Thinking Visually Food Tech 2001 Graphic Tips

8/13/2019 Thinking Visually Food Tech 2001 Graphic Tips

1/8FOODTECHNOLOGY 49VOL. 55, NO. 1 J ANUARY 2001

James W. King, Lana K. Johnson, and John H. Rupnow

n an age of information overload, how can professionals communicate

effectively and efficiently to technical audiences? How can we organize

our technical presentations to achieve our goals?

But what is effective, good communication? We define communication

as the sharing of meaning, so that both the audience and the presenterhave similar perceptions about the content. This means that the presenterhas to plan, design, implement, practice, and present the technical infor-mation, including the followuphow did it go, what questions did peoplehave?

Good design includes structured layout, organized objectives, andsharp graphics, as opposed to chaotic layout, rambling objectives, andoverloaded graphics. Figs. 1 and 2 both present the same information, butFig. 1 is presented in a way that hinders communication.

Overhead transparencies, 35-mm slides, computer screen shows, andposters are four main examples of visual communication. We assume thatyou knowthe technical content and have a way to present your ideas, theliterature review, methods, results, discussion, and key references. But howdo you visualize it? How do you start thinking visually?

Here are six ideas for thinking visually:1. Print is not projection.Design or redesign your information for your

intended output. How are the design and layout di fferent for presentations

Thinking Visually:

Graphic Tips forTechnical Presentations

I

Heres how to produce slides, computer screen shows, transparencies,

and posters for technical presentations

Author King is Associate Professor, Agricultural

Leadership, Education and Communication; author

J ohnson is Graphic Specialist, Communication and

Information Technology; and author Rupnow, a

Professional Member of IFT, is Professor, Food

Science and Technology; University of Nebraska-

Lincoln, 353 FIC, Lincoln, NE 68583-0919. Send

reprint requests to author Rupnow. Fig. 1 Fig. 2


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50 FOODTECHNOLOGY J ANUARY 2001 VOL. 55, NO. 1

and for publications?2. Limit your major points. Focus on

your primary ideas. What are the majorpoints? What is my primary text?

3. Think visually. What graphs, ta-bles, drawings, or photographs can I useto i llustrate my points?

4. Think influence. Color can be used

to emphasize, highlight, and organize.How can I use color to do this?

5. Think beyond the box. What elsecan I do to get my point across? Whereelse can I use this presentation?

6. Use basic design ideasto guideyour visualslayout, text, color, graph-ics, and tables.

LayoutGood layout requires consideration

of page dimensions, orientation of visu-als, use of templates, consistency, size

and number of elements, and use ofwhi te space.Page DimensionsPage dimensions of the four visual

media all vary. Know your intended out-put so your layout is correct and infor-mation isnt cut off the edges when youpresent (Fig. 3).

Orientation of VisualSet your computer screen show or

35-mm slide show in a horizontal (land-scape) orientation. Projection screensare oriented as horizontal. Computerslide shows are usually already set up fora horizontal orientation as default.

Transparencies can be either horizontalor vertical. Just make sure that the visu-als fit on the projection screen you use(Fig. 4).

Use of TemplatesComputer design programs li ke Mi-

crosoft PowerPoint or Lotus Freelanceallow the use of one template per file. A

template is a fi le that has been set upwith a look for your presentation. Thetemplate is predesigned with a colorscheme, font specifications, and pagelayout. You just need to add your infor-mation. Use one template designthroughout a technical talk. This helpsthe audience quickly become familiarwith the layout after a few slides.

ConsistencyDecide what typeface, type size, col-

ors, graphics, background design, andlayout to use for your entire presenta-

tion. While you can use some variation,strive for consistency. The audiencelearns to read your slideswhere the ti-tle will be, what a certain color repre-sents, etc.and understands the infor-mation faster.

Size and Number of ElementsOverall , a limited number of ele-

ments, big graphics, and big text makereading easier. Less is more, and big isbeautiful. Figs. 5 and 6 present the samebasic information, but Fig. 6 communi-cates faster.

Use of White SpaceBlank areas in a visual or on a page

help the reader through the data andavoid the appearance of overcrowding.

