DunkirkOneRescue.NineDays.340,000LivesSaved.

CLIMBINGTOSAFETYWhilemostsurvivorswererescuedfromanarrowjettyknownastheEastMole,some100,000soldierswereevacuateddirectlyfromthewatersneartheDunkirkshore.

ContentsIntroductionAgainstAllOdds

Chapter1MisreadingHitlerWhiletheAlliessoughttoavoidanotherbloodyworldwar,theNazissenttroopsintoAustria.Chapter2OutmaneuveredandOutflankedAnattackbytheGermansthroughtheArdennesForestcaughttheFrenchandBritishbysurprise.

Chapter3TrappedAgainsttheSeaHitler’stroopsadvancedrapidly,forcingtheAlliesintoadifficultretreat.Chapter4TheMiracleofDunkirkWhiletheLuftwaffebombardedthebeaches,morethan300,000AlliedtroopsescapedacrosstheEnglishChannel.

Chapter5TheFightthatFollowedWithFrancedefeatedandsome80,000AlliedtroopsinNazicaptivity,theBritishbattledonalone.

ONTHEIRWAYBritishtroopswavedtofamilyandfriendsastheyheadedofftoFranceinMay1940.

MisreadingHitlerAstheNazisseizedAustriaandpreparedaggressivelyfor

war,BritainandFrancesoughttoavoidconflict

POTENTSYMBOLISMTheNazisheldarallynearBerlin’sBrandenburgGateinJanuary1933.

CarryingOutanAryanVisionAfterbeingelectedGermanchancellor,AdolfHitlermadegoodonhisvowtopromotewhathecalledthe“master

race”

ONEWILLInaspeechinApril1937,Hitlerdeclaredthatonlyonepoliticalpartywasneededinanation"unitedwithonewill."

AdolfHitler’sriseasGermany’sdictatorwasswiftandbold.InJanuary1933,havingassumedtheleadershipoftheNationalistSocialist(Nazi)Party,hewaselectedchancellorofamultipartyGermangovernment.Justamonthlater,heusedafireintheGermanparliamentbuilding,orReichstag,tojustifythesuspensionofcivilliberties.InMarch,hestrong-armedthegovernmentintopassingtheEnablingAct,whichtransferredstatepowerstotheNazis,ineffectcreatingatotalitarianregime.Withinfourmonths,Hitlerwoulddeclaretradeunionsandanyremainingpoliticalpartiesillegal,andinJune1934,heorderedthe“NightoftheLongKnives,”apurgeinwhichSSguardsmurderedhisrivalswithintheNaziParty.ByAugust,Hitler’striumphwascomplete.Havingabolishedthetitleofpresident,hedeclaredhimself“Führerand

complete.Havingabolishedthetitleofpresident,hedeclaredhimself“FührerandReichChancellor.”FromthebeginningHitlerpreachedavenomousbrandofethnicnationalisminwhich

the“superior”Aryan“masterrace”wasdestinedtoreplacetheinferiorpeoplesaroundit.Athome,thisideologytooktheformofvirulentanti-Semitism.In1935,HitlerannouncedtheNurembergLaws,whichlegislatedtheeliminationofJewishparticipationinmanysectorsofGermansociety.Overthecourseofthenextthreeyears,thediscriminationescalated.In1936,theMinistryofEducationbannedJewishteachersfrompublicschools.In1937,themayorofBerlinbannedJewishstudentsfromthepublicschools.InApril1938,Jewswererequiredtoreportallpropertyvaluedatmorethan5,000reichsmarks.InOctober,theDecreeontheConfiscationofJewishPropertymandatedthetransferofassetsfromJewstonon-JewishGermans.Finally,onthenightofNovember9–10,knownasKristallnacht—ornightofbrokenglass—rampagingNazi-inspiredmobsdestroyed7,500Jewishshops,burned1,000synagoguesandkilledanestimated100JewsthroughoutGermany,AustriaandtheSudetenland,aportionofwesternCzechoslovakia.Intheaftermath,some30,000Jewswerearrestedandsenttoconcentrationcamps,markingwhatmanyhistoriansviewasthebeginningoftheHolocaust,directedagainstJewsandothersHitlerconsidered“undesirable.”Hitler’shatefulideologydefinedhisforeignpolicy,too.Atthesametimethathewas

persecutingtheJews,hewaspursuingLebensraum,or“livingspace,”aninnocuous-soundingdoctrinethatcalledforexpandingGermany’sborderssothemasterracecouldgrowandflourish.In1936,hemovedNaziforcesintotheRhineland,asectionofwesternGermany,inviolationoftheTreatyofVersaillesthathadendedWorldWarI.InMarch1938,afterengineeringaNaziseizureofpowerinneighboringAustria,HitlerorderedhisarmyacrosstheborderintoViennaanddeclaredthejoiningofthetwonations.InOctober,underanagreementnegotiatedwithGreatBritain,FranceandItaly,Hitler’sforcesoccupiedtheSudetenland.WhiletheFührerpreparedGermanyforwar,GreatBritainandFrancelookedfor

waystoavoidconflict.BothnationshadsufferedgrievouslyinWorldWarI,withFrancelosingsome1.4millionandtheUnitedKingdomanditscoloniessacrificingabout700,000.Frenchcommander-in-chiefMauriceGamelinsupportedlimitedrearmamentandfocusedonreinforcingtheMaginotLine,thefortificationsalongFrance’seasternborderwithGermanydesignedtomakeaGermaninvasiondifficultandtime-consuming.Fortheirpart,theBritishhopedthatprovidingtheFrenchwithairandnavalpower

wouldbeenoughtodefeatGermanyshouldwarbecomeunavoidable.Thegovernmentstoppedinvestinginthecountry’smechanizedweaponsprogramandmobilizedjustafractionofthetroopswhohadfoughtinWorldWarI.Theyonly

mobilizedjustafractionofthetroopswhohadfoughtinWorldWarI.Theyonlyagreedtoformarelativelysmall“expeditionaryforce”inFebruary1939.TheBritishalsohopedthatHitlercouldbereasonedwith.In1935,inafirstattempt

atappeasement,theyagreedtoallowtheGermanleadertorebuildhisnavyifhewouldlimititssizetojust35percentoftheBritishfleet.Andin1938,PrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlainmadehisfamousbargaininMunich,inwhichheallowedHitlertotakepossessionoftheSudetenlandinexchangeforapromisethatGermanaggressionwouldstop.Hitler,however,wasnottobeappeased.InMarch1939,justsixmonthsafterMunich,

histroopstookcontroloftherestofCzechoslovakia.OnSeptember1,1939,heinvadedPolandtoo,forcingBritainandFrancetodeclarewar.Bothnationsdidsoreluctantly,fearingthatHitler’smightyairforce,theLuftwaffe,wouldmakeshortworkoftheirsoldiersontheground.AsFranceputitstrustinthestrengthoftheMaginotLine,fewentertainedtheidea

thatHitlerwouldinvadeFrancethroughtheheavilywoodedArdennesForesttothenorthoftheline,anareaonceconsideredcompletelyimpassible.

GERMANYÜBERALLESTheBerlinsectionoftheHitleryoutharrivedatthe1935NurembergRallyontheirownspecialtrains.

NazifollowershadbegunsalutingHitlerwiththe"Heil"saluteinautumn1923;by1938,ithadbecomeubiquitous.

DuringKristallnachtin1938,GermanofficialsallowedrioterstodestroyJewishpropertybutinstructedpolicetoprotectthebusinessesofnon-Jews.

AFTERTHEFALLEthnicGermansintheSudetenlandcheeredtheGermantakeoverinOctober1938,buttherestofthenationwaslessenthusiasticwhenHitlermarchedintoPragueCastleinMarch1939.

NEVILLECHAMBERLAIN

AbandoningCzechoslovakia

THEAFTERMATHOnNovember9,1939,twoyearsaftertheMunichPact,Chamberlaindiedofcancer.

HITLER’SINTENTIONofcreatingaGreaterGermanybyexpandingeastwardmayseemobviousinretrospect.Butfrom1935to1938,asHitlerannexedAustriaandbeganeyeingCzechoslovakia,BritishprimeministerNevilleChamberlain,withconsiderablepublicsupport,continuedtoworkforanegotiatedsettlement.ChamberlainmadethreetripstoGermanyinSeptember1938toseekpeace.ThefirsttookplaceatHitler’sresidenceinBerchtesgadenonSeptember15andendedwithnoagreement.OnSeptember22,Chamberlainreturned,butagainthetwofailedtoreachapactbecauseHitlerkeptchangingpositions.AftersignalinghisopennesstoanagreementthatwouldlimitGermanexpansiontoCzechoslovakia,hebeganclaimingthatviolenceagainstethnicGermansinPolandandHungaryjustifiedNazioccupationofthosecountriesaswell.Finally,ChamberlainandrepresentativesfromFranceandItalymetwithHitlerinMunichonSeptember29.WhentheFühreragreedtolimitGermanoccupationtothesectionofwesternCzechoslovakiaknownastheSudetenland,Chamberlainbelievedhe’dwrestedaconcession.Theagreementwassignedbyallfournationsat1:30inthemorningonSeptember30.Chamberlainwaspleasedwithhiswork,describingthepactinaspeechtoawildlyenthusiasticLondonaudienceasguaranteeing“peacewithhonour.”Within10days,theSudetenlandwascompletelyunderNazicontrol.

FranceatRiskTheNazisplannedtocircumventthevastMaginotLine

andinvadeviaBelgium—butnotwheretheAlliesexpected

BRITISHBUILDUPAftertheGermansinvadedPoland,factoriesinEnglandrampedupproduction.

WhenHitlerinvadedPolandinSeptember1939,thePolishgovernmenthoped,invain,forassistancefromtheAllies.ButinsteadofattackingGermanyonitswesternborderanddivertingNaziresources,Francecontinuedtoadvocateadefensiveposture.Similarly,theSovietsofferednohelp—arguingthattheirhandsweretiedbyamonth-oldnonaggressionpactwiththeGermans—andonSeptember17eveninvadedPolandfromtheeast.FightingwithobsoleteweaponryandaircraftandoutnumberedbytheGermans,Polandwasdefeatedinaboutamonth.Hitlerwasrewardedyetagainforhisboldness.Despitetheirsuccess,theNazisfearedaFrenchattackinthisperiod.Hitlerandhis

generalsknewthatGermanycouldnotkeepupforlongwiththecombinedproduction

generalsknewthatGermanycouldnotkeepupforlongwiththecombinedproductionpowerofBritainandFrance,Hitlerwasanxioustostrikequickly,beforehisenemiesgrewstronger.Francehadtobenext.Theeight-monthperiodthatfollowed,betweenthefallofPolandinSeptember1939

andtheinvasionofFranceinMay1940,wasknownasthePhoneyWarbecausenothingseemedtohappen.TheAlliesbuiltuptheirmilitaryforcesandwaited,asdidtheGermangenerals,despitepressurefromHitlerasearlyasNovember1939foramoveintoFrance.Againandagain,badweatherpreventedanyattack,delaysthatsecretlypleasedtheGermanHighCommand.ThePolishcampaignhadexposedNaziweaknesses,includingpoorcoordinationbetweentheLuftwaffeandthetroopsonthegroundand,insomecases,alackofaggressivenessonthepartofGermanforces.Withtheadditionaltime,thegeneralswereablenotonlytoaddresstheissuesbutalso

toplanasurpriseincursionthatcircumventedtheMaginotLine,movedGermantroopssouthandultimatelyledtotheoccupationofFrance.

Some950,000Britishwomenworkedinmunitionsfactoriesduringthewar.PolishforcesinGdanskheldofftheGermansfornearlyaweekbeforesurrenderingthecityonSeptember7,1939.

WARPREPARATIONSTheBritishputgreatfaithintheRoyalAirForceanditsBlenheimbombers,whichwererushedintoproductionduringthePhoneyWar.

