Thinking and LanguageThinking and Language

“What you hate is walking. This is hiking – hiking is different from walking.”

Chapter 10 Group LecturesChapter 10 Group Lectures Create Powerpoint, Interactive Handout, Create Powerpoint, Interactive Handout,

AND a AND a ShortShort Engaging Class Activity) Engaging Class Activity)

► Group 1 – Pages 385-389Group 1 – Pages 385-389► Group 2 – Pages 389-395Group 2 – Pages 389-395► Group 3 – Pages 395-399Group 3 – Pages 395-399► Group 4 – Pages 401-404Group 4 – Pages 401-404► Group 5 – Pages 404-408Group 5 – Pages 404-408► Group 6 – Pages 409-412Group 6 – Pages 409-412► Group 7 – Pages 413-417Group 7 – Pages 413-417

**Planning Dates:Planning Dates: February 1st (Today) – February 3rd February 1st (Today) – February 3rd

*Group Lectures will begin on Friday, February 4*Group Lectures will begin on Friday, February 4thth

Groups are responsible for making their own copies of

handouts!

Hock Group PresentationsHock Group PresentationsCreate Powerpoint, Interactive Handout, Create Powerpoint, Interactive Handout,

AND an Engaging Class Activity)AND an Engaging Class Activity)

► Group 1 - A Sexual Motivation (pg. 158-168) Group 1 - A Sexual Motivation (pg. 158-168) February 23rdFebruary 23rd► Group 2 - I Can See It All Over Your Face (pg. 168-175) Group 2 - I Can See It All Over Your Face (pg. 168-175)

February 23rdFebruary 23rd► Group 3 - What You Expect Is What You Get (pg. 93-100) Group 3 - What You Expect Is What You Get (pg. 93-100) March March

4th4th► Group 4 - Are You the Master of Your Fate? (pg. 192-199) Group 4 - Are You the Master of Your Fate? (pg. 192-199)

March 15thMarch 15th► Group 5 - The One; The Many (pg. 217-225) Group 5 - The One; The Many (pg. 217-225) March 15thMarch 15th► Group 6 - You’re Getting Defensive Again (pg. 234-241) Group 6 - You’re Getting Defensive Again (pg. 234-241) March March

16th16th► Group 7 - Who’s Crazy Here, Anyway? (pg. 226-234) Group 7 - Who’s Crazy Here, Anyway? (pg. 226-234) March March

29th29th

Groups are responsible for making their own copies of

handouts!

Thinking = CognitionThinking = Cognition The word “think” has many The word “think” has many

meanings.meanings.

In psychology, thinking means to In psychology, thinking means to reason, to ponder, or reflect. In reason, to ponder, or reflect. In other words, psychologists term other words, psychologists term thinking as thinking as Directed thinkingDirected thinking..

Directed thinkingDirected thinking = a set of internal = a set of internal activities that are aimed at the activities that are aimed at the solution to a problem.solution to a problem.

Thinking and LanguageThinking and Language CognitionCognition refers to all the mental refers to all the mental

activities associated with processing, activities associated with processing, understanding, and communicating understanding, and communicating information.information.

Cognitive psychologists study these Cognitive psychologists study these mental activities including logical and mental activities including logical and sometimes illogical ways in which we sometimes illogical ways in which we create concepts, solve problems, make create concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgments.decisions, and form judgments.

To think about the countless events, and To think about the countless events, and people in our world, we simplify things; people in our world, we simplify things; we form we form conceptsconcepts..

ConceptsConcepts A mental grouping A mental grouping

of similar objects, of similar objects, events, ideas, events, ideas, physical states of physical states of being, or peoplebeing, or people

Concepts are Concepts are similar to Piaget’s similar to Piaget’s idea of….idea of….

In order to think about the world, we form……..

SchemasThese animals all look different, but they fall under our concept of “dogs”.

PrototypesPrototypesA mental image A mental image

or best example or best example of a categoryof a category

We base our concepts on ….

•If a new object is similar to our prototype, we are better able to recognize it.

If this was your prototype of a man; then what are you?

Thinking and LanguageThinking and Language

When we think we also use When we think we also use symbolssymbols. A . A symbol is an object or act that stands symbol is an object or act that stands for something else. for something else. Example: the American flag, an owl, a snake, Example: the American flag, an owl, a snake,

etcetc..Mental Images are types of symbols Mental Images are types of symbols

too. too. Example: picture a dog in your mind, that image Example: picture a dog in your mind, that image

stands for stands for

a real dog; it is not itself a dog.a real dog; it is not itself a dog.

