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Rennebohm Hall nUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison School of
Pharmacy 777 Highland Avenue nMadison, WI
[email protected]
ThisslidepresentationwascompiledandproducedbyRobertMcCarthy,Ph.D.,ProfessorandDeanEmeritusattheUniversityofConnecticutSchoolofPharmacyforhisclass“TheHistoryofAmericanPharmacy.”Prof.McCarthycreatedthisversionoftheslidetalkforhisclassintheSpringof2016.ThisslidepresentationwasdownloadedfromtheTeachingtheHistoryofPharmacysectionofthewebsiteoftheAmericanInstituteoftheHistoryofPharmacy(https://aihp.org/historical-resources/teaching-the-history-of-pharmacy/)whereacopyofthesyllabus(.pdf)forProf.McCarthy’sclassisalsoavailable.This.pdfcopyoftheslidepresentationwassharedwiththepermissionofProf.RobertMcCarthyforthepersonalandeducationaluseofinterestedreaders.
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PHRX4001W-002TheHistoryofAmericanPharmacy
Spring2016
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Althoughmedicalschoolsbegantobeestablishedinthe18thcentury,pharmacycontinuedtouseannon-standardized,apprenticeshipmodel.
Giventhescarcityofapothecaries,physicianswouldoftenprovidetheapprenticeship,whichmayhavebeenviaanindentureforaperiodof5-7years.
1854:APhA’sCommitteeonEducationurgeddrugclerks(employeepharmacists)toreadthepharmacyliterature,butdidnotadvocateformaleducationforpharmacists.
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PriortotheendoftheCivilWar,formalpharmacyeducationwasonlyavailableinAmericanataNewOrleansmedicalschoolandatsixindependentschoolsoperatedbylocalpharmacyassociations;theseschoolsweretosupplementapprenticetrainingnotreplaceit.
Thefirstschoolsofpharmacy:Philadelphia(1821),Massachusetts(1823),NewYork(1829),Baltimore(1841),Cincinnati(1850),Chicago(1859),andSt.Louis(1865)
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Lecturesattheseearlypharmacyschoolswereprovidedduringtheeveningbyphysiciansand“master”pharmacists.
Theseschoolshadnoadmissionrequirementsandlittlelaboratoryinstruction.
Graduaterequirements:passanexaminationandcompletea4yearapprenticeship
Before1860,lessthan5%ofallAmericanpharmacistsgraduatedfromtheseschools;in1873,therewere12Americanschoolsofpharmacywithanenrollmentoflessthan600students.
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PracticalPharmacy:TheArrangements,Apparatus,andManipulationsofthePharmaceuticalShopandLaboratory(1849)—WilliamProcter,Jr.:“FatherofAmericanPharmacy;”duringhislifehewasapractitioner,teacher,scientist,author,andeditor
AnIntroductiontoPracticalPharmacy:DesignedasaText-bookfortheStudent,andasaGuidetothePhysicianandPharmaceutist(1856)—EdwardParrish:firstAmericantextbookbasedonAmericansources
PracticeofPharmacy(laterreferredtoasRemington’sPharmaceuticalSciencesandnowtitledRemington:TheScienceandPracticeofPharmacyorsimplyknownas“Remington’s;”1885)—JosephRemington:latesteditionisstillusedtoday
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MorrillAct(1862):createdthelandgrantuniversity(UConnisone),whichprovidedfederallandtoeachstatethatcouldbesoldtofundtheestablishmentofauniversitythattaughttheagriculturalandmechanicalsciences
Anumberofpharmacyschoolsultimatelywereestablishedatorjoinedtheselandgrantuniversities.
TheConnecticutCollegeofPharmacy,establishedin1925,officiallyjoinedUConnin1941,althoughitwouldbe10yearsbeforeitmovedfromNewHaventoStorrs.
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1870:Firstconventionofdelegatesfromschoolsofpharmacy;theirgoalwastoattempttodevelopstandardsforallpharmacygraduatesacrossthenation(therewereconcernsabouttheUniversityofMichiganprogram,thefirstpharmacyprogramatapublicinstitution,thatdidnotrequireanapprenticeship,butdidofferlaboratorytraining)
Duringthisperiod,therewasageneralbeliefthatpharmacycouldonlybelearnedthroughanapprenticeshipandschoolsthatgraduatedpharmacistswithoutanapprenticeshipwerenotcompetenttopractice.
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1874:ConferenceofSchoolsofPharmacy(establishedbyAPhA)
AgreedthatpharmacygraduateswouldreceiveaPh.G.