ADOLFHITLER

HisStrategy

ETHNICPURITYBythetimeHitlergavehiswelcomingaddressatthe1935NurembergRally,hispowerwasunchallenged.

THEEARLYYEARSofAdolfHitler’slifewereneitherhappynorsuccessful.Hewasoneoffivechildren,bornonApril20,1889,inAustria.Hisfather,Alois,wastroubledandemotionallydistant,andheridiculedhisson'sinterestinart.AloisdiedwhenHitlerwas13,andafterhismother,Maria,diedin1907,HitlermovedtoVienna,wherehespentthenextsixyearsekingoutalivingasawatercolorpainterandoccasionallaborer.HewastwicedeniedadmissiontotheAcademyofFineArtsandwasfrequentlyhomelessduringthisperiod.Evenasachild,HitlerhadconsideredAustria-Hungaryanillegitimatestateand

himselfaGerman,soin1913,discouragedbyhislackofsuccessasanartist,hemovedtoMunich.Thenextyear,hevolunteeredfordutyintheGermanarmyinWorldWarI,wherehemostlyservedasacourier.TheyoungsoldierwaspresentatseveralsignificantbattlesandwaswoundedattheSomme,where164,000otherGermansoldierslosttheirlives.EmbitteredbytheGermansurrenderin1918andbythepunitivetermstheTreatyofVersaillesimposedonGermany,Hitlerwasconvincedthatthecivilianleadershiphadbetrayedthemilitary.Heemergedfromthewarachangedman.Nolongerinterestedinart,Hitlerjoined

theGermanWorkersPartyin1919,soonestablishinghimselfasapowerfulorator,abletowhiphisaudiencesintoafrenzyabouttheunjusttreatmentofGermanyafterthewarandtheincreasingthreattotheGermanidentityfromJewsandotherpeoplehedeemednottrulyGerman.WhenthepartychangeditsnametotheNationalSocialist(NationalsozialistischeorNazi)Party,Hitlerhimselfdesignedthepartybannerwithaswastikaplacedinawhitecircleonaredbackground.In1921,hewaselectedchairmanofthepartyandbegandrawinglargecrowdsforhisnationalist,anti-Semiticspeeches,frequentlydeliveredinbeerhalls.Heledapoorlyplannedcoup—knownastheBeerHallPutsch—thatfailedin1923andlandedhiminjailforninemonths.TherehewroteMeinKampf(MyStruggle),apolemicthatcombinedracism,anti-SemitismandnationalismintoacallforarevitalizedandethnicallypureGermany.Finally,withtheGermaneconomyinfree-fallinthe1930s,conditionswererightforHitler’srisetoabsolutepower.

AmericaUnmovedInspiteofeffortsbyPresidentRoosevelttosupportthe

Alliedcause,U.S.citizensremainedwaryofwar

QUIETSUPPORTFDRofficiallydeclaredtheU.S.asneutralinaradioaddress,deliveredjustdaysafterBritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermany.

PresidentFranklinRooseveltwasalwaysclearaboutthedangerposedbyAdolfHitler.RemainingonthesidelineswhileU.S.alliesbattledfascismwasnotanoption.HealsoknewthathefacedanuphillbattlepersuadingtheAmericanpeopleofhisposition.AslateasJune1940,pollsshowedpublicsentimentopposedU.S.involvementinthewarbyamarginoftwotoone,evenifinactionmeantdefeatforGreatBritain.MuchofthiswasduetotheperceptionthatWorldWarI,whichresultedin117,000Americandead,wasunnecessaryandperhapsevenpointless.UnlikeBritain’sNevilleChamberlain,Rooseveltneverbelievedthatterritorial

concessionswouldhaltHitler’sadvance.Earlyon,FDRwasclearthattheAxispowers—Germany,JapanandItaly—soughtworlddomination.DespitelegislationintendedtopreventU.S.involvement,FDRsearchedbehindthescenesforwaystosupportthe

AlliedcauseandtoprepareAmericaforwar.InSeptember1939,ridingashiftinAmericansentimentaftertheGermaninvasionofPoland,RooseveltpersuadedCongresstopassthePittmanAct,expandingthepolicyknownas“cashandcarry.”TheU.S.couldsellarmstoGreatBritainandFranceaslongasthebuyerpaidincashandtransportedthearmsthemselves.Ayearlater,afterthefallofFrance,FDRcircumventedtheprovisionsoftheactbynegotiatinga“lend-lease”agreementwithGreatBritain.ThispactallowedtheU.S.to“lend”50destroyerstoBritaininexchangefortheuseofeightBritishmilitarybasesinNewfoundland,BermudaandtheCaribbean.Meanwhile,tohelphiscause,FDRstackedhiscabinetwithinterventionistssuchas

HenryStimsonandFrankKnox,whotookovertheWarandNavydepartments,respectively.Hegraduallyincreasedthemilitarybudget,from$1.7billionin1938to$1.9billionin1939,$2.2billionin1940and$7.24billionin1941—stilljustafractionofthe$93.7billionspentondefensein1945.Hestrong-armedthenation’sindustrialistsintopreparingtoshifttheirproductionfacilitiestotheneedsofawartimeeconomy.Hisrhetoric,alwayshighlycriticalofFascism,tookonanevenharderedge.WhilepublicsupportforofferingaidtotheAlliesincreased,mostAmericansstillopposeddirectU.S.involvement.OnlytheshockofPearlHarboronDecember7,1941,wouldalterthatview.

Privately,thepresidentbelievedhisnationwouldrallytohelp,andhevisitedfacilitiesliketheBostonNavyYardtoshowhissupportforamilitarybuildup.

AERIALASSISTIn1939,FranceorderedthefirstDouglasDB-7bombers.TheRoyalAirForce,whichendeduptakingdeliveryoftheplanesinNovember1940,nicknamedthem“Bostons”inhonoroftheirprovenance.

JOSEPHKENNEDYANDCHARLESLINDBERGH

DemocracyinBritainis"Finished"

LindberghtoldaradioaudienceinSeptember1939that“ifweenterfightingfordemocracyabroad,wemayenduplosingitathome.”

THEREWEREmanyisolationistvoicesinAmericaduringthe1930s,butnonewerelouderormorewidelynotedthanthoseofJosephKennedyandCharlesLindbergh.InthecaseofKennedy,hisviewswerelittleknownuntilhebecameU.S.ambassadortoGreatBritainin1938.HeopenlysupportedBritishPrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlain’spolicyofappeasementandexpressedhisopinionthatAmericashouldfindawaytodobusinesswithHitler.InalettertoLindberghafterKristallnacht—theNazipogromagainstGermanandAustrianJewsinNovember1938—KennedyexpressednooutrageregardingtheGermanatrocities.Hisprimaryobjection,hewrote,wasthattheviolencegeneratednegativepublicityfortheNaziregime.ThroughouthistwoyearsinLondon,KennedysoughtaprivatemeetingwithHitler,withoutU.S.StateDepartmentapproval,inhopesoffostering“abetterunderstandingbetweentheUnitedStatesandGermany”andkeepingAmericaoutofthewar.Finally,afterthefallofFrancein1940,KennedytoldjournaliststhatBritainwaslikelytobedefeatedbyGermanyandthatthefightagainstHitlerhadnothingtodowithdemocracybutwasbeingwagedforself-preservation.Americashouldstayoutofthefight,hewarned,andbepreparedforthelikelyoutcome.Lindbergh,whobecameanationalheroafterhissoloflightacrosstheAtlanticOcean

Lindbergh,whobecameanationalheroafterhissoloflightacrosstheAtlanticOceanin1927,wasurgedbytheU.S.militarytomakeseveraltripstoGermanybetween1936and1938toinspectNaziaviationfacilities.HecamebackpraisingthenewGermanplanes—theJunkersandMesserschmitts,inparticular—assuperiortoanythingintheAlliedarsenals.(HistoriansbelieveLuftwaffecommanderHermanGöringmisledLindberghintobelievingtheplanesweremoreefficientthantheywere.)In1939,afterHitleroccupiedCzechoslovakia,LindberghwrotealettertotheBritishgovernmentexpressinghisbeliefthatanymilitaryactionagainstGermanywasdestinedtofail.HeurgedtheAlliestobuilduptheirmilitarycapacitiesinhopesofpersuadingHitlertoturnhisattentioneastwardagainst“Asiaticcommunism.”Inlate1940,hebecametheprimaryspokesmanfortheantiwarAmericaFirstCommitteeandtraveledthecountryarguingagainstintervention.ThisworkhelpedcontributetothebeliefthatLindberghwasanti-Semitic,especiallyaftera1941speechinwhichhepresentedthethreegroupsinfavorofU.S.involvementastheBritish,theFDRadministrationand“theJews.”Inspiteofanationaloutcryabouttheremarks,Lindberghrefusedtoretractthemandcontinuedtomakefuzzy-headedcommentsthroughtheyearsabouttheimportanceofmaintainingthetiesof“Europeanblood”againsttheonslaughtofAsianandSlavicpeoples.HeremainedastaunchisolationistuntilPearlHarbor.

Kennedy’saddressendorsedFDRforpresidentin1940.Earlier,inalinefromaspeechcensoredbyRoosevelt,heposedthequestion:“Ishouldliketoaskyouallifyouknowofanydisputeorcontroversyexistingintheworldwhichisworththelifeofyourson?”

OutmaneuveredandOutflankedWithalightningstrikethroughtheheartofFrance,the

GermansforcedtheAlliestoretreat

MARCHINGFORWARDThe51stHighlandDivisionoftheBritishExpeditionaryForcecrossedadrawbridgeintoFortdeSainghinontheMaginotLineinNovember1939.

TheNazis’DaringPlanBesetbysnowandaplanecrash,theGermansredirected

troopsinvadingFrancethroughthedenseArdennesForest

Hitlerplannedtheinvasioninconsultationwithkeystrategists,suchasGeneralAlbertJodl,tohisleft.

Hitler’sgenerals,disappointedwiththeGermanperformanceinPoland,werereluctanttorushintoFranceinSeptember1939.Hitler,convincedthatthepassageoftimefavoredtheAllies,disagreed.InOctober,heorderedtheHighCommandtoformulateaninvasionplanforNovember12.Theproposaltheofficerspresented,knownasCaseYellow,calledforathree-prongeddeploymentofGermantroops.ThemainthrustoftheonslaughtwouldbethroughtheGemblouxGapinBelgium,acrossawide,flatplanethatofferedfavorableterrainforthebulkofHitler’stroops.AsmallerforcewoulddrivenorthtosecuretheDutchcoast,andathirdwouldstriketheMaginotLinefarthersouthtopreventtheFrenchfromdispatchingreinforcementstothemainpointoftheattackinBelgium.Hitlerpreferredalessconventionalstrategybutagreedto

proceed.SeveraldevelopmentsdoomedCaseYellowwhileinadvertentlybenefitingthe

Germans.First,therewastheweather,withsnow,coldtemperaturesandlimitedvisibilityforcingmultipledelaysinNovemberandDecember.Then,onJanuary10,1940,aplanecarryingaGermanofficerwiththeinvasionplansinhispossessioncrash-landedinBelgiumandtheofficerwascaptured.WithCaseYellowfatallycompromised,HitlerembracedtheapproachofErichvonManstein,thechiefofstafftoGeneralGerdvonRundstedt,whohadbeenpressingformonthsforasurpriseinvasionthroughtheArdennesForestnorthoftheMaginotLinebutsouthoftheGemblouxGap.VonManstein,alongwithPanzercommanderHeinzGuderian,wasconvincedthat,withproperplanning,thePanzerdivisionscouldmaketheirwaythroughtheforestinthreedays.Fromthere,theycouldcrosstheMeuseRiverandsurprisetheFrenchatSedan,openingthewayforalightningstrikethroughtheheartofFrance.FranzHalder,thechiefofthegeneralstaff,hadreservations,butaprivatemeetingbetweenvonMansteinandHitlercementedthedeal,andtheplan,knownasSichelschnitt(SickleCut),becametheofficialGermanstrategy.Sevenof10Panzerunits,undervonRundstedt’scommand,wouldbedevotedtothechargethroughtheArdennes.AsecondaryattacktothenorthandincludingtheGemblouxGapandtheDutchcoastwouldbelaunchedunderGeneralFedorvonBock.VonRundstedt,somewhatskepticalofthePanzers’maneuverability,brieflyconsideredshiftingtheattackthroughtheArdennestoaninfantry-ledassault,butGuderianandHalderconvincedhimotherwise.TheattackwassetforMay10.TheAllies’planfordefense,largelyformulatedbyFrenchcommander-in-chief

MauriceGamelin,assumedtheMaginotLinewasimpregnableandthatanymovethroughtheArdennesForestwouldbetootime-consuming,delayingtheGermansforseventoninedays.ThatmeantthemostlikelyrouteforaGermaninvasionwouldcomethroughBelgiumandalmostcertainlytheGemblouxGap.Withthatinmind,Gamelinapprovedtheso-calledDyle(orD)Plan,whichplacedthemostcapableFrenchforcesinsideBelgium,alongtheDyleRiverfromAntwerptoWavreandthroughtheGemblouxGaptoNamur.Gamelincompoundedthiserrorbyassigninganotherrespectedunit,themobile7thArmyunderGeneralHenriGiraud,tochargeuptheBelgiancoasttoHollandtokeeptheDutchintheconflictinsupportoftheAllies.

