continuity, a 1:0 rhythmm u s t be seen for ts just larger than 10 msec (at the cur rent pulse am plitu de usedhere), since inject ion of a constant bias curr ent (i.e. ts = 10 msec) of the sameampli tude simply causes a depol ariza tion of the me mbran e. Th e range of t.~ overwhich the 1 : 0 rhythm is seen decreases as the pulse ampli tude used in the simulationsis increased.

    It is quite clear that eqn (6), being one-dimensional, can give only an approxima-tion to the dynamics of the full-fledged partial differential equation describing thecable [eqn (1)], which is an 800-dimensional finite-difference equa tion in the discret-ized approximation used in the numerical integration routine. One can determinehow well the system can be represented by a one-dimensional description by plottinga first-return map during irregular dynamics (Glass e t a l . , I984). Figure 7 shows anexample, in which the square symbols are n e x t - A P D data points extracted from anumerical simulation corresponding to a 60-sec long periodic stimulation run att~ = 143 msec [Fig. l(e)]: A P D i + , (1 -< i

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    C H A O S I N A M O D E L O F V E N T R I C U L A R M U S C L E 4 1 9

    2 7 0

    ~t

    o

    0 2 7 0A P ~ (msec )

    F IG . 7 . The re tu rn m ap. Sym bo ls g i ve re tu rn m ap (A P D I + ~ vs . APD~) o b t a i n e d f r o m n u m e r i -ca l s imu la t ion o f t he cab le equa t ion a t t , = ] 43 msec [see F ig . l ( e ) ] f o r 60sec . Super im posed i s t heth ree-b ranch ed m ap [ see F ig . 4 (e ) ] , eqn (6 ) , de r i ve d f rom the response t o p rema tu re s t imu la t ion , a t t hesame t~.

    A l s o s h o w n i n F ig . 7 is t h e t h r e e - b r a n c h e d m a p d e r i v e d f r o m e q n ( 6) f o r ts =14 3 m s e c , w h i c h p r e d i c t s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a 3 : 1 r h y t h m . N o t e t h a t t h e p o i n t s o b t a i n e df r o m t h e c a b l e s i m u l a t i o n s l ie q u i t e c l o s e t o th e m a p o f e q n ( 6 ), e s p e c i a l l y a l o n gt h e m i d d l e ( n = 2 ) b r a n c h T h e r e a r e f o u r m a i n a r e a s w h e r e t h e d a t a p o i n t s d e v i a t ef r o m t h e m a p i n F i g . 7 .

    ( i) T h e d a t a p o i n t s f a l li n g a l o n g t h e n = 1 b r a n c h o f th e m a p l ie s u b s t a n t i a l lya b o v e t h a t b r a n c h . S i n c e t h e p o i n t s l ie a b o v e t h e b r a n c h , t h i s m e a n s t h a t APDi+I,f o r a g i v e n APDi, is c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n o n e w o u l d p r e d i c t f r o m t h e m a p . T h er e a s o n f o r th i s d e v i a t i o n , a s w e s h a ll n o w e x p l a i n , i s e s s e n t i a ll y t h a t APDi i s v e r ys m a l l ( < 1 0 0 m s e c ) . T h e r e s ti tu t io n c u r v e f r o m w h i c h t h e m a p s h o w n i n F ig . 7 w a sd e r i v e d w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a t a b a s i c c y c l e l e n g t h o f 5 0 0 m s e c ( F ig . 3 ), w h e n t h e APDo f t h e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e b a s i c d r i v e t r a in w a s q u i t e l o n g . W h e nt h e r e s t i t u t i o n c u r v e i s d e t e r m i n e d a t a s h o r t e r b a s i c c y c l e l e n g t h , s o t h a t t h e APDo f th e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b a s i c d r i v e t ra i n i s s m a l l e r , o n e f in d s th a tt h e APD o f a p r e m a t u r e b e a t e l i ci te d a t a g iv e n tr is lo n g e r ( s e e a ls o B o y e t t &J e w e l l , 1 9 7 8; E l h a r r a r & S u r a w i c z , 1 9 8 3 ). W h e n t h e b a s i c c y c l e le n g t h is in th e 1 : 1z o n e ( a b o v e 3 0 6 m s e c ) , t h is e f fe c t is sm a l l , s i n c e t h e APDs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b a s i cd r i v e t r a i n i n t h e 1 : 1 z o n e a r e a l l q u i t e l a rg e . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e r e s t i t u t io n c u r v ei s d e r i v e d a t a b a s i c c y c l e le n g t h i n t h e 2 : 2 z o n e a n d t h e p r e m a t u r e s t i m u l u s f o l lo w st h e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l w i th s h o r t d u r a t i o n , s u b s t a n t i a l e f fe c ts m a y b e s e e n . T h i s i s t h er e a s o n w h y t h e d a t a p o i n t s l ie a b o v e t h e n = 1 b r a n c h i n F i g . 7 : APDi+I i s u n d e r e s t i -m a t e d b y th e m a p , b e c a u s e APDi i s s h o r t . T h u s , APD~+I n o t o n l y d e p e n d s o n tr,

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    4 2 0 T . J . L E WI S AND M . R . GUE VARA( a n d t h e r e f o r e , d u r i n g p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n , o n A P D I i m p l i c i t l y ) , b u t o n A P D ie x p l i c i t l y ( s e e a l s o K a p l a n , 1 9 8 9 ) .