(GraduateinPharmacy)diploma(UniversityofMichiganawardedthePh.C.[PharmaceuticalChemist])
TennesseeCollegeofPharmacywasnearlyexpelledforawardingtheDoctorofPharmacy(Pharm.D)forthesamerequirementsasthePh.G.
Importantpoint:Schoolsofpharmacywereoftenpreventedfrommakingneededchangesbythestateassociationsthatestablishedandoperatedthem;thisledtothedissolutionoftheConferenceofSchoolsofPharmacyin1883.
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Albert Benjamin Prescott (1832–1905) transformed American
pharmacy education by creating a full-time university-based program
of study leading to a pharmacy degree in 1868 at the University of
Michigan. Within 30 years, every pharmacy program in the country
followed the model he established.
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CorrespondenceCourses
NationalInstituteofPharmacy:24lecturesthatcouldbecompletedinayear
TheEraCourseofPharmacy:twoyearsofcorrespondencelecturesandexaminations
Self-Study ACompendofPharmacy(1886)--FrancisE.Stewart
ACourseofHomeStudyforPharmacists(1891)--OscarOldberg
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WiththedissolutionoftheConferenceofSchoolsofPharmacyin1883,theAPhAestablishedtheSectiononPharmaceuticalEducation.
In1892,theAPhASectiononPharmaceuticalEducationvotedtoencourageallpharmacyschoolstoestablisha3-yearcourseofstudy.
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1900:theAmericanConferenceonPharmaceuticalFaculties(laterAmericanAssociationofCollegesofPharmacy)wasformed;itsConstitutionmandatedthatitwouldmeetattheAPhAannualmeeting.
1905:theAmericanConferenceofPharmaceuticalFacultiesandtheAPhASectiononEducation&Legislationadoptedthefollowingdegrees:
Ph.G.(graduateinpharmacy) Ph.C.(pharmaceuticalchemist)
Phar.B.(bachelorofpharmacy)
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1906:PharmaceuticalSyllabuswasdevelopedbyAPhA,NationalAssociationofBoardsofPharmacy,andAmericanConferenceofPharmaceuticalFacultiestoprovideuniforminstructioninpharmacy;theSyllabuswasintendedtoberevisedevery5years.
AmericanConferenceofPharmaceuticalFacultiesapproveda4-yearbaccalaureateinpharmacyprogramforallmemberschoolseffective1932.
1935:UniversityofMichiganHospitalsproposedaone-yearinternshipaftergraduationpriortolicensure.
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Source:AmericanPharmacistsAssociation.
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1937:AmericanJournalofPharmaceuticalEducationestablishedbytheAmericanAssociationofCollegesofPharmacy.
1940:NationalAssociationofBoardsofPharmacyestablishedthefirstnationalapprenticeshipguidelines.
1942:AmericanFoundationforPharmaceuticalEducationwasfoundedandprovidedfinancialsupporttomanypharmacyschoolsduringWWII.
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AfterWWII,theAmericanCouncilonEducationrecommendedauniversal6-yearprogramforpharmacy(pre-professional+professional);mostschoolswereunwillingtomakethejumpfrom4to6years;thus,the5-yearcompromiseprogramwasadopted(althoughseveralwestcoastschoolsdidadoptthe6-year,PharmDprogram(UniversityofSouthernCaliforniaofferedthePharmDasitsonlydegreebeginningin1950).In1954,AACPapprovedastandardprogramofatleast5-yearsnolaterthanApril1965(whichhelpedtoensureanadequategeneraleducationportion).OhioStateUniversitywasthefirsttoestablisha5-yearprogramin1948.
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Evolution of Pharmacy Degrees in the 20th Century
Evolution of Pharmacy Degrees in the 20th Century
Ref: Zebroski, A Brief History of Pharmacy: Humanity’s Search
For Wellness
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1968:APhAurgedthattheinternshipbereplacedbyanexternshipthatwouldoccur6monthsbeforegraduation.
1974:ACPEproposedthatschoolexternshipsandclerkshipsshouldbeusedinplaceofinternshipsasarequirementforlicensure(eventoday,notallstateboardsofpharmacyhaveadoptedthis).
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The1960sand1970s,sawthegenesisoftheclinicalpharmacyshiftingpharmacypracticefromproduct-focusedservicetopatient-orientedcarethatemphasizedpatientcounseling.