EARLYSUCCESSTheGermaninvasionbeganasscheduled,whenparatroopersair-droppedintoHolland.AsinglePanzerdivisionsoonchargedthroughthecountrytobackthemup.

Holland.AsinglePanzerdivisionsoonchargedthroughthecountrytobackthemup.TheLuftwaffeplanestransportingtheparatrooperssustainedheavylosses,buttheDutchsurrenderedinjustfourdays.ThevictoryprovidedtheNaziswiththeairbasestheyneededtoextendtheirdominancetotheskiesoverBelgiumandFrance.TherestoftheGermanplanworkedequallywell.TheGermansurgeintoBelgium

provokedtheFrench,supportedbytheBritishExpeditionaryForce(BEF),tomovetodesignatedpositionsalongtheDyleRiver.BotharmieswereconfidenttheyweremeetingtheprimarythrustoftheGermaneffort.Meanwhile,threePanzerdivisionsmadetheirwaythroughtheArdennes,coveringthe85milestoSedanandtheMeuseRiverontheborderofFranceinjust57hours,wellunderGuderian’sthree-dayprojection,andmuchfasterthantheFrenchestimateofatleastaweek.Alittlefarthernorth,twoPanzerdivisionsunderErwinRommelnavigatedevenmoredifficultArdennesterrainandarrivedatDinantontheMeuse,southeastofBrussels,ataboutthesametime.OnMay14,assistedbyaheavyaerialbombardment,themotorizedinfantryregimentsofGuderian’sPanzerdivisionsforcedthreecrossingsovertheMeuseRivernearSedan.TheBritishRoyalAirForce(RAF)andtheFrenchArméedel’AirattemptedtodestroythebridgesbeforetheGermanscouldcross,buttheiraircraft,withinsufficientsupport,weredecimated—including40oftheRAF’s71bombers—byanti-aircraftweaponry.Withtheirmoraleshattered,theFrenchtroopsfledtheirpositionsneartheMeuseindroves.

CHARGEINTOFRANCEOncethebridgesweresecured,GuderianandRommelwereunderorderstoconsolidatetheirpositionsandwaitfortheinfantrydivisions.Instead,thetwocommanderschargedaftertheretreatingFrenchtroops,executingwhatsomehistoriansconsiderthefirstexampleofblitzkrieg.ThedaringmaneuvershowcasedthePanzerdivisions’speed:soonGuderianwasinMarle,60milesfromSedan,andRommelwasacrosstheSambreRiver,some60milesfromwherehecrossedtheMeuseatDinant.Thatlefttheinfantryfarbehind,creatingagapthatmighthaveofferedtheAlliesanopportunitytosplittheGermanforces.ButtheFrenchtroopsinthenorth,unawareofthesituation,wereunabletocapitalizeonit.TheAlliedleadership,withlimitedoptions,respondedpoorly.Themotorized

divisionsfightingtheGermanadvancethroughtheGemblouxGapinBelgiumcouldhavequicklyretreatedsouthtodefendParis,butsuchanactionwouldhaveleft30nonmotorizedinfantrydivisionswithinadequatedefenseagainsttheLuftwaffeandaPanzeradvance.CommunicationbetweentheAlliedcommanders,notterriblysmooth

tobeginwith,brokedowncompletely.OnMay19,GeneralEdmundIronside,BritishchiefoftheImperialGeneralStaff,arrivedtoconferwithBEFcommanderGortathisheadquartersinLens,about50milessoutheastofDunkirk.GortinformedIronsidethathehadreceivednoordersfromFrenchGeneralGastonBillotte,thecommanderoftheFrenchNorthernArmyGroup,ineightdays.Disturbedbythisreport,IronsidevisitedBillotteandfoundhim“inastateofcompletedepression,”helaterwrote.“Noplan,nothoughtofaplan.Readytobeslaughtered.Defeatedattheheadwithoutcasualties...IlostmytemperandshookBillottebythebuttonofhistunic.Themaniscompletelybeaten.”WhiletheAlliesditheredonMay17and18,theGermansrepairedtheirtanks,rested

andpreparedfortheirnextstep.ThereseemedtobelittlethreatfromthedemoralizedFrenchtroopstothesouth.SevenoftheninedivisionsoftheBEFwereworkingtheirwaybacktotheScheldtRiver,leavingtheirrightflankexposedtothe3rdand4thPanzerdivisions.SoontheGermanshadisolatedtheBritish,theFrenchandtheremainingDutchandBelgianforces,inthenorth.Alast-gaspefforttobreakoutbyGeneralMaximeWeygand,appointedbyFrenchPrimeMinisterPaulReynaudtoreplaceGamelin,failed.TheGermanvisetightened.

EARLYDAYSGermantanksrumbledthroughthevillageofMalmedy,Belgium,ontheirwaytoFrance.

RAPIDDEPLOYMENTGermanPanzersadvancedthroughBelgiumandtotheMeuseRiverinFrancemorequicklythaneventheNazisanticipated.

COSTLYVICTORYAfterdecimatingtheDutchAirForce,theGermansdroppedparatroopersneartheairfieldsinDeKooy,AmsterdamandTheHague.IttookjustfourdaysfortheNazistodeclarevictory,buttheysuffered8,000casualtiesintheprocess.

PREPARINGTOFIGHTOutfittingtheBritishExpeditionaryForcetofighttheGermanstookalmostayear,fromthedeclarationofwarinSeptember1939untilMay1940,whenhostilitiesbeganinFrance.Evenso,manyofthetroopswereill-equippedandonlyminimallytrained.

RapidAdvanceBetweenMay10andMay16,Germanforces,particularlytheirfast-movingPanzers,chargedthroughBelgiumandtheArdennesForestand—asshownbythegreenshading—advancedsome50milesintoFrance.

FORESTTORIVERGermanyenteredthewarwithmorethanhalfamillionhorses,manyofthemforinfantryunits.BeforetheinvasionofFrance,NazisoldierscrossedariverintheArdennesForest.

OncetheadvancePanzerdivisionshadfoughttheirwayacrosstheMeuse,thefollowingslower-movinginfantryunitsfordedtheriverinanywaytheycould.

HEINZGUDERIAN

TheGeniusofthePanzerDivision

“FASTHEINZ”Guderianpioneeredthedevelopmentofreliableradiocommunicationsbetweentanks.

THEMANmostresponsibleforthedevelopmentofGermany’sPanzerdivisionwasGeneralHeinzGuderian.Outspokenandopinionated,GuderianhadservedintheinfantryduringWorldWarIandexperiencedfirsthandthestalematethatresultedfromlarge,immobilearmiesdugintofixedpositions.Betweenthewars,hestudiedmotorizedcombatandpressedforthedevelopmentoffast,maneuverablelighttanks.HealsoconceivedofthePanzerdivisions,therapid-strikeforcesequippedwithtanks,infantryandsupportservices.TeamedwiththeLuftwaffe,thePanzersexecutedGermany'sblitzkriegtacticsinPolandandFrance.ThedivisionsmaneuveredsoquicklythatGuderianearnedthenicknameDerschnelleHeinz—“FastHeinz,”sometimestranslatedas“HurryingHeinz.”Duringthelatercourseofthewar,hewastheGermangeneralmostwillingtodisagreewithHitler,breakingwithseveraloftheGermanleader’sstrategicdecisions,andhewasdismissedtwice.AftertheGermansurrender,GuderianwasheldasanAmericanprisonerofwarfornearlythreeyears,butnochargeswereeverbroughtandhewasreleasedinJune1948.HebecamearegularparticipantinmeetingsofBritishveterans,wherehesharedindiscussionsaboutthebattlesandstrategiesofWorldWarII.GuderiandiedonMay14,1954.

ERICHVONMANSTEIN

MastermindoftheArdennesStrategy

INANDOUTOFFAVORLaterinthewar,MansteinwasakeystrategistduringtheGermaninvasionoftheSovietUnionandthesiegesofSevastopolandLeningrad.

ERICHVONMANSTEIN,oneofHitler’smostbrilliantstrategists,seemeddestinedtoserveinthemilitary.ThetenthchildofaPrussianaristocrat,Mansteinwasadoptedatbirthbyhismother’schildlesssisterandherhusband.Bothhisbiologicalandadoptivefathersweremilitaryofficers,aswere16otherrelatives.MansteinservedwithdistinctiononboththeeasternandwesternfrontsinWorldWarIandwasanactiveparticipantintherearmamentofGermanyintheperiodbetweenthetwowars.WhentheNazisinvadedPolandinSeptember1939,MansteinwasservingastheChiefofStafftoGeneralGerdvonRundstedt,thecommanderofArmyGroupSouth(sometimescalledArmyGroupA),oneofthetwoGermanforcesthatchargedintoPoland.WhenvonRundstedtlearnedofhisrivalFranzHalder’splantoinvadeFrance,he

WhenvonRundstedtlearnedofhisrivalFranzHalder’splantoinvadeFrance,heaskedMansteintoformulateamoredaringalternate.InconsultationwithPanzerGeneralHeinzGuderian,MansteinconcludedthatanattackthroughtheArdennesForestwouldtaketheAlliesbysurprise.HealsobelievedthatasecondaryoffensivethroughHollandandBelgium,operatingasafeint,woulddrawthebestAlliedforcesnorth.ThatwouldpavethewayfortheGermanstochargethroughtheArdennes,movewesttowardtheEnglishChannelandtraptheAlliesonthecoastofnorthwestFrance.HalderridiculedthestrategyandhadMansteintransferedeasttocommandthe38thArmyCorps.TwoofficersonManstein’sstaffcontactedHitler’spersonalattachéandpersuaded

himtobriefhisbossontheproposedplan.Intrigued,HitlerbroughtMansteintoBerlintoexplainthestrategyfurther.Afterthemeeting,heexpressedadmirationforManstein'sintelligencebutwarinessofhisarrogance.“Certainlyanexceptionallycleverfellow,”hesaidofManstein,“withgreatoperationalgifts,butIdon’ttrusthim.”TheNazileader’scommentsafterthesuccessoftheArdennesplanweremoreeffusive:“Ofallthegenerals,withwhomIspokeaboutthenewattackintheWest,Mansteinwastheonlyonewhounderstoodme!”Manstein’sstockwithHitlerfellagainlaterinthewar,afteraseriesofdisputes,andonMarch30,1944,Hitlerrelievedhimofcommand.

