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Overview of hypo and hyperthyroidism, diagnosis and management
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THYROID DISORDERS
Dr. Gagan V
Anatomy and Histology
• 15 – 20 g• Two lobes and isthmus, pyramidal lobe• Right lobe more vascular than left lobe• Blood supply– Sup. Thyroid Artery – Ext. Carotid Artery– Inf. Thyroid Artery – Subclavian Artery
• Follicles – closely packed spherical units• Rich capillary network• Interior of follicle – thick proteinaceous colloid• Diameter – 200 µm• Follicular cells– Cuboidal – inactive– Columnar - active
Regulation of Thyroid Axis
• TSH – – Thyrotrope cells of ant. Pituitary– 31 kDa hormone α and β subunits– α subunit similar to LH, FSH and hCG– Stimulated by TRH– TSH, TRH supressed by Thyroxine– Pulsatile secretion– Long half life (50 minutes)
• Iodine primarily derived from diet• RDA of iodine• Adults – 150 µg• Children – 90 – 120 µg• Pregnancy – 200 µg• Urinary iodine is >10 g/dL in iodine-sufficient
populations• Plasma iodide partly replenished from thyroid
loss, peripheral deiodination
CLASSIFICATION
• Primary hypothyroidism with Goitre – Acquired Iodine deficiency(MCC)
• Hashimoto’s (autoimmune type 2A)• Drugs synthesis or release of T4
(lithium,ethionamide,sulfonamides,iodide)• Food goitrogens or as endemic substances or pollutants• Thyroid infiltration (Reidels struma,cystinosis,scleroderma)• sarcoidosis,amyloidosis,hemochromatosis.
– Congenital • Iodide transport or utilization defect• Iodotyrosine dehalogenase deficiency• Organification disorders• Defects in thyroglobulin synthesis or processing
• Atrophic hypothyroidism– Acquired
• Hashimoto’s disease (autoimmune thyroiditis type 2B)• Post ablative-follows surgery,I131 radiation
• Congenital• Thyroid agenesis or dysplasia (80-85% of neonatal
hypothyroidism)• TSH receptor defects• Thyroidal Gs protein abnormalities• Idiopathic TSH unresponsiveness
• Transient (post thyroiditis) hypothyroidism– Following subacute.painless, or post partum
thyroiditis• Consumptive hypothyroidism– D3 over expression in hemangiomas
• Central hypothyroidism– Acquired
• Pituitary origin (secondary)• Hypothalamic disorders (tertiary)• Bexarotene (RXR receptor agonist)• Dopamine and or severe illness
– Congenital • TSH deficiency or structural abnormality• TSH receptor defect
Thyroid Hormone Resistance
• autosomal dominant disorder
• characterized by elevated thyroid hormone levels and inappropriately normal or elevated TSH
• . do not, in general, exhibit signs and symptoms that are typical of hypothyroidism because hormone resistance is partial and is compensated by increased levels of thyroid hormone
• . The clinical features of RTH can include goiter, attention deficit disorder, mild reduction in IQ, delayed skeletal maturation, tachycardia, and impaired metabolic responses to thyroid hormone.
• mutations in the TR receptor gene.
• . The diagnosis is suspected when unbound thyroid hormone levels are increased without suppression of TSH.
• RTH must be distinguished from other causes of euthyroid
hyperthyroxinemia (e.g., FDH) and inappropriate secretion of TSH by TSH-secreting pituitary adenomas (Chap. 333).
.
RTH
• In most patients, no treatment is indicated; the importance of making the diagnosis is to avoid inappropriate treatment of mistaken hyperthyroidism and to provide genetic counseling
euthyroid hyperthyroxinemia
• These disorders result in increased total T4 and/or T3, but unbound hormone levels are normal.