TextKey points to consider regarding text

are the amount of information to bepresented, key words, ease of reading,and sequencing.

Amount of InformationLimit the amount of information in

the presentation. Visuals should have: One main point. One thought per line. No more than 57 words per line. No more than 57 lines per visual.Key WordsUse key words, ideas, and concepts: Have uncluttered visuals. Show key words, not complete sen-

tences or paragraphs. Each visual should be a hint, not the

whole story.Ease of ReadingType should be easy to make out and

comprehend: Fine or thin lines may disappear

when projected. Text needs to be heavy(bold) enough to provide good contrastto the background.

Avoid fonts that are too bold. Thetype may run together, making it diffi-cult to read.

Use no more than 23 typefaces andstyles (bold, italic, etc.) per presentation.

Change type sizes or vary type colorto distinguish differences.

Use large text sizes. Text should belarge enough to read without effort. Formost presentation media, titles shouldbe 36- to 48-point and text should be24- to 36-point for computer screenshows and 35-mm slides. For video, textshould be a minimum of 30-point. Forposters, text should be a minimum of24-point for the body, and 72-point forthe tit le.

Different fonts may have the samepoint size but can vary in line length

(Fig. 7).

Thinking Visually

Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7


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FOODTECHNOLOGY 51VOL. 55, NO. 1 J ANUARY 2001

Use a combination of uppercaseand lowercase lettering. Using all capitalletters is harder to read because wordsformed with capital letters are repeti -tious rectangles that offer few distinctiveshapes to catch the readers eye (Fig. 8).

Use italics, change text size, varystyle, or alter color instead of underlin-

ing words for emphasis. Underl ining in-terferes with the descenders of the lettersand reduces the distinctness of theshape of the words, making the wordsharder to read.

Bullets should be easy to see (Fig.9). Check for their size and color.

Keep simi lar text the same size fromone visual to the next. For example,changing the title size may make someinformation appear more importantand confuse the viewer.

Minimize punctuation in visuals.

Avoid commas, semicolons, or periods.Ideas should already be grouped and ar-ranged visually with bullets or numbers.The formatting size, type style andweight, position, and color should revealthe structure of the material.

Generally, start all sections with acapital; from there on, all words shouldbe lowercase. The title can be upper-and lowercase and bold, or all upper-case, though this is somewhat more dif-ficult to read.

Proofread visuals. Then have some-one else proofread them for you.

Place the most important text at the

top and in the brightest color. Arrangethe material in a pattern related to howpeople readleft to right, top to bot-tom. Leave a larger margin at the bot-tom of the visual for material that is tobe projected on a screen. This allows forextra room in case there are heads, ta-bles, or chairs in the way of the projec-

tor. Use text-justi fication commands to

align text rather than using the tab keysor space bar. Tab keys and space bar maymake the text appear to be aligned onyour computer screen, but the text wontbe aligned on your output.

SequencingUse the animation features in com-

puter software to reveal your informa-tion, one line at a time, in a series ofslides or overheads (Figs. 1012).

ColorColor can: Explain or emphasize a single point. Make emphasized elements more

vivid by highlighting key words. Priori tize information or focus at-

tention on important features. Make new points stand out by dis-

tinguishing special elements in graphsor tables.

Identify a recurring theme andspeed comprehension.

Sort materials using color repeti -tion.

Key considerations are visibili ty, dif-

ferentiation, and color combinations:VisibilityColor must be seen when superim-

posed on a background of another col-or. Foreground and background ele-ments must have enough contrast be-tween them. Inappropriate colors inter-fere with legibility, and too many colors

can distract from the message. For slides and computer screen

shows, use dark blues, darker grays, darkgreens, and black for the backgrounds.Generally, use yellows and white for thetext and graphics; they are consideredthe best colors for visibil ity, since theyprovide good contrast against darkbackgrounds.

For overhead transparencies, usevery light yellow or blue for the back-ground and dark colors for text andgraphics.

DifferentiationUse color to differentiate, accent,group, emphasize, prior iti ze, and identi-fy recurring themes or a particular wordor graph.