WhatTheyBroughtEachforcehaditsstrengths,butneitherBritainnorFrancecouldcompetewiththeGermanPanzerdivisions

THETROOPS

Hitler,inaletterwrittenonMay25,1940,describedtheBritishsoldiersas“verybraveandtenacious,”though“wretchedlycommanded.”

AllthreenationsbegantheconflictinFrancewithamixofwell-preparedveteransandhastilytrainedrecruits.TheGermansgainedanadvantagefromtheirexperienceinPoland,wheretheywereabletotesttheblitzkriegtactic—alightning-quickattackwithtanksandinfantrysupportedbyoverwhelmingairpower.MorethanthreequartersofFrance’s81infantrydivisionsand80percentofGermany’s135divisionsreliedonhorses,whichhadtobefedandcaredfor,arequirementthatprovedalogisticalnightmare.TheBritishhad10motorizeddivisionsandthreesupportdivisionsandhencewerelessreliantonhorsesthaneithertheGermansorFrench.

THETANKS

TheFrenchSOMUAtankswerealmostimpervioustoGermanshelling,buttherewerenotenoughofthem.TheGermanPanzers,especiallythePanzerIandII,werevulnerabletoartilleryattacksandanti-tankweaponry.Butbyalmosteveryothermeasure,thearmoredNazivehiclesandtheunitstheyaccompaniedsurpassedthoseintheAllies’arsenal.ThePanzersweremoreflexiblethanboththeFrenchSOMUAtanksandtheBritishMatildas.Therewerealsomoreofthem—2,400totalfortheGermanscomparedto1,000trulyfunctionaltanksfortheAllies.AndthePanzerdivisionswereexceptionallysophisticated.Eachincluded250tanks,mobileworkshopstorepairdamagedequipment,amotorcyclebattalion,anartilleryregiment,motorizedinfantryandagroupofengineersknownaspioneers,whodeployedarangeofspecializedtoolsincludingmine-detectingdevices,flamethrowersandbridge-buildingequipment.

THEPLANES

TheGermanDo17bomberssawlimitedactioninDunkirkandweresoonphasedoutinfavorofthemorepowerfulJunkers.

TheLuftwaffeenteredthewarwithmorethandoublethenumberofplanesinAlliedhangars—2,800bombersandfighterscomparedto1,300forBritainandFrance.Thetwoprimarymodels,theStukabombersandtheMesserschmittfighters,wereeffectiveinbattle—fast,maneuverableandwelldefended—thoughtheMesserschmittsneededskilledpilotstooperatethemproperly.TheRAFwasmoresuccessfulagainsttheLuftwaffeatDunkirkthanthebombingof

thebeachessuggested.Evenwithafleetofmixedquality,theBritishdowned244Germanplanesovertheninedays,whilelosing177oftheirown.TheirbestperformersweretheBlenheimbombersandtheHurricanes.LesssuccessfulweretheFaireyBattlebombers,slowanddifficulttomaneuver.Spitfirefighters,whichprovedvitaltolaterBritishvictories,participatedinonlylimitednumbersduringtheearlydaysinFrance.ThemainfighterplaneforFrance,theMorane-Saulnier,wasoutdatedand

outmatched.OnlytheskillofFrenchpilotsenabledthemtocompetewiththeMesserschmittsatall.

THEGUNS

Eachofthethreearmiesfeaturedonestandard-issueweapondistributedalmostuniversallythroughouttheranks

Germany

GermanMP40submachinegun

Accurate,powerfulandreliable,theKarabiner98kbolt-actionriflewascarriedbytheGermaninfantryineverytheaterofWorldWarII.Firstdevelopedin1935,theKarabiner98kwasratedasaccurateupto550yardsandcouldbeadaptedtoincludeatelescopicsight,enablingsniperstofireattargetsnearly875yardsaway.OtherweaponswidelydistributedamongtheGermantroopsincludedtheGewehr43semi-automaticrifleandtheMP-40submachinegun.

GreatBritain

BritishBrenMk1lightmachinegun

AniterationoftheLee-Enfield.303bolt-action,magazine-fed,repeatingriflewascarriedbyBritishsoldiersfrom1895until1957,atributetotheweapon’sreliabilityandeffectiveness.ItsLeebolt-actionanddetachable10-roundmagazineallowedaskilledandwell-trainedsoldiertofire20to30targetedroundsperminute,makingitthefastestbolt-actioncombatweaponinthewar.Thegas-operatedBrenlightmachinegunwasusedwidelyaswell.Usingthesame.303ammunitionastheLee-Enfield,itcouldfire480–540roundsperminute.

France

FrenchLebelM1886

TheprimaryFrenchinfantryweaponwastheLebelM18868mmbolt-actionrifle,inservicesincebeforeWorldWarIandsomewhatunwieldyduetoitslengthandweight,butstilleffective.Thelighter,morerapid-firingMAS-36,intendedtoreplacetheLebel,wasnotinmassproductioninMay1940,butmanyofthetroopshadnonethelessreceivedthem.NeitherweaponwasconsideredasversatileoreffectiveastheLee-EnfieldortheKarabiner.TheMAS-38submachinegunwasfirstusedincombatduringthebattleofFranceandcouldfire700roundsaminuteandhadaneffectiverangeofupto100meters.

TrappedAgainsttheSeaAfterslicingthroughtheArdennesForest,theNazisraced

westandcutoffFrenchandBritishtroops

DUNKIRKRAVAGEDBythetimemanyoftheretreatingtroopsreachedDunkirk,thevillagehadbeenguttedbyGermanbombs.

NowhereElsetoGoDaybyday,theAlliedoptionsshrank

BritishtroopswereoutmaneuveredbytheGermans,andforcedtoretreat,usingtheirartillerytoslowtheGermanadvance.

BetweenMay14,whentheGermanPanzerdivisionsbrokethroughtheArdennesForest,andMay27,whenthefirstAlliedtroopsbegantheirevacuationfromDunkirk,theGermanArmyadvancedalmostwithoutpause.ItreachedtheFrenchcoastonMay20anddrovenorthtoBoulogneandCalais,eventuallycreatingasolidlineofGermanforcesstretchingeastwardtowardLuxembourg.Withthedefensiveperimeterreduced,AlliedtroopshadlittlehopethatFrench

soldiersfurthersouthwouldbeabletorescuethem.AsChurchillandtheWarOfficewaffledonthebeststrategies,LordJohnGort,theBEFcommander-in-chief,orderedtroopstoholdthelinealongtheYpres-CominesCanal.ThedecisionslowedtheGermanadvance,openedavitalcorridortoretreattothebeachesandmadethe“miracleofDunkirk”possible.BEFdivisionalcommandersBernardMontgomeryandHaroldFranklyn,both

positionednearYpres,playedkeyrolesunderthedirectionofIICorpscommanderAlanBrooke.OutnumberedbytheGermansbutaidedbyBritishartilleryandabrigadefromthe48thInfantryDivision,Franklyn’stroopsstabilizedthelinesouthofYpres.

fromthe48thInfantryDivision,Franklyn’stroopsstabilizedthelinesouthofYpres.Montgomery,toprotecttheAllies’northernflankwheretheBelgianforceswerecollapsing,withdrewhis13,000troopsfromYpres,crossedtworiversandtraveled20milesduringthenight.SucheffortsbarelyfazedtheGermaneffort.OnMay28,after18daysofbeing

bombed,Belgiumsurrenderedunconditionally.ThatforcedMontgomerytocovermoreterritoryonthenorthernendoftheperimeteraboveDunkirk.Now,onlytheYserRiverstoodinthewayoftheNazis,whowerefastapproaching.Inthechaoticdaysthatfollowed,asmallteamfromtheRoyalEngineers,ledby26-year-oldLieutenantDavidSmith,movedmethodicallyuptheYsertothecoastalvillageofNieuport,blowingupbridgesjustastheGermansarrived.AgroupofBritishandFrenchreinforcements,hastilyassembledbyMontgomery,appearedcloselybehindtofendofftheGermanforcesandpreservetheline,albeitbarely.

FASTCOLLAPSINGThesituationwasgrimfortheAllies.Onthesouthernendoftheperimeter,atArras,theBEF,withthehelpofMatildaIItanks,temporarilyslowedtheNazis.AtLille,fivedivisionsoftheFrenchIVandVCorpsfoughtsevenGermandivisions.Thosemaneuverssaveduntoldlives,allowingtheFrenchIIICorpsandmanyoftheBEFforcesinthevicinitytoescapetoDunkirk.ButfortheremainingFrenchforces,theendwasnear.Theybattledforsixdays,untilJune3,whenGeneralJean-BaptisteMolinie,fullycutofffromanycorridortoDunkirk,finallysurrendered.Theretreatwason.AttheportofBoulogne,4,400reinforcementsarrivedfromacross

theEnglishChannelonMay21andMay22.Fortwodays,amixedforceofIrish,WelshandFrenchsoldierssufferedheavylossesagainstaPanzerdivisionandwerethenferriedhomebythesamedestroyersthathadtransportedthemtoFrancedaysearlier.AportionoftheThirdCompanyoftheWelshGuardsfailedtoreceivetheordertoretreatandfoughtonintheGareMaritime,thensurrenderedonMay25.Similarly,aFrenchunit,unawarethattheBritishwereretreating,heldoutuntil,lowonammunitionandwater,theycapitulatedtoo.TheGermanshadtheirvictory.Atthesametimeasthe2ndPanzerDivisionwasassaultingBoulogne,the10thPanzer

Division,withmorethan200tanks,waslayingsiegetoCalais,22milesnorth.BritishprimeministerWinstonChurchillagainorderedreinforcementstobeferriedacrosstheChanneltosupporttheBritishandFrenchtroopsalreadythere.OnMay22,aunitofriflemenandthe3rdRoyalTankRegimentweredeployedfromDover,withtheregiment’s48tanksfollowinginaseparatevessel.TheLuftwaffehadalreadyheavilybombedCalaisandthedestructionwasvisiblefromtheharbor.Whenthecaptainof

bombedCalaisandthedestructionwasvisiblefromtheharbor.WhenthecaptainofthetankcarrierapproachedtheportandsawGermanplanescontinuingtheirassault,hebalkedandhadtobeforcedtobringtheshipintotheharbor.Overthenextfourdays,thissmallforce,lackingartilleryandothercriticalsupplies,

skirmishedwiththe10thPanzers.ChurchillandtheBritishWarOfficedebatedthevalueofdefendingCalais,andconcludedthatthebattle,evenifundertakeninvain,wouldservetoslowtheGermanadvanceandreassuretheirFrenchalliesthattheywerestillwillingtofight.AtChurchill'surging,WarSecretaryAnthonyEdensentBrigadierClaudeNicholson,theBritishcommanderatCalais,thismessage:“TheeyesoftheEmpireareuponthedefenceofCalais,andHisMajesty’sGovernmentareconfidentthatyouandyourgallantregimentwillperformanexploitworthyoftheBritishname.”ByMay25,theAllies’situationhadbecomedesperateandtheGermancommander

twiceaskedNicholsonifhewasreadytosurrender.Nicholson’sresponseinthemorningwasunequivocal:“No,Ishallnotsurrender.TelltheGermansthatiftheywantCalaistheywillhavetofightforit.”Intheafternoon,afteradayoffuriouscombat,heheldfirm:“Theanswerisno,asitistheBritishArmy’sdutytofightaswellasitistheGermans’.”ButNicholsonwasalmostoutofoptions.OnMay26,theGermans,nowsupportedbyLuftwaffebombingruns,crossedoneofthebridgesoverthecanalthatencircledtheoldsectionofthecityandsucceededindividingthedecimatedBritishforces.Nicholsonwassurroundedandcapturedat3p.m.Some3,500soldiersweretakenprisoner.ThesiegeofCalaiswasover.Morethan300soldiershadlosttheirlivesandanother200hadbeenwounded.ButbydelayingtheGermanadvanceonDunkirk,thetroopsatCalaishadprovided

theAllieswiththevaluabletimetheyneededtostagetheevacuation.Churchill,whilerecognizingthathehadsenthissoldiersintoabattletheycouldnotwin,defendedtheirsacrificeas“notinvain,”praisingthemforadding“anotherpagetothegloriesofthelightdivisions.”