• Usually caused by mutations that affects TBG,Tranthyretin, or albumin
CLINICAL FEATURESMechanism
Symptoms Signs
Slowing of metabolic processes
Fatigue and weakness
Cold intolerance
Dyspnea on exertion
Weight gain
Cognitive dysfunction
Mental retardation (infant)
Constipation
Growth failure
Slow movement and slow speech
Delayed relaxation of tendon reflexes
Bradycardia
Carotenemia
Accumulation of matrix substances
Dry skin
Hoarseness
Edema
Coarse skin
Puffy facies and loss of eyebrows
Periorbital edema
Enlargement of the tongue
Other Decreased hearing
Myalgia and paresthesia
Depression
Menorrhagia
Arthralgia
Pubertal delay
Diastolic hypertension
Pleural and pericardial effusions
Ascites
Galactorrhea
CLINICAL FEATURES
SKIN AND APPENDAGES
• Dry coarse skin• Pale cool extremities• Carotenemia• Poor wound healing • Easy bruisability• Dry brittle hair&nail
• Accumulation of hyaluronic acid, hygroscopic• Mucinious edema, boggy, non pitting• Eyes, dorsa of hand and feet, supraclavicular
fossae• Tongue enlargement, thickening pf pharyngeal
and laryngeal membranes• Decreased secretion of sweat and sebaceous
glands
• Skin wounds heal slowly• Increase capillary fragility – easy bruisability• Hair lost from temporal aspect of eyebrow –
Queen Annes sign
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM• Decreased cardiac output at rest– Decreased stroke volume, heart rate– Increased peripheral vascular resistance
• Pericardial effusions(myxedema heart)– Protein rich, glycosaminoglycans
• Reversible diastolic hypertension• Asymmetric septal hypertrophy
Angina may appear/worsen during treatment initiation
ECG◦sinus bradycardia,◦PR prolongation,◦ low amplitude complexes,◦altered ST segment◦CHB
◦Echo◦Resting LV diastolic dysfunction
• Combination of large heart, hemodynamic and electrocardiographic changes and serum enzyme changes – myxedema heart
• Thyroid replacement reverts to normal• Increased Total and LDL cholesterol– Reduced on thyroxine initiation– No change in HDL levels
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM• Hoarse voice• Pleural effusion– Radiological – Rarely cause dyspnoea
• Myxedematous involvement of resp muscles and depression of respiratory drives– Decreased alveolar ventilation – Carbon dioxide retention
• Obstructive Sleep Apnoea common
ALIMENTARY TRACT• Decreased apetite• Modest weight gain(fluid retention) 10% of
body weight• Constipation(myxedema megacolon)• Myxedema ileus• Ascites(raised protein glycosaminoglycans)• Pernicious anemia(autoimmune)• Raised CEA, raised aminotranferases due to
decreased clearance
CNS & PNS
• Decreased CBF• Defective
memory,lethargy,somnolence
• A/C psychiatric illness• Headache,syncope• Night blindness,• SNHL(PENDRED)
• Cerebellar ataxia• CTS• Reversible dementia• Infancy-MR• Delayed
relaxation(hung up reflex)
MUSCULO SKELETAL SYSTEM• Weakness,cramps worsened by cold• Arthralgia• Increased muscle mass-firm• Role in bone maturation• Short limb dwarfism(Bone age<chr age)• Epiphyseal dysgenesis(x ray)• Myoclonus
RENAL • Decreased RBF &GFR• Increased uric acid • Decreased urine flow • Reversal of (n)diurnal pattern of urine
excretion• Mild proteinuria
HEMATOPOIETIC• Decreased RBC mass(low EPO)• NN anemia(macrocytic,microcytic)• Decreased factor8,9-bleeding
tendency
PITUITORY & ADRENOCORTICAL FN.• Enlarged pituitary, hyperplasia of thyrotropes,
rarely mass effect• Raised prolactin(galactorrhea)• Urinary cortisol decreases,plasma level normal• Long standing primary hypothyroidism,
adrenocortical insufficiency may be precipitated by thyroxine/stress
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM• Sexual immaturity• Delay in puberty, Anovulaton• Menorrhagia, amenorrhea• Impotence, oligospermia• Precocious sexual development -rarely in
primary hypothyroidism
ENERGY & METABOLISM• Low BMR• Positive nitrogen balance• Decreased secretion of GH• Serum proteins increase• Decreased glucose uptake by adipose