Components of ThoughtComponents of Thought

Two schools of thought:Two schools of thought: Some psychologists propose that the ultimate Some psychologists propose that the ultimate

constituents (parts) are constituents (parts) are mental imagesmental images.. Others suggest that thoughts are complex, Others suggest that thoughts are complex,

abstract mental structures composed of concepts abstract mental structures composed of concepts and mental images.and mental images.

Mental ImageryMental Imagery According to this theory, all thought is ultimately According to this theory, all thought is ultimately

comprised of images which enter and exit comprised of images which enter and exit consciousness.consciousness.

Research has shown this theory too simplistic; Research has shown this theory too simplistic; mental imagery plays an important role in mental imagery plays an important role in thinking BUT not all.thinking BUT not all.

Abstract Elements of ThoughtAbstract Elements of Thought There are components of thought that are not just mental There are components of thought that are not just mental

images. They are essentially symbolic, abstract elements. images. They are essentially symbolic, abstract elements. (example: words).(example: words).

Consider a picture of a mouse, the word “mouse” and the Consider a picture of a mouse, the word “mouse” and the real animal. (Compare them)real animal. (Compare them) The picture represents a mouse. The picture has many The picture represents a mouse. The picture has many

similiarities to the real animal.similiarities to the real animal. In contrast, the word “mouse” stands for In contrast, the word “mouse” stands for the same animal; but, unlike the picture the same animal; but, unlike the picture the word has NO similarities to the real the word has NO similarities to the real animal. (only symbolic/abstract connection)animal. (only symbolic/abstract connection) The relationship between the sound “mouse” The relationship between the sound “mouse” or the written five-letter word or the written five-letter word mousemouse and the and the real animal is entirely symbolic.real animal is entirely symbolic.

PropositionsPropositions = mental combination = mental combination of simple associative train of of simple associative train of thought in which one idea leads to thought in which one idea leads to another.another.

““Dogs generally bite Dogs generally bite postmen.”postmen.”

Propositions are statements that relate Propositions are statements that relate a subject (the idea/object about which an a subject (the idea/object about which an

assertion is made e.g., “dogs”) assertion is made e.g., “dogs”) and a predicate (what is asserted about and a predicate (what is asserted about

subject, e.g., “generally bite postmen”) subject, e.g., “generally bite postmen”)

In a way that can be true or false. In a way that can be true or false.

“And don’t forget – make it look like an accident.”

Problem SolvingProblem Solving Thinking is the solving the myriad of Thinking is the solving the myriad of

problems we encounter every day.problems we encounter every day. Thinking is an active process.Thinking is an active process. Thinking can be defined as a stream of Thinking can be defined as a stream of

organized activity producing a chain of organized activity producing a chain of associated ideas each triggered by the one associated ideas each triggered by the one before. before.

A problem solver goes through a sequence A problem solver goes through a sequence of internal steps which are organized in a of internal steps which are organized in a special way special way directed towards the solving directed towards the solving of a problem.of a problem.

How do we solve How do we solve problems?problems?

We approach different types We approach different types of problems in different ways.of problems in different ways.

AlgorithmsAlgorithms A methodical, logical A methodical, logical

rule or procedure that rule or procedure that guarantees solving a guarantees solving a particular problem.particular problem. Example: mathematics is a Example: mathematics is a

complex system of complex system of algorithmic problem algorithmic problem solving.solving.

Systemic searchSystemic search is an is an example of algorithms.example of algorithms. EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: C_ _ FF C_ _ FF

Complete the word.Complete the word.

What are the benefits and detriments of algorithms?

HeuristicsHeuristics A rule-of-thumb A rule-of-thumb

strategy that often strategy that often allows us to make allows us to make judgments and solve judgments and solve problems efficientlyproblems efficiently

•A creative short cut (that can be prone to errors)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: C _ _ CH C _ _ CH use use heuristics to solve this heuristics to solve this problem.problem.

Who would you trust to baby-sit your child?

Your answer is based on your heuristic of their appearances.

Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic Estimating the likelihood Estimating the likelihood

of events based on their of events based on their availability in our memoryavailability in our memory

**If it comes to mind easily (maybe a

vivid event) we presume it is common.

Judging a situation based Judging a situation based on examples of similar on examples of similar situations that come to situations that come to mind initiallymind initially EXAMPLE: Estimating the divorce EXAMPLE: Estimating the divorce

rate by recalling the number of rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends’ divorces among your friends’ parents.parents.