TOUGHGOINGBritishtroopswereoptimisticbeforethebattlebegan.

ShrinkingPerimeterTheAlliedforcesretreatedintotighterandtighterdefensivepocketsaroundDunkirk.EachdarkershadeofgreenindicatesashrinkingofthepocketfromthelargestperimeteronMay21toasmalleroneonMay26tothesmallestonMay28.

MANINCHARGELordJohnGortrecognizedtheneedtoevacuate,butfailedtocoordinateaunifiedresponsewiththeFrench.

BRIDGEWORKSappersliketheunidentifiedsoldieratrightbuiltbridgesaswellassettingoffexplosivesthatcoulddestroythem.Theterm"sapper"comesfromtheFrenchsaper,meaningtodigunderawallorbuildingtocauseitscollapse.

TheAlliesdestroyedthebridgeacrosstheMeuseatDinant,buttheGermansquicklyrebuiltit.

SHIFTINGFORTUNESInfantryoftheBEFfoughttheGermansinthevicinityoftheSommeRiver,whereattacksandcounterattacksslowedtheNaziadvance.

WINSTONCHURCHILL

RallyingtheNation

WinstonChurchill(left)consultingwithAdmiralBertramRamsey,akeyadviserthroughouttheevacuation.

DESPITEWINSTONChurchill’syearsingovernmentservice,manyBritonsheardofhimforthefirsttimewhenhebecameprimeministeronMay10,1940,just16daysbeforethebeginningofOperationDynamo.Churchillwasacomplexandcontradictorypersonality.Bornintowealth,hewasan

indifferentstudent,buthegrewuptobeabrilliantspeakerandwriter.Famouslyindependentandopinionated,henonethelessforgedasuccessfulmilitarycareer,includingstintsasthefirstlordoftheadmiraltyfrom1911to1915andsecretaryofstateforwarandsecretaryofstateforairunderPrimeMinisterDavidLloydGeorgefrom1919to1922.AonetimememberoftheLiberalParty,heespousedmanyprogressivesocialprogramsthroughtheyears,butafterreturningtotheConservativePartyin1925,hebecameoneofthestaunchestadvocatesforthemaintenanceoftheimperialistBritishEmpire.Heevolvedintoastronginterventionist,andbythebeginningofthewar,hewasastaunchanti-communistaswell.ChurchillspokeoutearlyaboutthedangersposedbytheNazisandwasservinghis

secondstintasfirstlordoftheadmiraltywhentheGermansoccupiedNorwayin1940.UnlikeNevilleChamberlain,whohadadvocatedappeasement,ChurchillfavoredpreemptingaGermanmoveintoNorwaybyoccupyingkeyNorwegianports.When

preemptingaGermanmoveintoNorwaybyoccupyingkeyNorwegianports.WhenChamberlainresignedasprimeministerinthewakeoftheinvasion,Churchill,withhismilitaryexperienceandcharismaticpersonality,wasanobviousreplacement.OnMay10,withChamberlain'ssupport,theToriesselectedChurchillastheirleader,andKingGeorgeVIaskedhimtotakeoverasprimeminister.Inrecognitionoftheneedfornationalunity,Churchillassembledacabinetthatincludedrepresentativesfromallthreemajorpoliticalparties.ThenewprimeministermonitoredthesituationinFranceclosely.Untilaweek

beforeheapprovedOperationDynamo,ChurchillhadremainedhopefulthattheBEFmightfindawaytobreakouttothesouthandjoinforceswithFrenchunits.ButafterhereceivedreportsfromGeneralEdmundIronsideaboutthedemoralizedanddisorganizedconditionoftheFrenchmilitary,hebecameskepticaloftheabilityoftheFrenchforcesandincreasinglyopentoanevacuation.WhatChurchilldescribedas“amiracleofdeliverance”representedhisfirst

opportunitytorallythenationforwar,andheuseditmasterfully.InaspeechbroadcastfromtheHouseofCommonsonJune4,1940,Churchillnotedthatanevacuationmustneverbeconfusedforavictory,butthattherescueoftheBEFpositionedBritaintocontinuethestruggleagainstfascism.“Weshallgoontotheend,”hethundered.“WeshallfightinFrance,weshallfightontheseasandoceans,weshallfightwithgrowingconfidenceandgrowingstrengthintheair,weshalldefendourIsland,whateverthecostmaybe.Weshallfightonthebeaches,weshallfightonthelandinggrounds,weshallfightinthefieldsandinthestreets,weshallfightinthehills;weshallneversurrender.”

PRIMEMINISTERATWARChurchillmadehiswaytotheHouseofCommonsonMay28,1940,toofferhisviewoftheeventsunfoldinginDunkirk.

ThePauseThatSavedTheirLivesHitler’shaltordergavetheAllieswhattheyneededmost:

awayout

TRUEBELIEVERLuftwaffecommanderHermanGöringwasalongtimeHitlerloyalistwhohelpedorchestratetheNightoftheLongKnivesin1934,duringwhichmorethan80Hitleropponentswereassassinated.AcelebratedfighterpilotinWorldWarI,GöringbelievedtheLuftwaffecoulddestroytheBEFbeforeitwouldbeabletoevacuate.

OnMay24,HitleracceptedGeneralGerdvonRundstedt’sadviceandissuedahaltorder,whichdirectedallGermanforcestosuspendfightingforthreedays.PanzercommanderHeinzGuderianandotherGermanofficersinthefieldopposedthebreak,butHitlerandvonRundstedt,thecommanderofArmyGroupA,hadgoodreasonsforthedecision.First,therewastheongoingconcernbytheGermanHighCommandthatthefast-movingPanzerdivisionsremainedaheadoftheinfantry,creatingagapintheGermantroopsthatmightallowAlliedforcestodriveawedgebetweenthem.Second,theGermanswantedtoconservetheirstrengthforthepossibilityofaFrenchcounterattackandforthepushsouthtocaptureParisandthebulkofFrance.Third,

counterattackandforthepushsouthtocaptureParisandthebulkofFrance.Third,afterBoulogneandCalais,theGermanforcesweredepleted.ThethreedivisionsintheXXIXCorpshadsufferedextensivedamage,eachlosinganaverageof50officers,1,500menandathirdofthetanks.Manyoftheirgunshadbeendestroyedordamagedbeyondrepair.TwoofGuderian’sPanzerdivisions,the2ndand10th,hadbeencrippledaswell.Finally,therewasHermanGöring,theLuftwaffecommander.HeconvincedHitlerthathisbombersandfighterplanes,withassistancefromArmyGroupB,coulddestroytheBritishandFrenchforcesatDunkirkwithoutvonRundstedt’sArmyGroupAorthePanzerdivisionstothesouthandwest.TheviewwithintheGermanHighCommandwasthattheBritishwerefinished.ThenotionthatthedemoralizedAlliescouldmanageamassiveevacuationwasinconceivable.

SEIZINGTHEMOMENTTheGermandelaygavetheBritishthetimetheyneededtoformulateaplan.LordJohnGort,thecommanderoftheBEF,hadbeencontemplatingawithdrawalfordays.OnMay19,heorderedthefirstdraftofanevacuationplan,andoverthecourseofthenextweek,astheAlliedpositiondeteriorated,hebecameincreasinglyconvincedthatretreatwasnecessary.Thesituationwasdire.“Over300,000Britishtroopswerestrungoutalonga60-milecorridor[and]threatenedfromnorthandsouthbyavastlysuperiorenemywhoenjoyedtotalcommandoftheair,”notedhistorianGeoffreyStewartinDunkirkandtheFallofFrance.OnMay25,Gort,backedbyAlanBrooke,commanderoftheBEFIICorps,concludedthatanyadditionalefforttobreakoutoftheGermanstrangleholdwasfutileandthatanevacuationwastheonlyalternativetosurrenderorslaughter.OnMay26,ChurchillandtheBritishWarCabinetcametothesameconclusion.

TherewasnohopeofaFrenchcounterattackfromthesouth,andtheBelgiantroopsonthenorthernflankwereintrouble.Anevacuationonamassivescalewasneeded;Dunkirk,just40milesacrosstheEnglishChannelfromDover,offeredthebesthopeofsuccess.“Insuchconditions,”SirAnthonyEden,theBritishwarsecretary,wrotetoGort,the“onlycourseopentoyoumaybetofightyourwaybacktowestwhereallbeachesandportseastofGravelines[12mileswestofDunkirk]willbeusedforembarkation.”GortimmediatelyorderedthetighteningoftheperimeterfromjusteastofGravelinestoNieuport,Belgium.

DEFENDINGTHECORRIDOROUT

DEFENDINGTHECORRIDOROUTMeanwhiledivisionalcommandersBernardMontgomery,inthenorthernpartoftheAlliedcorridor,andHaroldFranklyn,inthesouth,wereholdingthedooropenfortheBEF’sretreatingtroops,whoweremakingtheirwaytothecoast.Manysucceeded,butnotall.TheBEF’s2ndDivision,locatedontheextremeeasternend,some40milessoutheastofDunkirk,encounteredperhapsthefiercestopponents,includingfourPanzerdivisionsandtwoSSmotorizedinfantrydivisions.Aftersufferingheavylosses,thecommanderdecidedthathismenhadsufferedenoughandonMay28,orderedtheirretreat.NearthevillageofLeParadis,the2ndRoyalNorfolksmadeafinalstand,thensurrenderedtotheSS“Totenkopf”—“deathhead”—division.Similarscenariosunfoldedonthenorthernflank,particularlynearCassel,where

manyAlliedsoldierswerekilledortakenprisonerattemptinganighttimeescape.Suddenly,theclearweatherthathadbeensofavorablefortheGermantanksand

planesshiftedandcametotheaidoftheAllies.Rainonthe28thslowedtheNaziadvanceandallowedmostoftheBEFandFrenchforcestoarrivewithinthetightDunkirkperimeterorclosetoit.Rescuewasathand.Orclosetoit.

FRENCHFAILUREThecollapsenearSedanofFrenchtroops(here,aftertheirsurrender)helpedpersuadeBrookeandGortoftheneedtoevacuate.

ImpossibleOddsTheBritishhadverylittletimeandjust40navaldestroyerstoevacuatenearly400,000troops

HUNKEREDDOWNSomeBEFsoldiersdugfoxholesandbunkersinthebeaches;mostwereexposedontheopensand,waitinginlonglinesthatextendedintothewaterorouttotheEastMole.

TheevacuationofDunkirkposeddauntingchallengesbutthelocationdidprovideafewadvantages.Themile-wide,gentlyslopingbeachranfor16milestothenorth,wasthelongestcontinuousstretchofsandinEuropeandofferedamplespacefortheretreatingtroops.Thesanddunesonthebeach’sinlandbordercouldbeconvertedintoshallowdugoutstominimizetheeffectsofstrafingandbombingfromtheLuftwaffe.Theimmediateperimeterwasdefinedbyriversandcanalsandmarshyterrain,whichmadeitdifficultfortheGermans,andtheirtanks,topenetrate.Finally,therewereseveralusefulvacationhomesinthearea.LaPanne,BelgianKingLeopold’svilla,includedanunderseatelephoneconnectiontoLondonthatthemonarchhadinstalledtotrackhisstockinvestments.ThesetupmadeidealheadquartersforLieutenantGeneralRonaldForbesAdam,inchargeofmaintainingtheDunkirkperimeter.