tissue and skeletal muscles• Insulin response to glucose delayed• Increased sensitivity to exogenous insulin
• True obesity is rare in hypothyroidism• Raised LDL & TG,low HDL• Hyperhomocystinemia-lead to
atherosclerosis• Hyponatremia• Hypoglycemia
DIAGNOSIS• Decreased freeT4,raised TSH : primary
hypothyroidism• Decreased TSH, Decreased Free T4, in
secondary(central)• Degree of TSH elevation correlates with severity.• Free T4 is done in pregnancy • Anti thyroglobulin and anti TPO Ab: Hashimoto’s• Absence of TPO Ab: post undiagnosed
subacute/viral thyroiditis/ post hyperthroid hpothyroidism
• TSH may take several months to reach normal
INDIVIDUAL CAUSES
• Hashimotos thyroiditis– Most common cause of hypothyroidism in
areas with sufficient dietary intake– There is mononuclear cell infiltrate and
destruction of follicles– Chronic thyroiditis defined as evidence of
intrathyroidal lymphocytic infiltration.mainly Tcell mediated destruction
– Occurs more commonly in women,prevalence increases with age
– Auto immune thyroiditis leads on to thyroid cell apoptosis leading to follicular destruction
– Almost 90% destruction before symptoms manifest
– HLA DR-3 ,HLA-DR5,seen with Downs syndrome and gonadal dysgenesis,polymorphisms in CTLA4
– Pregnancy ,drugs,low doses of irradiation,certain viral infections may increase risk
– Goiter hallmark finding,moderate size firm,freely mobile,lymph node enlargement unusual
– Increased prevalence of thyroid carcinoma– Diagnosis confirmed by autoantibodies,TPO AB more
common than TyAb
• Iodine deficiency– Thyroid iodine clearance rates and RAIU are
increased– Decreased urinary excretion of stable iodine– Results in cretinism
• Drugs – Lithium inhibits thyroid hormone release and
in high conc. can inhibit organic binding reactions
– Underlying autoimmune disease increase susceptibility
DRUGS
• Lithium• Propylthiouracil• Methimazole• Amiodarone• Interferon alfa• Interleukin 2
FOOD GOITROGENS
• Turnip • Cassava• Selenium deficiency
• Atrophic hypothyroiodism– (primary myxedema)– More common in women between ages of
40 and 60– May represent end stage of an autoimmune
thyroiditis in which goiter did not devolop or went unnoticed
– May be associated with TSH receptor blocking antibodies
• Post ablative hypothyroidism• Following total/subtotal thyroiodectomy• Subtotal resection of the diff.goiter of gravesor multinodular
goiter• Radioiodine treatment
– Manifests during the first yr after surgery– FT4I is low in patients with postablative
hypothyroidism,serum TSHlevels may be anomalously low for several months
• Transient hypothyroidism defined as period of reduced fT4I with supressed, normal or elevated,TSH levels that are eventually followed by a euthyroid state
• Seen with post viral,postpartum thyroiditis,painless lymphocytic thyroiditis
– Mild to moderate symptoms of hypothyroidism
– May have a transient period of hyperthyroidism
• Consumptive– Seen with hemangiomas– Due to increased expression of D3deiodinase
enzyme– Serum reverse T3 elevated– Thyroglobulin >1000 ng/ml
• Central hypothyroidism– Due to TSH deficiency caused by acquired or
congenital pituitary(secondary hypothyroidism) and hypothalamic origins (tertiary hypothyroidism)
– Decreased secretions of other hormones– Hypothyroidism due to central cause milder
than primary
• Subclinical hypothyroidism • Asymptomatic pt with – low normalT4– slightly elevated TSH(5.5-15MIU/L)
• Seen in hashimoto/graves after treatment with Sx/Radioiodine
• Asso.with Type I DM,PBC,pernicious anemia.• Presence of TPO Ab will require therapy• If no therapy ,patients to be monitored 6 -12
monthly both clinically and biochemically• Treat with T4(low dose)
Sick Euthyroid Syndrome
• Any acute, severe illness cause abnormalities of circulating TSH or thyroid hormone levels in the absence of underlying thyroid disease
• A decrease in total and unbound T3 levels (low T3 syndrome) with normal levels of T4 and TSH(MC)
• The magnitude of the fall in T3 correlates with the severity of the illness.