    ( ii ) D a t a p o i n t s a l s o li e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a b o v e th e l e f t - h a n d e n d o f t h e n = 2 b r a n c h .T h e d e v i a t i o n a w a y f r o m t h e m a p is l es s t h a n t h a t f o r t h e n = 1 b r a n c h , a n d d e c r e a s e sa s A P D ~ i n c r e a s e s , b e i n g c l o s e to z e r o a t AP D~ ~--210-230 m s e c , w h i c h is v e r y c l o s et o t h e A P D o f th e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l a t t h e b a s i c c y c l e l e n g th a t w h i c h t h e r e s t i t u ti o nc u r v e w a s d e t e r m i n e d . T h u s , t h e r e a s o n f o r th i s d e v i a t i o n i s e x a c t l y th a t d e t a i l e da b o v e f o r th e n = 1 b r a n c h : A P D ~ i s s h o r t e r t h a n t h e A P D o f a c t io n p o t e n t i a l s int h e b a s i c d r i v e tr a i n u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e st i t u t i o n c u r v e ( a n d h e n c e t h e m a p ) .

    ( ii i) W h i l e m o s t d a t a p o i n t s l i e w i t h i n t w o t h in b a n d s , t h e r e a r e a f e w e x c e p t i o n s .F o r e x a m p l e , t w o p a i r s o f p o i n t s l ie a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e a b o v e t h e n = 1 a n dn = 2 b a n d s . U p o n i n s p e c t i o n o f th e p r e c u r s o r s o f th e s e p o i n t s , o n e f i n ds t h a t b o t hAPD~ a n d APD~_~ w e r e q u i t e s h o r t . T h e s e p o i n t s l ie a b o v e t h e th i n b a n d s f o r ar e a s o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t e x p l a i n e d a b o v e f o r t h e th i n b a n d s l y in g a b o v e t h e m a p . T h ed e p e n d e n c e o n p r i o r h is t o r y e x t e n d s p a s t t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a c t i o n p o t e n t ia l :APD~+~ s e e m s n o t o n l y to d e p e n d s t ro n g l y o n A P D i , b u t o n A P D H a s w e l l . T h i sd e p e n d e n c e is e s p e c i a ll y e v i d e n t w h e n A P D i a n d APD~_~ a r e b o t h s h o r t .

    ( iv ) T h e d a t a p o i n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e e x t r e m e r i g h t - h a n d - e n d o f t h e n = 2b r a n c h l ie in c r e a s in g l y a b o v e a n d t o t h e r ig h t o f t h a t b r a n c h a s A P D i i n c r e a s e s .( T h e r e i s a h i n t o f s i m i l a r b e h a v i o u r o n t h e n = 1 b r a n c h ) . T h i s i s d u e t o th e f a c tt h a t APD~+~ i s v e r y s h o r t f o r t h e s e p o i n t s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t .. . is a l s o e x t r e m e l y s m a l l .W h e n tr , , i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e m i n i m u m r e c o v e r y t im e , trm ,,, o n e b e g i n s t o s e e as l o w i n g o f c o n d u c t i o n v e l o c i ty o f t h e ( i + 1 ) st a c t i o n p o t e n t ia l . T h e r e c o v e r y t im ei n t h e 9 0 t h s e g m e n t , a p p r o x i m a t e d b y t r , , - ~ t s - A P D ~ [ e q n ( 4 ) a n d F i g. 4 ( a ) ] , i st h e n u n d e r e s t i m a t e d , s in c e a d d i t i o n a l r e c o v e r y t i m e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e e x t ra c o n d u c -t i o n t i m e . APD~+~ is t h u s l o n g e r t h a n w o u l d b e p r e d i c t e d f r o m th e m a p : d a t a p o i n t st h e r e f o r e l ie a b o v e t h e m a p . T h e a d d i t i o n a l r e c o v e r y t im e p r o v i d e d b y t h e slo w ita go f c o n d u c t i o n w h e n r e c o v e r y ti m e is e x t r e m e l y sh o r t a l so s h o u l d a l lo w a c t i o np o t e n t i a l s to c o n d u c t t h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e b lo c k . N o t e t h a t t h e th i n b a n d o f d a t ap o i n t s l y i ng n e a r t h e b o t t o m e n d o f t h e n = 2 b r a n c h a l so e x t e n d s m o r e t o th e r i gh ti n F ig . 7 t h a n d o e s t h e n = 2 b r a n c h i ts e lf . S i n c e c o n d u c t i o n v e l o c i t y s l o w s a p p r e c i a b l yo n l y o v e r a v e r y s h o r t r a n g e o f r e c o v e r y t i m e s c l o s e t o t~m~,, h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h em a p is s e e n o n l y o v e r a r e la t i v e l y s h o r t r a n g e o f APD~.

    5 . D i s c u s s i o n5 .1 . COM PARI SO N WI T H E XPE RI M E NT A L RE SUL T S

    A s f a r a s w e a r e a w a r e , n o s y s t e m a t i c l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t ot h e n u m e r i c a l c a b l e s i m u l a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e h a v e b e e n c a r r ie d o u t o n v e n t r i c u la rm u s c le . H o w e v e r , th e r e i s e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r m a n y o f t h e p h e n o m e n a s ee n .