GeneralRonaldForbesAdam,inchargeofmaintainingtheDunkirkperimeter.Atthesametime,Dunkirkalsopresenteddifficulties.Themainharboranddockshad

beensodamagedbyGermanbombingthattheywereunusable.Strongcurrentsmadethewatersunstableforloading.AndthemostdirectroutetoEngland,blockedbyasandbar,wascomplicated.Inpeacetime,shipswouldnormallytravelsouthforseveralmilesbeforeturningwesttowardtheislandnation,amaneuverthatallowedatripofjust39miles.ButsuchanapproachbytheBEFwouldhaveexposeditsshipstofirefromGermanartilleryinGravelinesandCalais.Thatleftonlyonealternative:an87-mile-longroutethattraveledpastGoodwinLightshiponthewaytoRamsgate.AmongtheBritishofficersmanagingtheoperationwasVice-AdmiralSirBertram

Ramsay,whohadbegunplanningapotentialevacuationonMay19underordersfromLordGort.NowRamsayfacedanadditionalproblem.TheavailableRoyalNavyshipscouldatmostferry10,000soldiersaday,andhehadoriginallybeengivenjustthreedaystoevacuateasmanyofthe400,000BritishandFrenchtroopsaspossible.The40Britishdestroyers,capableoffightingoffGermanattackswhiledoublingaspassengerships,wouldcertainlybekey.ButseveralofthesehadbeendamagedintheevacuationsoftroopsfromBoulogneandCalaisandwouldlikelybeneededforbattleinthemonthsandyearstocome.Ramsayhadtodecide:Howmuchdamagewouldbeacceptabletosuchavitalpartofthefleet?Theviceadmiralbeganthetaskofamassingadditionalships.Aprimaryresourcewas

adatabasefromtheBritishAdmiralty,whichhadbegunrequestingthatallBritonsregisterboatsbetween30and100feetlong.Fromthatgroup,Ramsayrequisitioned30passengerferries,12so-calleddrifters(fishingboats),sixcoasters(coastalmerchantships)and40Dutchschuits,whichhadbeentransportedtoEnglandfromtheNazioccupationintheNetherlands.Theschuits,or“skoots”astheBritishbegancallingthem,weresmall,flat-bottomedsteamfreighterscapableofcarryinglargernumbersofsoldiersthanmostofthevesselsthatcouldnavigatetheshallowerwatersnearthebeachesofDunkirk.Thentherewasthefleetof“littleboats,”astheycametobeknown,thesmallcraft

capableofnavigatingthewatersnearesttheshorethattheBritishMinistryofShippinggatheredfromboatownersandbuildersalongthecoast.Ramsayaskedforsome700ofthese.ByMay20,theefforthadbeendubbedOperationDynamo,areferencetoaroominDoverCastle,whereRamsay’steamwasheadquartered,whichalsohousedanelectricalgenerator.SoonthebeachesofDunkirkwerejammedwithtroopsinlinesuptotwomileslong,

waitingfortheshipsthatwouldtakethemhome.Atfirst,thescenewaschaos,withsoldiersthrongingontothebeaches,uncertainofwhattodo.Butordereventuallywasrestored,withnewarrivalsdirectedtothebackofthelineandthemenorganizedinto

restored,withnewarrivalsdirectedtothebackofthelineandthemenorganizedintogroupsof50.Atnight,whentheLuftwaffeceasedoperations,soldierslaydowninplacetogetwhateversleepwaspossible.

SoldiersoftheRoyalUlsterRifleswaitedtoboardoneofthelittleshipstocarrythemouttoawaitingdestroyer.

UNDERFIREAwoundedmanwaitingtobeevacuatedwasgivenwaterbyaBritishsoldier;manyofthemostseverelywoundedstayedbehindandwerecaptured,alongwiththementendingthem,bytheGermans.

TheMiracleofDunkirkInnineharrowingdays,Alliedcommandersstagedthe

largestevacuationinhistory,savingsome300,000troopsfromtheNazis

HOMESAFERescuedsoldiersarrivedhomeinLondononMay31,1940.

WouldTheyMakeItOut?Thefirstdayendedgrimly,withonly7,500menrescued.

Butanarrowjettyofferedhope

SINGLEFILEAttimes,linesofsoldierswaitinginthewaterandonthebeachesstretchedtwomileslong,butthetroopswereorderlyandpatient.“Youhadtheimpressionofpeoplestandingwaitingforabus,”saidsignalerAlfredBaldwin.

ThefirstDunkirkevacuationsbeganinauspiciouslyonMonday,May27,whenCaptainWilliamTennant,alogisticsexpertdeployedtoorganizetheloadingofsoldiers,arrivedasGermanbombersattackedtheharbor.Tennantandhisteamof160survived,butondisembarking,theyencounteredchaos.Terrorizedsoldiers,someofthemdeserters,somefromrearguardunits,skitteredaroundthebeach,uncertainofhowtoproceed.Thedockfacilitieshadbeendestroyed,andduringthatfirstbloodyday,theLuftwaffewouldkill1,000residentsofDunkirkandmanyAlliedtroops.Theprocessoftransportingsoldiersinsmallboatstothelargershipswaspainstakinglyslow.Bysundown,onlyabout7,500menhadbeenrescued.ThingsbegantoimprovewhenTennantrealizedthatanarrowjetty,1,400yardslongandjustfivefeetwide,couldsubstituteasadock.Thefirstboattotieupatthejetty,ortheEastMole,asthe

couldsubstituteasadock.Thefirstboattotieupatthejetty,ortheEastMole,astheBritishcalledit,boarded950soldiersinlessthananhour.Thenextday,Tuesday,May28,wentbetter.Cloudyweatherandblacksmokefrom

burningoilstoragetankshamperedvisibilityfortheGermanbombers.Tennant’steamgrewmoreproficientinorganizingthemenandnavigatingtheharbortoavoidexplodingminesandcollisionswithotherboats.Some18,000menwereevacuated,withminimalcasualties.OnWednesday,another47,000soldierswereevacuated,butthedaywasalsomarred

bylossoflifeandmatériel.Some600soldiersandcrewwerekilledwhentwoBritishdestroyersweresunkbeforedawn.TheWakefulwashitfirst,byaGermanE-boat,atorpedo-bearingcoastalcraft.AsubmarinetorpedostrucktheGraftonafteritpickedup35survivingcrewmembersfromtheWakeful.Whentheskiesclearedlaterintheday,theLuftwafferesumeditsattacks,repeatedlybombingandeventuallysinkingathirddestroyer,theGrenade,andkillinganother18soldiers.Finally,thelargestshipinvolvedintheevacuation,thecargosteamerClanMacAlister,tooktwodirecthitsfromStukadive-bombersandhadtobeabandoned.ThursdayandFriday,thefinaltwodaysinMay,wereperhapsthebestfortheAllies,as

poorvisibilitylimitedtheLuftwaffeandmostlycalmseasaidedtheloadingontotheboats.Twoadditionalfactorscameintoplay.First,moresmallshipsarrivedtocarrysoldierstothelargerboatsintheharbor;andsecond,Tennantandhisteamconstructedmakeshiftpiersoutofdamagedtrucksandotherequipment,whichfacilitatedtheloadingprocess.Some54,000wereevacuatedonThursday,includingnearly30,000fromthebeaches;onFriday,another68,000wereevacuated,despiteaheavyswellinthemorningthathamperedthelittleboatsandthereturnofclearskiesintheafternoon,whichbroughttheGermanplanesbackintoaction.Thesceneonthebeachesbecamehellish.Humancorpseswereeverywhere,some

covered,manyburiedandmarkedbyanupturnedrifle,otherslefttofloatinthewater.Abandonedvehiclesandthebodiesofdeadhorseslitteredthesand.Foodwasscarce—sometroopswentfourorfivedayswithouteating.Overhead,obscuredbythesmokeandtoohightobeseenbyBEFsoldiersontheground,theRAFdiditsbesttokeeptheGermanStukasandMesserschmittsatbay.

COVEROFDARKNESSCloudyskies—andnighttimeevacuation—usuallymeantlessdangerfromtheLuftwaffefortheexposedtroopsonthebeaches.

UnconventionalLeaders

GeneralSirRonaldForbesAdamONEOFseveralkeyofficersintheevacuation,AdamwasinchargeofestablishingandmaintainingthedefensiveperimeteraroundDunkirk.AdamhadbeeneducatedatEtonandtheRoyalAcademyWoolwichbeforeservinginFranceduringWorldWarIandbeingawardedtheDistinguishedServiceOrder(DSO),themostprestigiousmedalawardedtoBritishofficersforexceptionalbraveryincombat.HewasacloseconfidanteandfriendofAlanBrooke,commanderoftheBEF’sIICorps,whichretainedhimasanimportantadviserthroughoutthewaryears,despiteChurchill’sopinionthatAdam’sprogressiveviewsmadehimtooradicalformilitaryservice.Amonghismoreiconoclasticopinions:thatsoldiersshouldbechosenbyaprofessionalselectionboardbasedonpsychologicaltestingforleadershipskillsandinitiative;thatexceptionalofficerscouldberecruitedfromeverysocialclass;andthatsoldiersshouldberequiredtoparticipateincompulsorydiscussiongroupsintendedtoproducebettereducated,moremotivatedtroops.

GeneralAlanBrookeBORNINFrancetoanaristocraticIrishfamily,Brookewassensitive,introspective,evenshy,throughouthiscareer.HewasalsooneofBritain’smosttalentedmilitarystrategistsandhighlyopinionated.HehadlittleconfidenceinthefightingskillsoftheFrench,wonderinginhisdiary“whethertheFrencharestillafirmenoughnationtoagaintaketheirpartinseeingthiswarthrough”andnotingoftheFrenchsoldiersthattheir“slovenliness,dirtynessandinefficiencyareIthinkworsethanever.”BrookesimilarlydoubtedthecapabilitiesofLordGort,hissuperiorofficer,whomheconsideredobsessedwithminutiae.AccordingtoBrooke,Gorthadthebrain“ofaglorifiedboyscout.”Brooke—orBrookieashewasknown—waspopularthroughtherankandfileoftheBEF’sIICorps,whichhecommandedatDunkirk.HisquickactiondefendingthenorthernflankafterthesurrenderofBelgiantroopsonMay28mayhavebeenthesinglemostimportantactionofthecampaign.GortconsideredBrooketoopessimisticaboutBritishprospectsinFrance,buthecametoacceptBrooke’sviewthatanevacuationwasnecessary.

CaptainWilliamTennantTENNANTARRIVEDinDunkirkonMay26aboardthedestroyerWolfhoundandwasgiventhejoboforganizingthemenonthebeachesandoverseeingtheloadingofsoldiersontotheships.HisdecisiontousethejettyknownastheEastMoleasadispersalpoint,alongwithhismanyeffortstostreamlinetheprocess,wascriticalinenablinglargenumbersofsoldierstosafelyevacuate.Inthelaststagesoftheeffort,Tennantroamedthebeacheswithamegaphone,callingout,“Isanyonethere?”ItwasTennantwhosentthemessagetoVice-AdmiralBertramRamsayjustbeforemidnightonthenightofJune2:“BEFevacuated.”FouryearsafterDunkirk,heplayedacrucialroleintheinvasionofNormandyandoversawtheinstallationoftwoprefabricated“harbors”thatweretransportedacrosstheEnglishChannelinpiecesandassembledonOmahaandGoldbeaches.InTennant’slaternavalcareerasanadmiral,manysailorscontinuedtocallhimbythenickname“DunkirkJoe”inhonorofhisskillonthebeaches.