Use the brightest color on the infor-mation you want to feature, since theaudience will look at the brightest areafirst.

Emphasize no more than two ele-ments in a frame.

Dont use competing bright colors. Black has the maximum contrast

against white and is the easiest to read.If you want an equivalent effect fromcolor, you have to increase the size of thecolor-carrying elements to compensatefor the decreased contrast. The closerthe contrast is to the contrast betweenblack and whi te, the less you have to in-crease the size of the text or graphic forit to be readily visible; i.e., use lightbackground and dark text.

Color-coded titles, bullets, graphics,or text can speed up interpretation ofthe data. The color helps provide a loca-tion map for the viewer. In turn, the

viewer is directed to the information byFig. 8 Fig. 9

Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12


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Thinking Visuallythe colors rather than having to search.

Dont use color just because youhave it. Too much color weakens its im-pact (Fig. 13).

Combinations Don t use too many colors or too

many shades of one color. Keep graduated backgrounds subtle

and smooth. Be careful which colors you use to-

gether. Very bright colors scream at youraudience and tire their eyes. Some colorswill vibrate against each other andmake the visual too difficult to read;they make the visual look blurry.

Do not use blue on black (Fig. 14).It looks out of focus.

Do not use red and green together(Fig. 14). Studies show that 79% ofmales and 12% of females are color de-ficient, which means they dont see all

colors. Red and orange are confusedwith green and yellow. If your visual isgreen wi th red text, some individualswould see only one color with eachslide.

Keep a consistent color schemethroughout your presentati on. Consis-tent graphic elements should be linkedfrom frame to frame. Tit les should bethe same color, similar data variablesshould be the same color, bul lets shouldbe the same color, and so forth.

Different media project color differ-ently. Film recorders, printers, videoequipment, and computer monitors in-terpret colors and show them differently.Consequently, there may be a vast differ-ence between the colors on your com-puter screen and those on your outputdevice. Also, everyone sees colors differ-ently. If color accuracy is cri ti cal, maketest visuals and consult with those whowil l be imaging your slides or printingyour poster.

Graphs and TablesMost technical presentations provide

insights and promote discussions; theyare not forums for dissecting raw data.Graphs and tables are the best way tosummarize large quantities of raw data.Because of its visual nature, graphicalinformation becomes memorable. How-ever, complicated visual data cause un-desirable impressions (the presentercannot interpret his or her own data, is adisorganized person, or is being incon-siderate by talking down to the audi-ence).

It is usual for the same data to be

used in a journal article, a slide show,

and a poster show. However, each pre-sentation type has different require-ments. Design the graph for the type ofpresentation for which it will be used.Graphs prepared for publication (wherereaders can linger over the data) are notideal for slides or posters (where viewersget only a glimpse of the image). Figs. 15

and 16 present the same information,but clearly Fig. 16 is better than the oth-er for use in an oral presentation.

Getting Started withGraphs and Tables Simplify the data. Show only the essential information

needed to get the point across. Dont put up an entire complicated

chart or graph. Streamline the visual so it can be

read quickly. Use only essential and functional line-

work in the graphic to orient the viewer.

If you do have to show a complicat-ed graph, provide a handout so the au-dience can follow along.

Figs. 17 and 18 show the same data,but Fig. 18 is better suited for slide pre-sentation.

Be consistent in style and terminol-ogy.

Be consistent in label size, font, typestyle, line width, colors, symbols, andlayout.

Elements of the Graph The most important data should be

depicted with the brightest color. Data elements (bars, lines) should

be the thickest and the brightest colors.Frames, axis lines, ticks, and error barsshould always be distinctly lighter incolor and weight than the lines that ac-tually represent the data lines and pointsin line graphs, bar boxes in bar charts,

and arrows.

Fig. 13 Fig. 14

Fig. 15 Fig. 16

Fig. 17 Fig. 18


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Grid lines should be light and thin. Make sure that grid lines are behind

data lines or bars. Use solid colored lines or fi lls for

screen shows or 35-mm slides. Reservehatched patterns for black-and-whiteprinted materials only. Hatched patternsare very difficult to see when projected.