• increased reverse T3 (rT3)
• (low T4 syndrome) has a poor prognosis
TREATMENT OF HYPOTHYROIDISM
• T4 is the choice• Replacement dose-1.6 – 1.8 µg/kg bwt(lean body
mass)• Start with replacement dose initially except in elderly
and CAD• R/o adrenal insufficiency before Rx• Hypothyroidism after graves-lower doses(as there is
underlying autonomous function)• Dose adjusted on basis of TSH levels and clinical
assessment• the goal of treatment being a normal TSH, ideally in
the lower half of the reference range ( 0.4-2.5 )
• TSH measured after 2 months• Clinical effects may lag behind(3-6 mon)• Increments in 12.5-25microgram dose• Over Rx-AF, osteoporosis,pseudotumour
cerebri in children• Once TSH stable-yearly checkup with TSH• T3 not used because of short t1/2
Advice to patients
• Levothyroxine has a t1/2 of 7 days &it will take a week or more to start feeling better. If one tablet is missed out there will be no noticeable effect
• If muscle stiffness, weakness, or cognitive defects are present these may take upto 6 months to fully resolve
• Levothyroxine should be taken in empty stomach to maximise absorption
• Treatment is generally lifelong
• Early clinical response in moderate to severe hypothyroidism is a diuresis of 2-4Kg
• Serum sodium level rises • Thereafter pulse rate ,pulse pressure increases,
appetite improves and constipation disappears.• Psychomotor activity increases, delay in reflexes
disappears• Hoarseness abates slowly and skin changes
clears late.
• For rapid control T4 intravenous 500 microgram single dose
• Or orally T3 25 microgram orally every 12 hrs
Hypothyroidism and pregnancy
• Increased requirements(also during estrogen Rx)
• Increase dose by 30%• TSH meaured once every trimester• Try to achieve euthyroidism prior to
conception
Special considerations
• ELDERLY-Start with lower dosage• CAD-Start at 25-50 and gradually increase
every 2-3 months• EMERGENCY Sx-safe(routine sx-defer until
euthyroid)
Potential causes of TSH elevation in thyroxine-treated patients with primary hypothyroidism
• Suboptimal dosing • Inadequate prescribed dosage • Noncompliance • Dispensing error (incorrect dose or
formulation change)
Progressive decrease in endogenous thyroxine production
• Autoimmune thyroiditis • Previous thyroid irradiation
Reduced thyroxine absorption
• Iron• Calcium carbonate • Cholestyramine • Aluminum hydroxide gel • Sucralfate • Dietary soy and fiber
Co morbid conditions
• Disorders causing malabsorption - eg, coeliac disease
• Previous small bowel surgery
Drug interactions
• Phenytoin • Carbamazepine • Phenobarbital • Rifampin
Coexisting conditions
• Pregnancy • Nephrotic syndrome • Other systemic illnesses
MYXEDEMA COMA
• Ultimate stage of severe long standing hypothyroidism
• Mostly in older patients• Hypothermia is charecterestic• All manifestations of hypothyroidism are florid
seizures can occur• Delayed relaxation may be lackinf if areflexic• Alveolar hypoventilation ,narcosis and SIADH
MYXEDEMA COMA• PPTED BY • Infection• CHF• MI• GI bleed• CVA• Drugs-
sedatives,anaesthetics,antidepressants
CLINICAL FEATURES• Hypotension• Hypothermia• Hypoglycemia• Hyponatremia• Hypoventilation&
hypercapnia• Seizures
MYXEDEMA COMA• Levothyroxine 500-800microgram iv
bolus(nasogastric route also) followed by 50-100 microgram daily
OR• T3 10-25 microgram BD (Side effect :arrhythmia)
• Hydocortisone 5-10 mg/hr 50 mg Q6H• Combined T4 200 +T3 25 iv bolus followed by 25 T3
and 100 T4 after 24 hrs and 50 T4 daily• Supportive treatment and mechanical ventilation
Thyrotoxicosis refers to the clinical syndrome in
which free triiodothyronine (T3), free thyroxine
(T4), or both are elevated and the peripheral
tissues are hypermetabolic, irrespective of the
source of the excess hormones.
• Primary hyperthyroidism – Graves' disease (60-80%)– Toxic multinodular goiter – Toxic adenoma – Functioning thyroid carcinoma metastases – Activating mutation of the TSH receptor – Activating mutation of Gs (McCune-Albright
syndrome)– – Struma ovarii – Drugs: iodine excess (Jod-Basedow
phenomenon) • Thyrotoxicosis without hyperthyroidism
– Subacute thyroiditis – Silent thyroiditis – Other causes of thyroid destruction:
amiodarone, radiation, infarction of adenoma
– Ingestion of excess thyroid hormone (thyrotoxicosis factitia) or thyroid tissue
• Secondary hyperthyroidism – TSH-secreting pituitary
adenoma – Thyroid hormone
resistance syndrome: occasional patients may have features of thyrotoxicosis
– Chorionic gonadotropin-secreting tumours
– Gestational thyrotoxicosis
Heat intolerance, palpitations,anxiety, fatigue, weight loss, and irregular menses.