INSTRUMENTSOFWAR

TheLittleShips

TheLittleShips

LIVINGLEGENDSTheEnglishregularlycommemorateDunkirkwitheventsfeaturingboatsthatparticipatedintheevacuations.Manycarryasimplebronzeplaquenotingtheirinvolvement.In2012,theflotillaof“littleships”abovetookpartinthecelebrationsmarkingthe60thanniversaryofQueenElizabeth’sascensiontothethrone.WITHINCREASINGnumbersofshipsneededtoferrysoldiersfromthebeachesofDunkirktothelargetransportswaitinginthedeeperwatersoffshore,theBritishMinistryofShippingturnedtotheEnglishpeopleforhelp.TheyhadattheirdisposaladatabaseofboatownersthattheAdmiraltybegancompilinginmidMay,andstartedmakingcallsandradiobroadcaststoshipbuildersandownersalongtheEnglishcoast.Therequestwasstraightforward:theyneededtocollectanyboatabletonavigatethe

shallowwatersneartheDunkirkshore.Giventhedireneed,someboats,summarilyemptiedofallcontents,weretakenwithouttheirowners’permissionandsetoncourseforDunkirk.ByMay30,acollectionof700pleasurecraft,passengerferries,speedboats,seaplanetenders,privateyachts,fishingboats,trawlersandlifeboatswereassistingintheoperation.Andwhileitistrue,contrarytopopularlegend,thatBritishnavalpersonnelpilotedthelargemajorityoftheso-called“littleships,”therewerealsoseveralowners,particularlyseasonedfishermen,whomadethecrossingthemselves.Bytheendoftheevacuation,nearly100,000soldiershadbeenrescuedwiththehelpofthismotleyfleet.

In1940,theselittleshipsweretoweddowntheThamesontheirwaytotheircriticalserviceatDunkirk.

OperationDynamo:TheFinalHoursNazibombingraidscontinued,evenasthelastsoldierswereferriedontoboats.ButbyJune4,nearly340,000

troopshadbeenrescuedLordGortwantedtoremaininDunkirkuntilthelastoftheBEFhadbeenevacuated,butChurchill,concernedthathislossorcapturewoulddamageBritishmorale,orderedtheleaderhomeonthe31st.AlanBrooke,commanderoftheBEF’sIICorpswhoestablishedacorridorforretreatingtroopsanddefendedtheperimeter,wasrecalledonthe30th.KnownforhisBritishreserve,Brookeweptopenlywhilesayinghisfarewellsinthesanddunes.Saturday,June1,wasparticularlydifficult.Foronlythesecondtimeduringthe

evacuation,theskiesclearedfortheentireday,allowingtheLuftwaffetopummeltheBritish.At8:15a.m.,nineStukasattackedandsankthedestroyerBasilisk.Dive-bombersalsodemolishedthedestroyerKeithduringthemorninghours.Intheafternoon,atrooptransport,theScotia,with200to300Frenchsoldiersaboard,andaminesweeper,theBrightonQueen,werebothdestroyed.Inall,nearlyathousandseamenandsoldierswerekilledandtheLuftwaffeexploded13Britishwarships,aswellasahandfulofsmallerships.Withgoodweatherforecastforthenextseveraldays,Tennantshiftedtonighttime

operationsandonSaturday,SundayandMondayeveningsevacuatedanadditional80,000men.ThefinalBEFtroopsleftDunkirkonSundaynight/Mondaymorning.AtdawnonTuesday,June4,the21-year-olddestroyerShikari,filledwithFrenchsoldiers,madethelastdeparturefromDunkirk.At9a.m.,FrenchGeneralMauriceBeaufrère,whose68thInfantryDivisionhadresistedtheGermanadvanceonthewesternperimeter,surrendered.OperationDynamowasover.About40,000FrenchtroopswerecapturedandtheBritishlossofmatérielwassignificant:sixdestroyersandmorethan240othermarinevessels;almost64,000vehicles,includingnearlyall445Britishtanks;andmorethan900aircraft.Butnearly340,000soldiers,including114,000Frenchmen,hadbeenrescuedand

wouldbeavailableforthefighttocome.

FIGHTINTHEAIRTheGermanStukas(above)withapilotandreargunner,weremoreeffectivethantheBritishFaireyBattlebombers(onthefollowingpage),withtheircrewofpilot,gunnerandnavigator.

SELF-RELIANTSomesoldiersabletoswimouttothedestroyersontheirownventuredintothedeeperharborwaters.

STREAMLININGAtfirst,menwadedintowateruptotheirneckstoreachrescueboats.Butthen,theBEFfashionedabandonedvehiclesintodocks(aboveandonthefollowingpage)andreachingthevesselsbecameeasier.Still,morethantwiceasmanymenwereevacuatedfromthejettyknownastheEastMoleasfromthebeaches.

TheViewThenOnMonday,June17,1940,Timepublishedthismeasured

accountoftheeventsatDunkirk

LOOKINGSEAWARDSixdaysbeforeWinstonChurchillbecameprimeminister,hewasaboardadestroyerthatplayedakeyroleintheBritishevacuation.TheissueofTimethatincludedthestoryreprintedherecarriedacoverfeaturing,lefttoright,FrenchGeneralMaximeWeygand,PaulBaudoin,PrimeMinisterPaulReynaudandPhilippePétain,wholaternegotiatedthearmisticethatturnedhisnationovertoHitler.

GreatBritain’seloquentPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill,lastweekinafightingspeechtoParliament,admittedBritishlossesof“over30,000”menkilled,wounded&missing,nearly1,000guns“andallourtransportandallthearmoredvehiclesthatwerewiththeArmyoftheNorth.”ButhesaidthattheRoyalNavy,“usingnearly1,000shipsofallkinds,carriedover335,000men,FrenchandBritish,fromthejawsofdeath.”Heconcluded:“Weshallnotflagnorfail.Weshallgoontotheend.Weshallfightin

Franceandontheseasandoceans;weshallfightwithgrowingconfidenceandgrowingstrengthintheair...”ButlastweekwascertainlynottheAllies’hour.ThoughtwoFrenchdivisionsandone

BritishfoughtbravelytotheendatDunkirk,andViceAdmiralJeanMarieCharlesAbrialoftheFrenchNavyjauntilypuffedhispipeandstayedashoreuntilthelastlaunch,thehourwasAdolfHitler’sandhemadethemostofit.HehadhimselfphotographedinfrontofthemajesticCanadianWarMemorialat

VimyRidge,thusprovingthathisbombershadnotwreckedit.Andfromhisheadquartersissuedtriumphantmessagestohissoldiersandhispeople.

EXCERPTS:“ThegreatestmilitaryachievementofalltimeswasaccomplishedwhenGermany,afterasurprisinglyshorttime[elevendays],wasabletoestablishmainbattlefrontsalongtheRiversAisneandSomme...“ThisunprecedentedGermanachievementconstitutessimultaneouslythegreatest

militarydefeatthatanymilitaryforceseversuffered.AgreatmanylivesmayhavebeensavedbytheBritishnavalforces,butthebootycapturedissoenormousthatnoestimatecanyetbegiven...”TheGermanHighCommandclaimed1,200,000French,English,BelgianandDutch

casualtiesandprisoners.Itclaimedseizingordestroyingweaponsandmatérielfor75divisions.Itclaimeddestructionof3,500enemyairplanes,sinkingof24warshipsand66transports,damagesto59warships,117transports.FromMay10toJune1,GermancasualtiesweresetbytheGermansatthe

fantasticallylowfigureof10,255officersandmenkilled,8,643missing,42,523wounded.Germany’sadmittedairplanelosses:432.Tocelebratehisvictory,FuhrerHitlerorderedflagsflownthroughoutGermanyfor

eightdays,bellsrungforthree.AshiswarmachineswungfromFlandersintoactionontheSomme-Aisneline,hedeclared:

“Inasmuchastheenemystillspurnspeace,thefightwillbecarriedontohistotaldestruction.”U.S.correspondentswhoweretakenalongbytheGermansintheirpursuitofthe

AlliestothesearepeatedlyexpressedamazementattheHitlermachine’sfitnessandefficiency.TheysawwindrowsofAlliedbutfewGermancorpses,theGermansystembeingtoburytheirdeadwithinanhourforreasonsofmoraleaswellashygiene.EvenbeforeDunkirk’sfinalfall,massesofGermantroopsbeganmovingtothenewsouthernfront.GermanmechanicsdrovebacklonglinesofabandonedAlliedmotortrucks,camouflagingthemwiththeirownblue-greypaint,loadingthemwithsalvagedpartssuchasbatteries,tires,sparkplugsorwithcapturedgasolineandothersupplies.GermanengineerswerealreadyatworkreconditioningthecapturedChannelports(buttheBritish,aftertwotries,effectivelyblockedZeebruggewithfourshipsfullofconcrete).ReportedbyU.S.correspondentsweresomefinepointsofNazitechnique:

•Inbombingenemycolumns,Germanpilotsaimedtheirmissilesattheroadsides,whencetheirfragmentationwasjustasdevastating,ratherthanblowingholesintheroadsurface,whichmightimpedepursuingGermancolumns.Similarly,inrazedtowns,wholeblocksofhousesweredestroyedwithoutdamagetothestreets.•Cultivatedfields,inwhichharvestswillsoonberipefortheGermanconquerors,werevirtuallyunscathedbybombingorartilleryfire.•Germanofficerscalledthestenchofdeath“theperfumeofbattle.”

TOTHEVICTORSHitler’stroopsraisedtheNaziflag(above)overtheMaginotLine—prideoftheFrenchmilitary—threemonthsafterGermanforcesmarchedintoDunkirk(onthefollowingpage)onJune5,1940.

WELCOMEHOMEReturningsoldierswereembracedasheroes.WhilemostweretransportedfromDunkirktoDover,severalotherEnglishportswereusedaswell,includingFolkestone,Ramsgate,MargateandNewhaven.

TheFightthatFollowedDunkirkwasdecimated,theFrenchmilitarywasintatters

andtherewasstillaWorldWartobewaged

AWAR-TORNCITYDunkirksufferedhorriblyin1940,whenitwasbombedbytheGermansbeforeandduringtheevacuation.Itwasattackedagainin1944–45,duringtheeight-monthSiegeofDunkirk,whenmorethanthree-quartersofthecity'shomesweredestroyed.

ThoseLeftBehindAlliedPOWsfacedfiveyearsofbrutalcaptivity,forced

marchesandexecutions

SurrenderingFrenchsoldierswaitedbythesideoftheroadfortheircaptors.

INNAZIHANDSBritishsoldierscapturedatDunkirktrudgedupasanddunenearaGermanfortification.ManyoftheBritishPOWsweremedicswhorefusedtoleavetheirwoundedpatients.AfterthelastrescueboatsleftDunkirkharboronJune4,1940,theGermanscapturedsome40,000Frenchtroopswho’dbeenleftbehindaswellasatleast40,000BritishsoldiersintheDunkirkvicinity.Theirsisastorythatisoftenoverlooked,butforthenextfiveyears,untilthewar’send,largenumbersofthesePOWswouldbemistreatedandabusedinviolationofGenevaConventionrulesgoverningthesick,wounded,prisonersofwarandcivilians.AsdescribedinDunkirk:TheMenTheyLeftBehind,bySeanLongden,someweresummarilyexecuted.ThePOWsweredeniedfoodandmedicaltreatment.Thewoundedwerejeeredat.Tolowerofficermorale,theNazistoldBritishofficersthattheywouldlosetheirrankandbesenttothesaltminestowork.Theywereforcedtodrinkditchwaterandeatputridfood.AsnotedbyLongden:“Thesedreadfuldayswereneverforgottenbythosewhoenduredthem.Theyhadfoughtthebattlestoensurethesuccessfulevacuationofover300,000fellowsoldiers.TheirsacrificehadbroughtthesalvationoftheBritishnation.Yettheyhadbeenforgottenwhilethosewhoescapedandmadetheirwaybackhomewerehailedasheroes.”ThecrimesbeganasDunkirkwasbeingevacuated.OnMay28,theSSTotenkopf

ThecrimesbeganasDunkirkwasbeingevacuated.OnMay28,theSSTotenkopfDivisionmarchedabout100membersofthe2ndBattalionoftheRoyalNorfolkRegiment,whichhadjustsurrendered,toapitinafarminLeParadisandmurderedthemwithmachinegunspray.Asimilaratrocityunfoldedonthesamedaywiththe2ndBattalionoftheRoyalWarwickshireRegiment,whichhadbeencapturednearWormhout.Theywereforcedintoabarnandmassacredwithgrenades.Asthewardraggedon,forcedmarchesbecamemorecommon,sometimeswithvery

littlefoodornoneatall—oneBritishbattalionreportedreceivingonlytwosugarlumpsandtwotablespoonsofamixtureofcarrotsandpotatoesaday.OnarrivingattrainstationsthePOWswereloadedintocattlecarsfortripstoworksitesinGermanyandPoland.BritishsoldierCharlieWaite’sstorywasnotuncommon.A20-year-oldfromEssex,