Dont frame a graph. If axes areneeded on all sides to help the viewer todistinguish the information, all axesmust have scales.

X and Y axis lines should end at thelast data point.

Use tick marks to show generaltrends. Use grid lines to stress exact values.

Figs. 19 and 20 il lustrate the abovepoints, with Fig. 20 being better.

Placement of Labels Place the legends on the bars, lines,

wedges of a pie, or the illustration rather

than having an actual legend. Thisavoids double scanning involved in find-ing a relevant part of the key and thenreferring to the graphic. If a key is used,put i t within the picture area of thegraph. Avoid enclosing the key in a box.

Labels should run horizontally fromleft to right whenever possible, exceptfor the Y-axis label. A vertical Y-axis la-bel saves space. Vertical text is harder toread so make it large and simple enoughto read when rotated. Place axis labelsoutside the graph. Center the X-axis la-bel under the X axis. Center the Y-axis

label parallel to the Y axis. Parallel labelsshould read from bottom to top.

Axis labels should be placed close tothe scale numbers, but not so close thatthey protrude into the imaginary rect-angle occupied by the scale numbers.

If there is more than one Y axis, thelabels should all read in the same direc-

tion (from bottom to top). It is helpfulto include the data point or line patternin the Y-axis labels to show which datarelate to which Y axis.

Numbers along the Y axis should behorizontal and aligned on the decimalpoint, whether or not the decimal pointis actually present.

Figs. 21 and 22 compare the incor-rect (Fig. 21) and correct (Fig. 22) usageof label placement.

Size of Labels The axis label should be large

enough to be legible but not so large orheavy that it competes with the chartcontent for attention. Numbers shouldbe smaller than the axis label size. Thetitle should be larger than the axis labels.Explanatory labels, such as a legend,should be smaller than the axis labels.

Boldfacing or increasing the textsize of the headings can help to differen-tiate them from the body of the table.Use larger font sizes instead of boldfacetext.

For posters, text needs to be largeenough so that the audience can read it

comfortably from 2 meters away. Labelsshould be set in at least 18-point text,upper- and lowercase. Use generousleading on multi line blocks of text.

Amount of Labeling Use no more than 57 words on an

average chart axis. For multichart formats or compos-

ite figures that share a common X or Yaxis, eliminate any redundant axis label-ing (Fig. 23).

Label Content Spell out as many of the labels as

possible, but be brief. Too many obscureabbreviations and mysterious codes aredistracting. Standard abbreviations canbe used to keep axis labels short (e.g., %for percentage).

Axis labels should include both thename of the variable and the unit ofmeasurement. Conventionally, the name

of the variable is given first, then theunit of measurement is given immedi-ately next to or below it in parentheses.

Use units that are complete and eas-ily understood.

Label Style Use upper- and lowercase lettering. Use sans seri f typefaces, such as

Helvetica, for all labeling and text.Tables and ChartsCharts are used to organize numeric

or other data without graphic plott ingor interpretation, except in the arrange-ment of numbers in columns and rows.Charts are best used to emphasize actualmeasured values or a small data set.Large or complex tables are appropriatefor print media but are ineffective inslide shows, computer shows, or videographics. A table must be understand-able and complete without detailed ref-erence to the text.

Line up decimal places, note unitsclearly, and construct clean, orderly ar-rangements of rows and columns.

Highlight important numbers orwords by changing the color or size.

Fig. 19 Fig. 20

Fig. 21 Fig. 22 Fig. 23


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Thinking Visually Round-off numbers. Keep row and column headings

brief. Keep enough space between col-

umns so they are seen as separate fromone another. The space should be theminimum necessary for clear visualseparation, and it should be consistent.

Vertical rules make it difficult to readacross rows. Horizontal rules help withreading across the table.

Error Bars Caps on error bars should match

the diameter of the data point markersor symbols.

Lines used for error bars should bethicker than lines used for the grid orframe but thinner than those used fordata lines.