Tremor, tachycardia, wide pulse pressure, lid lag, and warm, moist skin
Gynecomastia, and spider angiomas.
Hyperglycemia, hypercalcemia, elevated ALP
Leukocytosis, and elevated liver enzymes
Polycythemia
Osteopenia & fracture
Alopecia
Onycholysis , pruritis , diffuse hyperpigmentation.
Normochromic normocytic anemia
Serum ferritin may be high
Grave’s disese
– ITP , spleenomegaly, lymphadenopathy
– Pernicious anemia
– Anti-neutrophilic antibody
Urinary frequency and nocturia
Graves’ disease –
Diffuse, nontender, symmetric goiter
Ophthalmopathy, consisting of protrusion of the orbits,
periorbital soft tissue swelling, inflammation, and
extraocular muscle dysfunction
Graves’ dermopathy with characteristic thickened skin
plaques, usually over the lower extremities, accompanied
by nonpitting edema
Thyroid Acropachy
Investigation
TFT : TSH by ICLA and T3 & T4 by RIA
Anti TPO antibody , TSI
USG thyroid & FNAC
RAIU
Radioiodine scan
With Graves’ disease and toxic nodular goiter, there tends
to be a higher proportion of T3, with a T3/ T4 ratio of
greater than 20.
With thyrotoxicosis caused by thyroiditis, iodine exposure,
or exogenous levothyroxine intake, there is generally a
greater proportion of T4, with a T3/ T4 ratio of less than
15
TSHR antibodies are detectable only in
autoimmune thyroid disease.
Persistence after treatment is predictive of
treatment failure.
Indication : Euthyroid exophthalmos
Pregnancy
During therapy
Doppler USG
Typically, a thyroid gland secreting excessive
hormones would be enlarged and have enhanced
Doppler flow.
In subacute, postpartum, or silent thyroiditis, or
exogenous causes of hyperthyroidism, the
thyroid gland would be expected to be small, with
decreased Doppler flow.
Therapeutic approaches
Antithyroid drugs
Radioiodine
Surgery
Thionamides
Inhibiting the iodination of tyrosines and coupling of the
iodotyrosines to form T3 and T4 in the thyroid.
Decreases concentrations of thyroid stimulating antibodies in
Graves’ disease
Decreases peripheral conversion of T4 to the active hormone
T3
Titration regimen
Starting doseMMI 20 mg to 30 mg dailyPTU 100 mg three times daily
Dose titrated based on unbound T4
Thyroid function tests are repeated every 4 to
6 weeks for the first 4 to 6 months .
On average, 30% to 40% of patients treated
with antithyroid drugs go into remission
lasting 10 years or more
Treatment with PTU or MMI for 12 to 18
months or longer results in long-term
remission in 40% to 60% of patients with
Graves’ disease, but the remission rate is lower
in patients treated for a shorter period of time
Franklyn JA. The management of hyperthyroidism. N Engl J
Med 1994;330(24):1731–8.
Larger goiter size, younger age, and higher
pretreatment serum T3 levels predict a longer
duration to euthyroidism with MMI treatment,
and poorer long-term remission rates Allahabadia A, Daykin J, Holder RL, treatment for Graves
hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85(3):1038–42.
Block-replace regimen*
The initial dose of antithyroid drug is held
constant and the dose of L thyroxine is adjusted
to maintain normal unbound T4 levels. Here starting dose is high
Maxi remission rate are achieved by 6 mon *BMJ 332 1369 - 2006
The doses of these drugs do not need to be
altered in children, the elderly, or persons
with renal failure
Adverse effects
Fever, rash, urticaria, and arthralgias occur in
1% to 5%, more common at higher doses.
Change the patient to another thionamide.
Arthralgias, classified as a “minor” reaction,
should prompt drug discontinuation, since this
symptom may be a harbinger of a severe
transient migratory polyarthritis known as
“the antithyroid arthritis syndrome.”