    ( i) T h e t r a n s i t i o n {1 : 1 ~ 2 : 2 }, w h i c h is t h e r e s u l t o f a p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t i o n ,h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d i n m a n y s tu d ie s o n v e n t r ic u l a r m u s c l e p r e p a r a t i o n s o f v ar io u ss o r ts , i n c l u d i n g p a p i l l a r y m u s c l e ( H o f f m a n & S u c k l i n g , 1 9 5 4; B o y e t t & J e w e l l , 1 9 7 8) ,q u i e s c e n t a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y b e a t i n g a g g r e g a t e s o f e m b r y o n i c c h i c k v e n t r i c u l a r ce ll s( G u e v a r a , 1 9 8 4 ; G u e v a r a et al., 1 9 84 , 1 9 9 0) , a n d i s o l a t e d r a b b i t v e n t r i c u l a r c e l l s

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    CHAOS IN A MODEL OF VENTRI CULAR MUSCLE 421( G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 89 ). I n t h e l a t t e r t w o s e t s o f s t u d i es , t h e t r a n s i t i o n { 2 : 2 ~ 2 : 1}w a s a l s o s e e n . T r a n s i s e n t a l t e r n a t i o n i s o f t e n s e e n i n s t u d i e s o n v e n t r i c u l a r m u s c l ep a c e d a t h i g h r a t e s ( s e e G u e v a r a , 1 98 4 f o r r e f e r e n c e s ) , a n d h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i nm o d e l l i n g w o r k o n P u r k i n j e f ib r e (d e B e e r , 1 9 7 7) . T r a n s i e n t a l t e r n a t i o n is es s e n t ia l lyd u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i t in F i g . 4 ( b ) l ie s o n a b r a n c h w i t h n e g a t i v es l o p e : t h u s , t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e f ix e d p o i n t h a s t o b e a l t e rn a t i n g . A s i m i l a r s it u a t i o nis f o u n d i n s p o n t a n e o u l s y b e a t i n g a g g r e g a te s , w h e r e o n e o b t a i n s a n o n - i n v e r t i b l ec i r c le m a p h a v i n g a r e g i o n o f n e g a ti v e s l o p e ( G u e v a r a & S h r i e r , 1 9 9 0) .

    I n th e m a j o r i ty o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d ie s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e f o c u s w as o nt h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f a c t io n p o t e n t i a l d u r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 2 : 2 r h y t h m . H o w e v e r , t h e r ei s a l s o a s i m u l t a n e o u s b e a t - t o - b e a t a l t e r n a t i o n i n c o n d u c t i o n v e l o c i t y , f o r w h i c ht h e r e i s e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e i n v e n t r i c u l a r m u s c l e ( s ee G u e v a r a , 1 98 4 f o r r e f e re n -c e s ). S i n c e o n e c a n o b t a i n a b e a t - t o - b e a t a l t e r n a t i o n i n c o n d u c t i o n t i m e in ao n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a b l e [ F ig . l ( b ) ] , i t is p e r h a p s n o t n e c e s s a r y to p o s t u l a t e t h ee x i s te n c e o f l o n g i t u d in a l d i s s o c ia t io n o f t h e c o n d u c t i o n s y st e m ( " d u a l p a t h w a y s " )t o o b t a i n t h i s e f f ec t i n a ll c a s e s w h e r e i t is o b s e r v e d i n e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k .

    ( ii ) T h e t r a n s i t i o n { 2 : 1 ~ 4 : 2 } , w h i c h is t h e r e s u l t o f y e t a n o t h e r p e r i o d - d o u b l i n gb i f u r c a t i o n , h a s b e e n s e e n i n s p o n t a n e o u s l y b e a t i n g a g g r e g a t e s ( G u e v a r a , 1 9 8 4 ;G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 9 0 ) , i n s i n g l e g u i n e a - p i g v e n t r i c u l a r c e l l s a t a r a i s e d e x t e r n a lp o t a s s i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( H e s c h e l e r & S p e i c h e r , 1 9 8 9 ), a n d i n r a b b i t v e n t r i c u l a rc e l l s a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e ( G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ) . I n t h e l a s t m e n t i o n e d c a s e , t h et r a n s i t i o n {3 : 1 ~ 6 : 2 } w a s a l s o d e s c r i b e d .( ii i) T h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a o s f o l l o w i n g 1 : 1 , 2 : 2 , 2 : 1 , a n d 4 : 2 r h y t h m s h a s b e e nd o c u m e n t e d i n i s o l a t e d g u i n e a - p i g v e n t r i c u l a r c e ll s a t a n e le v a t e d e x t e r n a l p o t a s s i u mc o n c e n t r a t i o n ( H e s c h e l e r & S p e i c h e r , 1 9 8 9) , a n d i n i s o l a t e d r a b b i t v e n t r i c u l a r c e ll sa t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e ( G u e v a r a & J e a n d u p e u x , u n p u b l i s h e d ) . I n a d d i ti o n , a v e r y r e c e n tr e p o r t o n s t r a n d s o f P u r k i n j e f i b r e r e p o r t s t h e t r a n s i t i o n { 4 : 2 ~ c h a o s} [ C h i a l v o e ta l . , 1 99 0: F i g. l ( b ) ] . T h i s c h a o t i c r h y t h m h o w e v e r c o n s is t s o f m i x t u r e s o f 4 : 2 a n d3 : 1 c y c l e s , a n d d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n y 1 : 1 c y c l e s . W e h a v e n o t s e e n s u c h t r a c es ino u r s i m u l a t i o n s , c h a n g i n g t~ i n 1 m s e c s t e p s . T h e t r a n s i t i o n {3 : 1 ~ 6 : 2 -~ ch a o s } h a sb e e n r e p o r t e d in th e p r o p a g a t e d a c ti o n p o t e n t i al o f t h e s q u id g i a n t a x o n ( M a t s u m o t oe t a l . , 1 9 8 7 a , b ) .