WaitewascapturedonMay20.HewasmovedfromplacetoplaceandkeptprisoneronafarminPolandandforcedtoworkthefieldswithNaziguardswatching.Inthefrigidwinterof1944–45,onaforcedmarchofnearlyathousandmilesfromPolandtojustoutsideofBerlin,Waitealmostdied.HefinallywasrescuedinAprilbyAlliedforcesasthewarwasdrawingtoaclose.Hedescribedhistwoforcedmarches,onewhenhewascapturedin1940andthesecondin1945,inhisbook,SurvivoroftheLongMarch:FiveYearsasaPOW:“[Thefirstmarch]wasinhotweatherandIwasstillwearingmygreatcoatbutIwasingoodphysicalshape.Butin1945,wehadtheadditionalchallengesofoneofthecoldestwintersonrecordthatJanuary,ofhavingsufferedyearsofmisery,fear,exhaustionandstarvationandofwatchingfellowmendieandhelpingtoburythembytheroadside.Thosearethingsyouneverforget.”BritishsoldierPeterWagstaffrecalledsimilartreatment.Just20whenhewas

captured,WagstaffandhisfellowPOWswerethreatenedbytheirNazicaptors.Somewerekilled.“TheKommandant,aGermanwecalledthe‘PurpleEmperor,’toldus,‘Ifyoulookoutofthewindowyouaregoingtobeshot.’Oneofficersaidhewasstillgoingtodoit—andhewasshot.Butyoutookitbecauseitwaspartoflife.Youacceptedit.Thiswashappeningallthetime.Youdidn’thavetimetoanalyzeyourself.Youarefightingtokeepalive.”

FRANCESURRENDERSMeanwhile,theFrenchmilitarywasintattersandseemedpoisedfordefeat.FromthedayoftheGermaninvasiononMay10throughtheevacuationofDunkirk,Francehadlost24infantrydivisions,includingsixofsevenmotorizeddivisions.Insteadoffourarmoreddivisionsequippedwith200tankseach,thecountrynowhadthree,each

armoreddivisionsequippedwith200tankseach,thecountrynowhadthree,eachequippedwith40.ThenewFrenchcommander,MaximeWeygand,transferredsoldiersfromtheMaginotLine,butcouldmusteronly43infantrydivisionstofacetheThirdReich’s104.Alliedassistancehaddisappeared.TheBritishhadwithdrawnallbuttwodivisionssouthofDunkirk,andtheBelgianArmyhadsurrendered.TheFrenchwerefurtherhamperedbyalackofstrategicclarity.PremierPaul

ReynaudfavoredaDunkirk-likeevacuationtoNorthAfrica,wherethearmycouldbeprotectedbytheFrenchFleetandtheRoyalNavywhileitreconstituteditself,gatheredadditionalforcesfromtheFrenchcolonialempireandtookdeliveryonafleetofplanesfromtheU.S.CommanderWeygand,however,opposedsuchamoveandvowedtoremainonFrenchsoiltodefendhishomeland.WithinReynaud’scabinet,therewasanappeasementfaction,coalescingaroundDeputyPremierMarshalPétain,whichwasconsideringapotentialdealwithAdolfHitler.GeneralAlanBrookereturnedtoFrancetocommandthefewremainingBritishunits

andjudgedthesituationuntenable.InatenseconversationwithChurchill,Brookedemandedafurtherevacuation,andwhenChurchillarguedthataBritishpresencewasneededtomaketheFrenchfeelsupported,Brookereplied:“Itisimpossibletomakeacorpsefeel.”TheFrenchfoughtaswellastheycould,relyingonsmallgroupsoftroopsand

armamentsgatheredintotightfactionscalled“Hedgehogs.”FromJune5toJune7,thesepocketsofresistanceslowedtheGermansastheycrossedthemarshesoftheSommeRiveratHangstinthewestandatPéronneintheeast.AtAmiens,90milesnorthwestofParis,theGerman10thPanzerDivisionlosttwothirdsofitstanksinjustthreedays.The7thPanzerDivision,ledbyErwinRommel,finallybrokethroughinthewestandcharged20milessouthoftheSommetocutoffoneBritishdivision,whichretreatedandlaterevacuated.Asthedaysproceeded,RommelsimplydirectedhisPanzersaroundtheremainingHedgehogs,andtheFrenchwereunabletomountaneffectivecounterattack.Itdidn’ttakelongfortheGermans,whosePanzerswererollingrapidlythroughthe

country,toweardowntheFrench.ParisfellonJune14.OnJune17,Rommelcovered150mileswestwardandonJune19hecapturedCherbourg.TheFrenchgovernment,whichhadbeeninastateofcrisisforweeks,signedanarmisticeonJune22.TheagreementdividedFranceintotwoparts,thenorthernhalfunderdirectGermanoccupationandthesouthunderapuppetregimeledbyPétain.IthadtakentheGermansjust18daysafterDunkirktocaptureFrance.

BRITISHFORTITUDE

BritainnowstoodaloneagainsttheNazisandmanywonderedwhetheritwouldbethenexttoconcede.SomemembersoftheBritishgovernment,beginningtoregrettheriseoftheuncompromisingChurchill,consideredwhatsortofanagreementmightbereachedwiththeGermanleader.HitlertentativelyplannedforaBritishinvasion,code-namedOperationSeaLion,butheknewthatsuchanincursionwouldberisky,difficultandverycostly,andsohewaitedforaBritishpeaceoffer.Churchillwashavingnoneofit.BrilliantlyspinningthedefeatatDunkirkintoan

expressionofthe“Dunkirkspirit,”ChurchillurgedhispeopletodisplaythegritoftheBritishtroopsandthecan-doattitudeofcivilianswhovolunteeredtheirshipsfortherescueoperation.HequicklyreplacedtheequipmentlostinFrance.HebegancultivatingarelationshipwithU.S.PresidentFranklinRoosevelt,whosignaledhisintentiontoassisttheBritishinanywayhecould.AndinJuly,whenHitler’sbombersbeganattackingEnglishcitiesinanefforttoforcesurrender,Churchillpreparedthenationforthethree-month-longsiegethatwouldcometobecalledtheBattleofBritain.OnAugust20,astheaerialconflictentereditsmostintensestage,Churchilltookto

theairwaystopaytributetothecourageouspilotsoftheRAF:“ThegratitudeofeveryhomeinourIsland,inourEmpire,andindeedthroughouttheworldexceptintheabodesoftheguilty,goesouttotheBritishairmenwho,undauntedbyodds,unweariedintheirconstantchallengeandmortaldanger,areturningthetideoftheworldwarbytheirprowessandbytheirdevotion.Neverinthefieldofhumanconflictwassomuchowedbysomanytosofew.”OnSeptember15,theLuftwaffelaunchedover1,000aircraftinthecampaign’smost

concentratedbombingraidyetagainstLondon.Theassaultfailedtoproducethedesiredresults,withtheBritishcapitalescapingseriousharm.Instead,20Germanplanesweredamagedandanother60shotdown.Tocuthislosses,HitlerscaledbacktheraidsinfavorofthelimitednighttimestrikesknownastheBlitz,whichcontinueduntilMay1941.TheRAFhadstooduptotheLuftwaffeandwon.ThethreatofaGermaninvasion

wasover.Soon,asChurchillpredicted,the“tideoftheworldwar”wouldshifttowardtheforcesoffreedom.Duringthenextfiveyears,ChurchillandtheBritishleadershipwereabletoexpandthesizeoftheBritisharmy,addnewplanestotheresourcesoftheRAF,repairandreplacetheshipslostatDunkirkandreestablishtheBritishNavyasoneofthemostpowerfulintheworld.Newlyfortified,BritishsoldiersfoughtagainstadvancesinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastbytheAxisforces.WithoutDunkirk,noneofthiswouldhavebeenpossible,norwouldBritainhavebeen

abletoholdoutuntilDecember1941andtheJapaneseattackonPearlHarbor,whichbroughttheAmericansintothewarasacriticalally.

broughttheAmericansintothewarasacriticalally.WhentheAlliedforceslandedinNormandyonD-Day,June6,1944,threeofthe

eightdivisionsthattookpartwereBritish.TwoweredroppedfromtheairandonearrivedbyshipandstormedthebeachesbesideitsAmericanallies.Thevictorythatfollowedwassweetforallinvolved,butfortheBritish,itwasmorethanthat.Itwasredemption.

REFUGEESManyDunkirkresidentsfledtheaerialbombardmentthatraineddownontheirtownin1940;atleast1,000citizenswerekilledbythebombs.

GermansoldiershoistedNazibannersinnorthernFrance.

OCCUPIEDFRANCECiviliansinParis,suchasthisartistsketchingaGermansoldier,continuedtheirroutinesaftertheFrenchcapitulated.

PARISCONQUEREDMountedsoldiersoftheWehrmachtrodeawayfromtheArcdeTriompheafterthefallofParisonJune14,1940.TwomillionParisianshadalreadyfled.

WARINTHEAIRThepilotsoftheRAF,happytoreturnhomesafelyafterabombingrun,downed244GermanplanesoverDunkirkandbecamenationalheroes.

PHOTOCREDITSThenumbersinthissectionreferencethepagenumbersoftheprintversionofthistext.Frontcover:©20thCenturyFoxFilmCorporation,CourtesyPhotofestPage1:Popperfoto/GettyImagesPages2–3:Mirrorpix/GettyImagesPage4–5:HistoryDeptofUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyPages6–7:Popperfoto/GettyImagesPages8–9:FoxPhotos/GettyImagesPages10–11:APPhotoPages12–13:Corbis/GettyImagesPage14:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage15:HultonArchive/GettyImagesPage16:BettmannArchive/GettyImagesPage17:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage18:UIG/GettyImagesPage20:Mondadori/GettyImagesPage21:Corbis/GettyImagesPage22:Popperfoto/GettyImagesPage23:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage24:TheLIFEPictureCollection/GettyImagesPage26:Popperfoto/GettyImagesPage27:BettmannArchive/GettyImages(2)Pages28–29:IWM/GettyImagesPage30:HultonArchive/GettyImagesPage31:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage32:Mondadori/GettyImagesPage33:RogerViollet/GettyImagesPages34–35:HultonArchive/GettyImagesPages36–37:HultonArchive/GettyImagesPage38:HistoryDeptofUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyPage39:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage40:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage41:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage42(top):IWM/GettyImagesPage42(bottom):APImagesPage43(top):UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage43(guns):AlamyImages(3)Pages44–45:BettmannArchive/GettyImagesPage46:HultonArchive/GettyImagesPage47:UIG/GettyImagesPage48:HistoryDeptofUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyPage49:BettmannArchive/GettyImagesPage50:APImagesPage51:Gamma/Keystone/GettyImagesPages52–53:Mondadori/GettyImagesPage55:Popperfoto/GettyImagesPage57:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPages58–59:UllsteinBild/GettyImagesPage61:TheLIFEPictureCollection/GettyImagesPage62:TheLIFEPictureCollection/GettyImagesPage63:Corbis/GettyImagesPages64–65:Popperfoto/GettyImagesPage67:UIG/GettyImagesPage68:Corbis/GettyImagesPage69:HultonArchive/GettyImages(Adam);Popperfoto/Getty(Brooks,Tennant)Page70:HultonArchive/GettyImagesPage71:GettyImages

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SAFEPASSAGECrewmembersfromaFrenchdestroyer,sunkbyamineinDunkirkharbor,wererescuedbyaBritishvessel.

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