Grid Lines and Tick Marks Tick marks are used to identify the

type of scale, not to identify each datapoint. They should be long enough to bevisible but not obtrusive.

Tick marks on a linear scale shouldbe the same length.

Dont label every tick mark, or theaxis will look too cluttered. Number atconventional intervals, e.g., 0, 2, 4, 6, 8,etc.

Tick marks at the beginning of eachlogarithmic cycle should be longer thanthe others.Only tick marks at the begin-ning of cycles in logari thmic cyclesshould be numbered.

Each axis should end at a tick mark. Tick marks can point in or out, but

they should not cross the axis. Tickmarks that point in direct the eye to-ward the data. Tick marks that point outkeep the face of the graph clear and areparticularly useful when data fall on theaxis.

Special Effects Avoid special effects if they do not

enhance the point to be made. Use of 3-dimensional bars may

make reading the data a li tt le more diffi-cult because it is not evident which partof the 3-D bar measures actual data.

Use 3-D graphs if you have threeaxes of information.

Build a series on a 2-D version ofthe chart to add some distinctive effect(Figs. 24 and 25).

Consider breaking the graph or fig-

ure into components (i.e., add segments,build, or use more slides to show thegraph).

You can show the entire graph andthen focus in on a certain part that real-ly displays the information you want toget across.

Bar ChartsBar charts are used to compare an

amount of a variable at particular timesor points, or to compare the amount ofone variable to another. Bar charts areless effective in emphasizing the trend ina variable over time. They may be hori-

zontally or vertically oriented. The vir-tue of bar charts is their simplicity, sothey should be as uncluttered as possi-ble.

Use as few bars as necessary, with amaximum of six different bars.

Emphasize one aspect of the data bychanging a specific bars color or tex-

ture. Leave control bars unfilled (or

white on color charts) to stand apartfrom experimental variables.

Bars should be wider than the spac-es between them. All bars should be ofequal width, and all spacesincludingthe space between the axis and the firstbarshould be of equal width. Barsshould be neither very thin nor verywide.

With groups of bars, a space shouldseparate the groups, but no space is nec-

essary between the bars of a group. Thespace between the groups of bars shouldbe about the width of one bar or less.

Data values should not be writteneither wi thin the bar or outside it. I f ex-act values are important, the datashould be presented as a table. If barsare labeled with values, dont use tickmarks or grid lines.

Dont use tick marks on the X axis. Use the same fil l color for all bars in

single data set. Use different fi ll colors for posit ive

and negative values. For single bars, center labels below

each bar. For groups of bars, individual bars

can be labeled. Group labels can becentered below the individual bar labelsfor verti cal bar charts or placed to theleft of the individual bar labels for hor-izontal bar charts. The groups can belabeled, and the bars can be distin-guished by shading or patterns. Letter-ing in individual column labels shouldbe smaller than lettering in the grouplabels.

The longest bar (or its error bar)should reach nearly to the end of thechart.

Figs. 26 and 27 illustrate the abovepoints. They show basically the same in-formation, but Fig. 27 is easier to read.

Cluster or Segmented Bar Charts Use five or fewer segments per bar

or bars per cluster. Use darkest or densest fills for seg-

ments at baseline (or left side) and l ight-er fi lls as segments rise up the bar (ormove to the right) .

Display values over, next to, or in-

Fig. 24 Fig. 25

Fig. 26 Fig. 27


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side tops of bars when precise values aresignificant.

Add connecting lines between barsegments to facil itate comparisons.

Line GraphsLine graphs are used to portray con-

tinuous movement or change in a mea-sured variable, typically against a time

scale. They are best for showing thetrend in a set of data over time, but areless effective in comparing amounts oftwo variables.

Five or six lines on one graph areusually plenty. The number that can bepresented clearly on one graph dependson the position of the curves and thefunction of the graph.

Use thick, solid, colored lines forprojection and patterned lines for black-and-white printouts

Use a different color for each line,

making the most important l ine thelightest and brightest color. Data lines should be the heaviest

lines on the graph. Data points should always stand out

from and dominate the connecting line-work, since the data points are the actu-al data and the connecting lines are usu-ally just a visual device to show trendsand continuity.