    ( iv ) T h e 1 : 0 r h y t h m s e e n a t v e r y h i g h s t im u l a t i o n r a t e s is a c o n s e q u e n c e o fp o s t - r e p o l a r i z a t i o n r e f r a c t o r i n e s s a n d h a s a l s o b e e n s e e n i n s h o r t e n e d s t r a n d s o fP u r k i n j e f i b r e ( C h i a l v o & J a l i f e , 1 9 8 7 ) .

    ( v ) T h e { 2 :2 ~--~ 2 : 1} b i s t a b i l i t y ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t h y s t e r e s i s ) p r e s e n t i n t h e s i m u l a -t i o n s ( F i g . 2 ) a n d t h e m a p [ F i g . 4 ( c ) ] c a n b e s e e n i n i s o l a t e d v e n t r i c u l a r c e l ls( G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ) . A d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f {2 :2 , ~- ~ 2 : 1} b i s t a b i l i t y w a s d e s c r i b e d al o n g t i m e a g o b y M i n e s ( 1 9 1 3 ), w h o s t u d i e d a r i n g c u t f r o m t h e a u r i c l e s o f a t o r to i s e .H o w e v e r , t h e p h e n o m e n o n in th a t i n st a n c e d e p e n d s o n t h e d i st r ib u t e d ,i n h o m o g e n e o u s n a t u r e o f t h e p r e p a r a t i o n . T h e { 1 : 1 * -~ 2: 1} b i s ta b i l it y p r e d i c t e d b yt h e m a p , b u t n o t s e e n in t h e s i m u l a t i o n s , w a s a ls o o b s e r v e d in t h e p i o n e e r i n g r e p o r to f M i n e s ( 1 9 1 3 ) , w h o s t u d i e d t h e a t r o p i n i z e d v e n t r i c le o f t h e f r o g ; m a n y y e a r s l a t e rit w a s r e d e s c r i b e d i n s p o n t a n e o u s l y b e a t i n g a g g r eg a t es o f v e n t r i c u l a r c el ls ( G u e v a r a ,1 98 4; G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 9 0) a n d q u i e s c e n t i s o l a t e d v e n t r i c u l a r ce l ls ( G u e v a r a e t a l . ,

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    4 2 2 T . J . L E W I S A N D M . R . G U E V A R A1 9 89 ). M i n e s , w h o u s e d e x t r a c e l l u l a r r e c o r d i n g t e c h n i q u e s , d i d n o t d e s c r i b e a 2 : 2r h y t h m i n h is e x p e r i m e n t s . I n t h is r e g a r d , o n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t i t is p o s s i b l e t oo b t a i n a d i r e c t tr a n s i t i o n f r o m a 1 : 1 t o a 2: 1 r h y t h m s h o u l d t h e s l o p e o f t h e l e f t - h a n db r a n c h o f t h e m a p i n F ig . 4 ( c ) n o t b e c o m e s t e ep e n o u g h t o g e n e r a t e a p e r i o d - d o u b l e do r b i t ( G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ; K a p l a n , 1 9 8 9 ) . I t e r a t i o n s u s i n g e q n ( 6 ) , b u t w i t h t h ef u n c t i o n g o f e q n ( 3 ) e x t ra c t e d f r o m p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t io n r u n s , a n d n o t f r o m ap r e m a t u r e s t i m u l a t io n p r o t o c o l , r e t r o s p e c t iv e l y p r e d i c te d t h e e x i st e n c e o f b o t h t h e{ 1 : 1 < - > 2 : 1} a n d { 2:2 2: 1} b i s t a b i l i t i e s i n q u i e s c e n t a g g r e g a t e s ( G u e v a r a e t a i . ,1 9 84 ); h o w e v e r , n o e x p e r i m e n t a l s e a r c h w a s c a r ri e d o u t f o r t h e se p h e n o m e n a i nt h a t p r e p a r a t i o n .

    T h e b i s ta b i l it y b e t w e e n t w o d i ff e re n t 2 : 2 r h y t h m s d e s c r i b e d b y N o l a s c o & D a h l e n( 1 9 6 8 ) - - s e e a l s o M a h l e r & R o g e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) - - i s n o t s e e n o n t h e m a p c o n s i d e r e d h e r e .H o w e v e r , as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , th e s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t o f F ig . 4 ( c ) g e n e r a t i n g t h e2 : 2 r h y t h m i s d e s t r o y e d b y c o l li s i o n w i t h a n u n s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t a s t , is d e c r e a s e d[ F i g . 8 ( a ) ] . T h i s u n s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t a r i se s in a d i s c o n t i n u o u s f a s h i o n u p o nd e c r e a s e i n ts. H o w e v e r , s h o u l d t h e m i n i m u m p o s s i b l e A P D i n F i g. 4 ( c ) b e d e c r e a s e d ,s o t h a t l e f t -h a n d b r a n c h o f t h e m a p i n F i g. 4 ( c ) w il l b e e x t e n d e d d o w n w a r d s , t hi su n s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t a ri s e s v i a a s a d d l e - n o d e b i f u r c a t i o n i n w h i c h a s t a b l e p e r i o d - 2t w i n o r b i t i s a l s o b o r n [ F i g . 8 ( b ) ] . T h u s , a c h a n g e i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s d e s c r i b i n g t h er e s ti tu t io n c u r v e w o u l d b e a l l t h a t w o u l d b e n e e d e d t o o b t a in t h e c o e x i s te n c e o ft w o 2 : 2 r h y t h m s . W h i l e a p r e m a t u r e b e a t o r a p a u s e i n s t i m u l a t i o n c a n c o n v e r t o n e2 : 2 r h y t h m i n to a n o t h e r 2 : 2 r h y t h m in t h e i s c h a e m i c v e n t r i c le ( H a s h i m o t o e t a l . ,1 9 8 4 a n d r e f e r e n c e s t h e r e i n ) , t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b i s t a b i l i t y m i g h tb e d u e t o s p a t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s is n o t c l e a r a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . T h i s e x i s t e n c e o f t w os t a b le p e r i o d i c o r b i ts o n t h e s a m e b r a n c h o f th e m a p is p o s s i b l e s in c e i ts S c h w a r z i a nd e r i v a t i v e c a n b e p o s i t i v e . I n s u c h m a p s , i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o h a v e t h e c o e x i s t e n c eo f a 1 : 1 a n d a 2 : 2 r h y t h m o r o f a 1 : 1 r h y t h m a n d c h a o s ( M a y e r - K r e s s & H a k e n ,1 9 82 ). W h i l e w e k n o w o f n o e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r th e s e t w o b i s t a b i li t ie s i n