Agranulocytosis occurs in 0.5% of patients treated
with methimazole or PTU . The effect appears to be
dose-mediated for methimazole, with an increased
risk for agranulocytosis in patients taking more than
40 mg daily
PTU-associated agranulocytosis is not dose-related .
If agranulocytosis develops, thionamide
medications must be immediately discontinued
Most cases of agranulocytosis occur within the
first 90 days of treatment, but this
complication can occur even a year or more
after starting therapy
Drug discontinued if the granulocyte count is
less than 1000/mm3
Close monitoring of the granulocyte count if it
is between 1000-1500 /mm3
Prospective monitoring of the WBC count on
follow-up visits is not recommended, since the
onset of agranulocytosis is typically acute and
not detected by periodic surveillance.
PTU-induced hepatotoxicity manifests as acute
hepatitis which resolves with removal of the
PTU; may progress to fulminant hepatic failure
Patients taking methimazole may develop a
reversible cholestasis
ANCA, primarily p-ANCA, is present in 20% of patients on PTU
therapy
Taking PTU for a longer duration are more likely to develop ANCA
positivity , and titers may decrease after discontinuation of PTU.
ANCA-positive vasculitis is rare (arthralgias, skin lesions, renal
manifestations, fever, and alveolar hemorrhage)
Sato H, Hattori M, et al. High prevalence of ANCA positivity in Graves’ disease treated with PTU. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85(11):4270
Methimazole has been associated with rare
occurences of cutis aplasia , oesophageal &
choanal atresia.
Indications for thionamides
Graves disease for long term remission
Toxic nodular goitre prior to surgery to control
toxicity
Prior to Radioiodine therapy to prevent crisis
Pregnant and lactating women
Inorganic iodide ( SSKI or Lugol’s solution)
decreases thyroid hormone synthesis in the
short term (Wolff-Chaikoff effect)
Iopanoic acid, an iodine-rich oral
cholecystographic agent, is a potent inhibitor of
the conversion of T4 to T3
Beta blockers
Glucocorticoids (inhibit conversion of T4 –T3)
Cholestyramine (more rapid decrease in
circulating hormone levels.)
Potassium perchlorate competitively inhibits
transport of iodide into the thyroid.
Radioactive iodine
I 131
5-15 mCi
Post procedure prevent spread of RaI
Oral contraceptives
80% to 90% of patients become euthyroid
within 8 weeks of a single dose ; remaining
10% to 20% require a second, or even a third
dose of radioactive iodine
Complications
Ultimately causes permanent hypothyroidism
in over 90% of treated patients .
Depends on the dosage.
10 % in first year; 5% per year thereafter.
Radiation thyroiditis
Worsened thyrotoxicosis
Development or progression of Graves’
ophthalmopathy (prevented by cotreatment
with glucocorticoids)
Precautions
Most radioactive iodine is eliminated in the
urine, saliva and feces in 4-8 weeks.
Have double flushing of toilet and frequent hand
washing for several weeks
No close contact with children and pregnant
patients for 48-72 hours
Follow up Thyroid function returns to normal in 2 to 6
months.
Hypothyroidism occurs within 4 to 12 months as
a natural complication of the radioiodine; as a
consequence, lifelong therapy with L-
thyroxine is routine
Indications for RaI
Graves disease in elderly, even adolescents
Hyperfunctioning nodule.
Surgical
Subtotal thyroidectomy results in a rapid cure
of hyperthyroidism in over 90% of cases
Patients are frequently treated with inorganic
iodide for 10 to 14 days before thyroidectomy.
Transient hypocalcemia is seen in up to 25% of
post-thyroidectomy patients
Hypothyroidism may develop in upto 80% of
patients in the year following surgery
Indication for Surgery
Graves disease with large goitre, not
responding to drugs, associated
ophthalmopathy , pregnancy
Toxic nodular goitre
Considerations in the treatment of hyperthyroidism
Cause & Severity of hyperthyroidism
Patient preference
Patient age
Goiter size
Patient compliance
Presence of ophthalmopathy (in Graves’disease)
Pregnancy (current or planned) ; Lactation
Subacute thyroiditis
• Aspirin or NSAIDS
• Glucocorticoid therapy: prednisone 40 to 60
mg OD for a week, followed by gradual
tapering over 4 weeks.
• Thyrotoxicosis generally resolves
spontaneously
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