Symbols and connecting linesshould dominate all other elements of achart.

Symbol diameter should be about

two to three times the width of any con-necting lines.

Polygon symbols should be used asmarkers or symbols. Recommendedsymbols are fi lled circle, triangle, andsquare, and open circle, triangle, andsquare. Other symbols are not as dis-tinctive and, if used, should be carefully

oriented, so that they can be distin-guished from the recommended onesand from the connecting line. Avoid us-ing Xs, crosses, or symbols with dots.

For data points that overlap, thesymbols should be drawn overlapped.

All symbols should look the samesize.

Curves should not extend before thefirst data point or after the last datapoint.

Identi fy curves with a brief labelnext to them. Place the label close to the

curve. It should be contained within therectangle implied by the axes and shouldbe oriented horizontally.

Dont use arrow or leader lines, asthey clutter the graph.

Figs. 28 and 29 illustrate the abovepoints, with Fig. 29 being better.

Pie Charts or Stacked Bar Charts(Component Bar Charts)Pie charts illustrate the component

parts or percentages of a whole, wherethe values must add up to 100%. Piecharts are the least eff icient means ofcharting small data sets and are not of-

ten used in the sciences, but are com-mon in business and general informa-tion graphics.

Stacked bars are often used as space-efficient replacements for multiple piecharts. Neither pie charts nor stackedbar charts are impressive if too many el-ements are displayed. About six seg-

ments would be the limit before visualconfusion sets in.

Use a maximum of six slices in a piechart. If you need more, group smallerones into one group titled miscella-neous or other, and pull this groupout into another chart.

Order sli ces beginning with thelargest sli ce or the most important datastart ing at the 12 oclock position andarrange subsequent slices clockwise. Themost important sli ce is in the upper-right quadrant. Arrange slices in order

from largest to smallest, clockwise. Emphasize one slice by explodingit or moving it out of the circle. Youcan also choose a color or fill patterndifferent from the rest of the slices toemphasize a particular slice.

For stacked bar charts, labels areplaced to the right of the vertical graphor above a horizontal graph.

For pie charts, labels are placed in-side the segments if the labels are briefand segments are large enough. Other-wise, labels are listed next to the seg-ment. Labels should either be in or outof the chart ; dont mix label styles (Figs30 and 31).

Percentages should be included inlabels. Use whole numbers.

Percentages are usually separatedfrom the labels (on a separate line) andare smaller in size than the labels.

Labels and percentages should beplaced horizontally, not at an angle

Each slice should be easily distin-guishable from the rest and clearly la-beled.

Area Charts

Area charts emphasize the volumeof data, from the baseline of a chart tothe top of a trend line. There are twotypes of area charts, cumulative andstacked:

Cumulative charts consist of lineson a mult iline chart with the areas be-neath each line shaded. Each line ismeasured from the baseline.

Stacked charts also show severaldata sets, but each area is measuredfrom the previous area. Areas do notshare a common baseline. Because they

dont share a baseline, order of the

Fig. 28 Fig. 29

Fig. 30 Fig. 31


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Thinking Visually

Fig. 34Fig. 32 Fig. 33

areas can radically affect the look andmeaning of the chart.

The area that is to be empha-sized should be placed along thebaseli ne. There it is most promi nent,and it is easiest to judge the size ofthe area with the flat baseli ne. Thesmoothest band (the one with the

least variation) can also be placed atthe bottom of the chart, and so onup to the top.

DiagramsDiagrams are graphic attempts to

simpli fy and explain the relati onshipsof component parts or stages of aprocess or structure (Fig. 32).

Emphasize the flow of processesover time, or depict a hierarchical or-der of relati onships.

Within the diagram, make labelscompact to conserve space.

Textures and Patterns Make sure textures and patternsdont interfere with seeing and under-standing the message.

Text on top of textures or pat-terns can be extremely difficult to seein projected materials.

Do not use patterns (such ascrosshatching) using two differentcolors for projected visuals. Thesepatterns should be used for differenti-ation of different areas for black-and-white reproduction only. Use solid orshaded blocks of color instead.