    4.....,.- 2:2(o ) ( b ) ~ . . . ~o . . . . o

    ,' " " " ' u n s t a b l e _ :2 ."" ~ u n s t a b l e 2 : 2~ , , , , . .. . ~ ., , .. . _ . 2: 2 ~ . ~ ~ . . . . . . . . . 2 :2

    u n t a l_e l l _ _ ~ . ~ h i u ns t ab l, _ l- l_ _ ~ . ~

    f , ' ~ ~ " " 2:2 / , , , " ~ " ' - 2:2' , . ~ / - u n s t a b l e 2 : 2 , , , / - u n s t a b l e 2 : 2

    " . . _ _ - . . . . . .

    t ~ , t ,

    hi

    FIG. 8. Schematic bifurcation diagrams. (a), Bifurcation diagram illustrating how period-2 orbit ofFig. 4(c ) (corresponding to a 2:2 rhyth m ) is destroyed. (b), A lternative bifurcation diagram show inghow it is possible to obtain coexistence o f two stable period-2 orbits (correspond ing to two different 2 : 2rhythm s). Solid lines indicate stable orbits, dashed lines unstable orbits. Saddle-nod e bifurcations occurat turning points in (a) and (b). See text for further description.

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    CHAOS IN A MODEL OF VENTRICULAR MUSCLE 423s p a c e - c l a m p e d s y s t e m s , th e r e is e v i d e n c e f o r t h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f 1 : 1 a n d 2 : 2 r h y t h m si n d i s t r i b u t e d s y s t e m s ( M a h l e r & R o g e l , 1 9 79 ) a n d i t is w e l l k n o w n t h a t n o r m a ls i n u s r h y t h m a n d v e n t r i c u l a r f i b r i l l a t i o n c a n c o e x i s t , w i t h o n e b e i n g c o n v e r t e d i n t ot h e o t h e r w i t h a f i b r i l l a t i n g o r d e f i b r i l l a t i n g s h o c k .

    I n t h e c a b l e s i m u l a t i o n s , w e d i d n o t f i n d t h e { 2 : 1 ~ , 1 : 1 } b i s t a b i l i t y p r e d i c t e d t oe x i st f r o m t h e i te r a t io n s o f t h e m a p . T h i s c o u l d b e b e c a u s e t h e b i s t a b il i t y d o e s n o te x i s t i n th e c a b l e e q u a t i o n , o r b e c a u s e w e o n l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t w o s e ts o f in i ti a lc o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h e b i s t a b i l it y i s p r e d i c t e d t o e x i s t o v e r a r a n g e o f L t h a t i s o n l y af e w m s e c w i d e . O n e p r a c t i c a l p o i n t i n s i m u l a t i o n w o r k i s t h a t i t is v e r y d i ff ic u lt ,a n d e x p e n s i v e , t o c a r r y o u t a s y s t e m a t i c s e a r c h f o r b i s t a b il i ty , s i n c e t h is i n v o l v e s ,a t e a c h ts , m a k i n g m a n y s i m u l a t io n r u n s f r o m a l ar g e n u m b e r o f in i t ia l c o n d i t io n s .T h u s w e c a n n o t r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e e x i s t b is t a b il i ti e s i n th e c a b l ee q u a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . I n t h is r e s p e c t, c o n s i d e r a t io no f t h e m a p c a n b e m o s t u s e f u l i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e b i s t a b il i ty a n d inn a r r o w i n g d o w n t h e r a n g e o f in i ti a l c o n d i t i o n s t o b e s e a r c h e d . I n f a c t, i t w a s t h ef i n d i n g o f t h e { 2 :2 * -- *2 : 1} a n d { 2 : 2 + - , 1 : 1 } b i s t a b il i ti e s o n t h e m a p t h a t p r o m p t e do u r s e a r c h f o r t h e m in t h e s im u l a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , as in th e c a s e o f t h e s i m u l a t i o n s ,t h e s e a r c h f o r b i s ta b i l i t y o n t h e m a p s is al so t i m e - c o n s u m i n g , a n d w e c a n n o tg u a r a n t e e t h a t b i s t a b i l i t i e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d a r e n o t s u p p o r t e db y t h e m a p , e .g . i n F i g. 7, t h e r e i s b i s t a b i li t y b e t w e e n t h e p e r i o d - 1 o r b i t c o r r e s p o n d i n gt o a 3 : 1 r h y t h m a n d a c h a o t i c r h y t h m . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f t r a n s i e n t c h a o s a l s o c r e a t e sc o m p u t a t i o n a l l i m i t a t io n s : a n o r b i t t h a t a p p e a r s c h a o t i c i n a f in i t e- t im e c o m p u t a t i o nm i g h t a c t u a l l y b e t r a n s ie n t c h a o s ( G r e b o g i e t a l . , 1984) .