Coursessuchasanalyticalchemistry,pharmacognosy,and
industrialpharmacywerereplacedbyanatomy/physiology,pathophysiologyandbiopharmaceutics.
Federalcapitationgrantsintheearly1970srequiredaclinicalcomponentinthecurriculum;asaresult,pharmacyschoolsaddedclinicalfaculty,sometimescausingfrictionbetweenpharmaceuticalsciencesandclinicalfacultyoverresourcesandcurriculum(achallengethatstillexiststoday).
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KeyNationalStudies:
1975:PharmacistsfortheFuture(alsoknownastheMillis
CommissionReport)advocatedacompetency-basedcurriculum
Suggestedendingeducationalpracticesthattrainedpharmacystudentswithoutinteractionsdirectlywithpatientsandotherhealthcareprofessionals
Advocatedshiftingthefocusfromthedrugproducttothepatientandhelpingthemoptimizethebenefitsoftheirdrug
1979:NationalStudyofthePracticeofPharmacyestablishedstandardsofpracticetoassistcurriculumcommitteesindevelopingpractice-orientedcoursesandhelpaccreditingbodiesevaluateeducationalprograms.
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AccreditationCouncilforPharmacyEducation
FoundedastheAmericanCouncilonPharmaceutical
Education(ACPE)in1932,theagency'snamewaschangedtotheAccreditationCouncilforPharmacyEducationin2003.
Atitsinception,ACPEestablishedstandardsforthebaccalaureatedegreeinpharmacy;later,standardsforthedoctorofpharmacywereadded.
2000:ACPEannouncedtheconversiontothedoctorofpharmacy(Pharm.D.)asthesoleentry-leveldegreefortheprofessionofpharmacy.
1975:ACPEdevelopedstandardsforprovidersofcontinuingpharmacyeducation;in1999,standardsfortheCEprovidersconductingcertificateprogramsinpharmacywereestablished.
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In1990s,spearheadedbyHepler&Strand,theconceptofpharmaceuticalcarebecamethenewmissionforpharmacy.Pharmaceuticalcaresaysthatpharmacists,notjustprescribers,areresponsiblefortheoutcomesofdrugtherapy.
Pharmaceuticalorpharmacistscareistodayconsideredthestandardofpracticeexpectedofpharmacists.
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1984:APhATaskForceonPharmacyEducationidentifiedcompetenciesexpectedofentry-levelpractitionersandrecommendedthe6-yeardegreeasthesoleentry-leveldegreeintotheprofession(verycontroversial).
1989:AACPestablishedtheCommissiontoImplementChangeinPharmaceuticalEducationtoarticulatethemissionforpharmacypracticethatcouldserveasthebasisforpharmacyeducation.Thecommissionproducedtwobackgroundpapersandapositionpaper,“Entry-LevelEducationinPharmacy:ACommitmenttoChange,”whichsupportedthePharm.D.asthesingleentry-leveldegreeintotheprofession.TheAACPHouseapprovedthesingle-degreerecommendationin1992.
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1992:APhA,AmericanSocietyofHospital(nowHealth-System)Pharmacists,andNationalAssociationofRetailDruggists(nowNationalCommunityPharmacistsAssociation)jointlysupportedthePharm.D.asthesoledegreeforentryintopractice;NationalAssociationofChainDrugStoresopposedtheconversion.
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Morethan130pharmacyprogramsintheU.S.;nearlydoublefrom2000
Mostpharmacyprogramstodayare2+4,althoughsomecontinuetosaytheyare0+6becausetheyadmitfromhighschool;thisisamisnomer,however,giventheACPErequirementthattherebeasecondtierofevaluation/admissionintotheprofessionalyearsoftheprogram.
Pharmaciststodayarelicensedbystateboardsofpharmacy.Tobeeligibletopracticeinthatstate,theymustpassanationalexam,theNorthAmericanPharmacistLicensureExamination(NAPLEX),todeterminewhetherthelicensureapplicantpossessestheminimumcompetencetobeadmittedtopracticeandtheMultistatePharmacyJurisprudenceExamination(MPJE),whichcontainsbothfederalandstate-specificlaws.
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UniversityofConnecticutSchoolofPharmacyDeansDeanGustavusEliot1925–1928DeanHenryS.Johnson1928–1947DeanHaroldG.Hewitt1947–1969DeanArthurE.Schwarting1970–1980DeanKarlA.Nieforth1981–1993DeanMichaelC.Gerald1993–2002DeanRobertL.McCarthy2002–2013DeanJamesR.Halpert2014–