Pictures (Photographs, Illustra-tions, and Clipart) For posters, graphics should be

done on matte-surfaced paper to re-duce glare from overhead li ghts.

Graphics prepared for the printedpage rarely make good visuals forpresentation. Images usually need tobe simplified. Text needs to be madelarger so an audience can read andunderstand the graphic as quickly aspossible.

Photographs and i llustrations

should be close-ups so detail can beseen.

Drop ShadowsDrop shadows are shadows behind

your text and graphics. They visuallyimply that foreground objects are floating above a flat background.They can make visuals more legible,

part icularly text. Keep the shadows close to the

graphic, so they don t appear as sepa-rate graphics.

Always make drop shadows darkerthan your background.

Never use drop shadows on over-head transparencies.

Room Lighting Conditions Room lighting conditions vary. If

there is light on the screen, ki ll it, un-screw it, or cover it. For example, un-screw ceiling bulbs or spotlights from

above the screens. Move or angle the podium so thespeakers light doesnt show or reflecton the screen.

Visual Pacing Repeat your title slide at the end.

This should include authors names,and your e-mail address.

Acknowledgments Acknowledge the source of a graph,

data, or graphic. Only include the author and year

of publication on the visual. Present-ers often put in too much reference in-formation, and this clutters the visual.Figs. 33 and 34, respectively, illustratethe correct and incorrect presentationof references. Fig. 34 is typical of theslides presented at a professionalmeeting.

Three Things to RememberSimplicity is not simple!Visual communication means think-

ing visually.Visuals support your presentation

and information.

Sources for Further InformationBriscoe, M.H. 19 96 . Preparing Scientific Il lustrations, A

Guide to Better Posters, Presentations and Publica-tions. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Davis, M . 1 99 7. Scientific Papers and Presentations.Academic Press, San Diego.

Day, R.A. 1994. How to Write and Publish a ScientificPaper, 4th ed. Oryx Press, Phoenix, Ariz.

Hodges, E.R.S. 1989. The Guild Handbook of ScientificIllustration. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Johns, M. 1 99 5. D esign for slides. J. Audiovisual Mediain Med ic ine 18 (3 ): 12 1 -12 8 .

King, J.W. and Rupnow, J. 199 3. A primer on using visu-als in technical presentations. Food Technol. 46(5):1 5 7 - 1 5 8 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 5 - 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 .

Kosslyn, S.M. 19 94 . Elements of Graph Design. W.H.Freeman, New York.

Rabb, M.Y. 19 93 . The Presentation Design Bo ok : Tips,Techniques & Advice for Creating Effective, AttractiveSlides, Overheads, Multimedia Presentations, ScreenShows. Ventana Press, Inc., Chapel Hill, N.C.

Rupnow, J. and King, J.W. A primer on preparing postersfor technical presentations. Food Technol. 49 (11 ): 93 -9 4 , 9 6 , 9 8 - 1 0 2 .

CBE. 19 88 . Il lustrating Science. Standards for Publica-tion. Scientific Illustration Com mittee, Council of B iolo-

gy Editors, Bethesda, Md.Simmonds, D. and Reynolds, L. 1989. Computer Pre-

sentation of Data in Science. Kluwer Academic Pub-lishers, Norwell, Mass.

Tufte, E.R. 19 90 . Envisioning Information. GraphicsPress, Cheshire, Conn.

Tufte, E.R. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Infor-mation. Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.

Tufte, E.R. 1997. Visual Explanations: Images and Quan-tities, Evidence and Narrative. Graphics Press.,Cheshire, Conn.

White, J.V. 1974. By Design. Word-and-Picture Commu-nication for Editors and Designers. R.R. Bowker, NewYork.

White, J.V. 1984. Using Charts and Graphs, 1000 Ideasfor Visual Persuasion. R.R. Bowker, New York.

Wileman, R.E. 19 79 . Exercises in Visual Thinking. Hast-ings House Publishers, New York.

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Edited by Neil H. Merm elstein,Senior Editor

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Thinking Visually Food Tech 2001 Graphic Tips