    I n m a n y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f i n d i n g s l is t e d a b o v e , a n e f f e ct iv e l y i s o p o t e n t i a lp r e p a r a t i o n is u s e d - - i s o l a t e d s in g l e v e n t r i c u l a r c el ls o r a g g re g a t e s o f s m a l l e m b r y -o n i c c el ls . T h u s , a s y s t e m a t i c e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o n t h e p r o p a g a t e d v e n t r ic u l a ra c t i o n p o t e n t i a l is n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e r h y t h m s p r e d i c t e dt o e x i s t i n t h e c a b l e s i m u l a t i o n s d o i n f a c t o c c u r .

    5.2. REDUCTION TO A ONE-DIMENSIO NAL DESCRIPTION

    W h i le p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g a n d c h a o ti c b e h a v i o u r h a v e p r e v i o u s ly b e en d e m o n s t r a te di n n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n s o f p a r t i a l d if f e re n t i al e q u a t i o n s ( e.g . M o o r e e t a l . , 1983) ,t h is i s t h e f i rs t e x a m p l e t h a t w e k n o w o f in w h i c h a d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n t o a o n e -d i m e n s i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l i n c a p t u r i n g t h e d y n a m i c s , s i n c e p r e -v i o u s r e d u c t i o n s h a v e i n v o l v e d t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p o f re d u c t i o n t o a s y s t e m o fo r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s ( e . g . M o o r e e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; K a h l e r t & R 6 s s l e r , 1 9 8 4 ) .H o w e v e r , s i n c e in c e r t a in i n s ta n c e s t h e a s y m p t o t i c b e h a v i o u r o f p a r t i a l d i ff e re n t i a le q u a t i o n s c a n b e r e d u c e d t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a s e t o f o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t ia l e q u a t i o n s ,t h e i r " i n e r t i a l f o r m " ( F o i a s e t a l . , 1 9 88 ; T e m a m , 1 9 8 8) , a n d s i n c e it is w e l l - k n o w nt h a t o r d i n a r y d i f f er e n ti a l e q u a t i o n s o f t e n h a v e d y n a m i c s t h a t is w e l l a p p r o x i m a t e db y a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e s c r i p t io n , i t is p e r h a p s n o t s u r p r is i n g t h a t a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a ld e s c r i p t i o n w o r k s s o w e l l i n t h i s i n s t a n c e . H o w e v e r , i n o n e s t u d y o n a d e l a y -d i f fe r e n t ia l e q u a t i o n , w h i c h l ik e th e c a b l e e q u a t i o n is o f i n fi n it e d i m e n s i o n , i t w a sf o u n d t h a t a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l m a p d e r i v e d in t h e s in g u l a r p e r t u r b a t i o n l im i t d i d

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    4 2 4 T. J . LEWIS AND M. R. GUEVARAn o t h a v e t h e s a m e b i f u r c a t i o n s t r u c t u r e a s t h e d e l a y - d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n i t se l f( M a l l e t - P a r e t & N u s s b a u m , 1 98 6) .

    T h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e s c r i p t io n w o r k s h e r e m a i n l y b e c a u s e t h e e x i st e n c e o f ab l o c k e d s t i m u l u s d o e s n o t s i g n i f ic a n t l y a f f e c t t h e a c t i v i t y i n th e d i s t a l p a r t o f t h ec a b l e , s i n c e t h e s u b t h r e s h o l d r e s p o n s e d e c a y s e l e c t r o n i c a l l y r a p i d l y w i t h d i s t a n c e[ F i g . l ( c ) , ( d ) a n d ( e ) ]. T h i s is n o t t h e c a s e i f o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e n o n - p r o p a g a t e dB e e l e r - R e u t e r a c t io n p o t e n t i a l .

    A l t h o u g h t h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e s c r i p ti o n w o r k s v e r y w e ll in a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h ev a r i o u s r h y t h m s o b s e r v e d ( F ig . 6 ), F ig . 7 s h o w s t h a t t h e r e i s s ti ll r o o m f o r im p r o v e -m e n t , s i n c e t h e r e ar e s y s t e m a t ic d e v i a t io n s o f t h e d a t a p o i n t s ( o b t a i n e d d u r i n gp e r i o d i c st i m u l a t io n ) f r o m t h e m a p ( o b t a i n e d f r o m p r e m a t u r e s t im u l a t i o n ) . O u ra n a l y s is o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s s u g g e s t s t w o m a i n w a y s i n w h i c h t h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a ld e s c r i p t i o n a p p l i e d a b o v e c a n b e i m p r o v e d a n d e x t e n d e d i n f u t u r e w o r k . F i r s t ,F i g. 7 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t A P Di +~ d e p e n d s n o t o n l y o n tr,. ( a n d t h u s i n d i r e c t l y o nA P D i - - F i g . 4 ) , b u t a l s o d i r e c t l y o n A P D i . T h u s A P D ~ + t w i l l h a v e t o b e m a d e af u n c t i o n o f b o t h tr, . a n d A P D i . T h i s e x t e n s io n o f th e t h e o r y c o u l d b e c a r r ie d o u tb y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e s t i t u t i o n c u r v e a t s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n t b a s i c c y c l e l en g t h s a s h a sb e e n d o n e i n e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k ( B o y e t t & J e w e l l , 1 97 8; E l h a r r a r & S u r a w i c z , 1 9 8 3 ),a n d i n t er p o l a ti n g . S e c o n d , o n e w il l h a v e t o i n c l u d e t h e e f f e ct o f c o n d u c t i o n t i m eo n r e c o v e r y t i m e i n t h e d i s t a l s e g m e n t s o f t h e c a b l e , s i n c e F i g . 7 s h o w s t h a t t h i s i sa n a p p r e c i a b l e e f fe c t a t v e r y s h o r t r e c o v e r y ti m e s. T h i s c o u l d b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b yd e t e r m i n i n g a r e s t it u t io n c u r v e f o r c o n d u c t i o n v e l o c it y , a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h is i n t ot h e f i n i te - d i f f e re n c e e q u a t i o n i n a m a n n e r s i m i l a r to t h a t r e c e n t l y u ti l iz e d i n t h ea n a l y s is o f e x p e r i m e n t s o n P u r k i n j e f i b re ( C h i a l v o et al . , 1 9 9 0 ) . I n c o r p o r a t i o n o fb o t h o f t h e a b o v e e f fe c ts s h o u l d p r o d u c e m u c h b e t t e r a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n s i m u l a ti o n sa n d i t e r a ti o n s , b u t a t t h e c o s t o f lo s i n g t h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l n a t u r e o f t h e t h e o r y .

    5.3 . ROUTE TO CHAOS

    T h e r o u t e t o c h a o t i c d y n a m i c s i n th e m a p a s t~ is d e c r e a s e d is n o t t h e c o m m o n l yd e s c r i b e d o n e i n v o l v in g a n i nf in i te c a s c a d e o f p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g b i f u r c a t io n s ( M a y ,1 9 76 ): o n l y t w o s u c h b i f u r c a t i o n s o c c u r ( F i g s 4 a n d 5 ). T h i s p r e v i o u s l y u n d e s c r i b e dr o u t e o c c u r s b e c a u s e o f th e p r e s e n c e o f a d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e m a p , w h i c h i s i n t u r na d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a t rue d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e r e s p o n s et o p r e m a t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n [ F i g . 2 ( b ) ] a r i s in g f r o m t h e a l l - o r - n o n e n a t u r e o f p r o p a g a -t i o n i n a c a b l e ( M i l l e r & R i n z e l , 1 9 8 1) . T h e o n l y e q u i l i b r i u m p o i n t p r e s e n t i n t h ep h a s e s p a c e o f t h e B e e l e r - R e u t e r s y s te m o f o r d i n a r y d i f f e re n t ia l e q u a t i o n s i s n o t as a d d l e p o i n t . T h u s , in th e s p a c e - c l a m p e d o r n o n - p r o p a g a t e d a c t io n p o t e n t i a l m o d e l ,o n e w o u l d n o t o b t a i n s u c h a d i s c o n t i n u o u s m a p , s i n c e t h e r e sp o n s e o f t h e m e m b r a n ei s t h e n n o t a l l - o r - n o n e , d u e t o th e a b s e n c e o f a n y s a d d l e p o i n t s ( C l a y et al . , 1984) .I n th a t i n s t a n c e , o n e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t a d i r e c t t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a 4 : 2 r h y t h m t oc h a o s ; r a t h e r , a p e r i o d - 4 o r b it c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a n 8 : 4 r h y t h m m i g h t t h e n b ee x p e c t e d t o a r i se o u t o f a p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g o f t h e p e r i o d - 2 o r b i t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t oa 4 : 2 r h y t h m . I n d e e d , t h e r e i s s o m e r e c e n t e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e tr a n s it i o n

  • 8/3/2019 Timothy J. Lewis and Michael R. Guevara- Chaotic Dynamics in an Ionic Model of the Propagated Cardiac Action Pot

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    C H A O S I N A M O D E L O F V E N T R I C U L A R M U S C L E 42 5{ 4 : 2 ~ 8 : 4 } i n p e r i o d i c a l l y s t i m u l a t e d v e n t r i c u l a r c e ll s ( H e s c h e l e r & S p e i c h e r , 1 9 8 9 ),a n d p e r i o d - 8 r h y t h m s a r e s e e n i n a s i m p l e t w o - v a r i a b l e e x c i t a t i o n - r e f r a c t o r i n e s sm o d e l o f p e r io d i c a l l y f o r c e d s p a c e - c l a m p e d e x c i ta b l e t is s ue ( F e i n g o l d e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ) .W e h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i nd e v i d e n c e o f a n y s u ch h i g h e r - o r d e r p e r i o d - d o u b l e do r b i t s i n t h e s i m u l a t i o n s o f F i g . 1 . T o c h e c k f o r th e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e o r b i t s w o u l di n v o l v e c h a n g i n g ts i n v e r y s m a l l f r a c t i o n s o f a m i l l i s e c o n d , s i n c e t h e p e r i o d - 4 o r b i ti s f o u n d a t ts = 1 51 m s e c , a n d n o t a t ts = 1 5 0 o r 1 5 2 m s e c . I n t h a t c a s e , o n e w o u l da l so p r o b a b l y h a v e t o i m p r o v e t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e n u m e r i c a l i n t e g ra t i o n s c he m e .I n a n e a r l i e r s t u d y i n v o l v i n g s in u s o i d a l c u r r e n t s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e - c l a m p e dB e e l e r - R e u t e r m e m b r a n e , o n l y p e r i o d - l , 2 a n d 4 r h y t h m s w e r e d e s c r i b e d ; a p e r io d - 8r h y t h m w a s n o t s e e n b e f o r e t h e o n s e t o f c h a o t ic d y n a m i c s ( J e n s e n e t a l . , 1984) . As i m i l a r f i n d i n g o c c u r s i n t h e r e s p o n s e t o a p u l s a t i l e i n p u t ( V i n e t e t a l . , 1 9 9 0 ) . O n ew o u l d n o t e x p e c t su c h h i g h e r - o r d e r p e r i o d - d o u b l e d r h y t h m s t o e xi st i n t h e c ab l es i m u l a t i o n s p r o v i d e d t h a t p r o p a g a t i o n i n a c a b l e o f f in i te le n g t h is i n d e e d a l l - o r - n o n ed u r i n g p e r i o d i c s t i m u l a t i o n , s i n c e in t h a t c a s e t h e r e w o u l d s ti ll b e a t r u e d i s c o n t i n u i t yp r e s e n t i n t h e r e s p o n s e ( a s t h e r e t u r n m a p o f F ig . 7 m i g h t s u g g e s t) . H o w e v e r , w ea r e n o t a w a r e o f a n y s u c h t h e o r e t i c a l re s u lt . F i n a l l y , o n e s h o u l d a l s o k e e p in m i n dt h a t t h e f u l l n a t u r e o f t h e b i f u r c a t i o n s e q u e n c e i s o f t e n n o t r e v e a l e d in a o n e -p a r a m e t e r b i f u r c a t i o n a n a l y s i s , a n d t h a t a n i n c o m p l e t e p e r i o d - d o u b l i n g c a s c a d ec a n o c c u r in o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l m a p s w i t h n o n - n e a t i v e S c h w a r z i a n d e r i v a ti v e ( M a y e r -K r e s s & H a k e n , 1 98 2) a n d i n m a p s o f d im e n s i o n h i g h e r th a n o n e ( A r n e o d o e t a l . ,1 9 8 3 ) .A l l o f t h e a b o v e a s s u m e s t h a t v e n t r i c u l a r t is s u e is a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d b ym o d e l s o f t h e H o d g k i n - H u x l e y t y p e , w h i c h a r e d e t e r m i n is t ic a n d c o n t i n u o u s .H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e s t o c h a s t i c e f fe c ts p r e s e n t i n c a r d i a c t i s s u e , si n c e t h e e l e c t r ic a la c ti v it y is g e n e r a t e d b y a p o p u l a t i o n o f c h a n n e l s i n t h e m e m b r a n e , w h i c h a r ep r e s e n t l y t h o u g h t to o p e n a n d c l o s e in a r a n d o m f a s h i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is r e c e n te x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r a t ru e a l l -o r - n o n e t h r e s h o l d f o r e x c i ta t io n o f a p r e m a t u r e l ye l i ci t e d a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n w e l l - p o l a r i z e d , e ff e c t iv e l y s p a c e - c l a m p e d v e n t r i c u l a ra g g r e g a t e s ( G u e v a r a e t a l . , 1 9 8 6: f ig . 4 ) , in t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y s a d d l e p o i n t s i n aH o d k i n - H u x l e y - t y p e m o d e l o f t h e ag g r eg a te ( C l a y e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ) . T h u s , a s t u d y o np r o p a g a t i o n i n a n i n h e r e n t l y s t o c h a s t i c m o d e l i s i n d i c a t e d .

    T h e s eq u e n c e o f t r an s i t io n s { l : l ~ 2 : 2 ~ 2 : l ~ 4 : 2 - - ) c h a o s ~ 3 : l - ~ 6 : 2c h a o s ~ . . . } d e s c r i b e d a b o v e in t h e p r o p a g a t e d v e n t r i c u l a r a c t io n p o t e n t ia l m i g h tn o t b e u n i v e r s a l , s i n c e i t a p p e a r s t h a t , i n a p i e c e w i s e l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h ec l as s o f m a p s s t u d i e d h e r e , t h e f ir st t r a n s i t io n t o c h a o s c a n o c c u r a f t e r t h e 3 : 1r h y t h m i s s e e n ( K a p l a n , 1 9 8 9 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , i t is a l s o p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n s{ 1 : 1 ~ W e n c k e b a c h ~ 3 : 2 ~ r e ve l :s e W e n c k e b a c h ~ 2 : 1 ~ . . . ) a n d { 1 : 1 ~ 2 : 1} in am o d e l o f t h e p r o p a g a t e d a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n P u r k i n j e f ib r e ( G u e v a r a , 1 9 88 ). W h i l e ,a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e t w o - b r a n c h e d m a p s s t u d ie d h e r e h a v e n e g a ti v e s l o p ee v e r y w h e r e a n d c a n p r o d u c e t h e {1 : 1 ~ 2 : 1} t r a n s i t i o n ( w i t h b i s t a b i l i ty ) , t h e t r a n s i -t i o n i n v o l v i n g W e n c k e b a c h r h y t h m s i n v o l v e s a 2 - b r a n c h e d m a p i n w h i c h b o t hb r a n c h e s h a v e p o s i t iv e s l o p e e v e r y w h e r e (S h r i e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 7 ; G u e v a