Although diseases kill many more people than accidents, it has been shown that people will judge accidents and diseases to be equally fatal. This is because accidents are more dramatic and are often written up in the paper or seen on the news on t.v., and are more available in memory than diseases.

Representativeness Representativeness HeuristicHeuristic

A rule of thumb for A rule of thumb for judging the judging the likelihood of things likelihood of things in terms of how in terms of how well they match well they match our prototypeour prototype

Can cause us to Can cause us to ignore important ignore important informationinformation

Below is Linda. She loves books and hates loud noises. Is Linda a librarian or a beautician?

Chances are, she is a beautician!!!

Other heuristic problem solving Other heuristic problem solving methodsmethods

Means-end analysisMeans-end analysis – breaking problem – breaking problem down into parts and trying to solve each down into parts and trying to solve each part, eventually leading to the whole part, eventually leading to the whole solution.solution.

Working backwardsWorking backwards – (similar to means- – (similar to means-end) breaking down into parts except you end) breaking down into parts except you start with the final goal and work start with the final goal and work backwards to figure total solution.backwards to figure total solution.

AnalogiesAnalogies – comparative solving method – comparative solving method where one similar item, situation, idea, etc. where one similar item, situation, idea, etc. is used to solve another similar problem.is used to solve another similar problem.

Trial and errorTrial and error – random search for a – random search for a solutionsolution

Difference reductionDifference reduction – identifying goal – identifying goal and where we are in relationship to that and where we are in relationship to that goal and then seek to reduce the difference goal and then seek to reduce the difference between the two.between the two.

InsightInsight A sudden and A sudden and

often novel often novel realization of the realization of the solution to a solution to a problemproblem

•No real strategy involved

ReasoningReasoning

Reasoning is the use of knowledge or Reasoning is the use of knowledge or information to research conclusions.information to research conclusions.

Deductive reasoningDeductive reasoning – begin with – begin with general ideas or principles and general ideas or principles and reason down to specifics that fit the reason down to specifics that fit the general statement/ideas.general statement/ideas.

Inductive reasoningInductive reasoning – begins with – begins with specifics and reason towards general specifics and reason towards general conclusions.conclusions.

Obstacles to problem Obstacles to problem solvingsolving

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias A tendency to A tendency to

search for search for information that information that confirms one’s confirms one’s preconceptionspreconceptions

For example, if you believe that during a full moon there is an increase in admissions to the emergency room where you work, you will take notice of admissions during a full moon, but be inattentive to the moon when admissions occur during other nights of the month.

Match ProblemMatch Problem

Can you arrange these six matches into four equilateral triangles?

Match ProblemMatch Problem

FixationFixation The inability to The inability to

see a problem see a problem from a new from a new perspectiveperspective

Mental SetMental Set

A tendency to approach a A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in especially if it has worked in the pastthe past

May or may not be a good May or may not be a good thingthing

Functional FixednessFunctional Fixedness

The tendency The tendency to think of to think of things only in things only in terms of their terms of their usual usual functionsfunctions

What are some things I can do with this quarter (other than spend it)?

OverconfidenceOverconfidence The tendency The tendency

to be more to be more confident than confident than correctcorrect

To overestimate To overestimate the accuracy of the accuracy of your beliefs your beliefs and judgmentsand judgments

Considering “overconfidence” who would risk 1 million dollars on an audience poll?

FramingFraming

The way an The way an issued is posedissued is posed

It can have It can have drastic effects drastic effects on your on your decisions and decisions and judgments.judgments.

How do you think framing will play a part in this years’ CA governor election?

Belief BiasBelief Bias

1. Democrats support 1. Democrats support free speech.free speech.

The tendency for The tendency for one’s preexisting one’s preexisting beliefs to distort beliefs to distort logical reasoninglogical reasoning

Sometimes Sometimes making invalid making invalid conclusions valid conclusions valid or vice versaor vice versa

2.Dictators are not Democrats.

Conclusion: Dictators do not support free speech.

Belief PerseveranceBelief Perseverance

Clinging to your Clinging to your initial initial conceptions after conceptions after the basis on the basis on which they were which they were formed has been formed has been discredited (in discredited (in the face of the face of contrary contrary evidence)evidence) All Chicago Cubs fans who still

believe that this is their year are suffering from belief perseverance.

Unnecessary ConstraintsUnnecessary Constraints

People often make assumptions that People often make assumptions that impose unnecessary constraints on impose unnecessary constraints on problem-solving efforts.problem-solving efforts.

These constraints are These constraints are

problem-solver imposed; problem-solver imposed;

NOT problem imposed. NOT problem imposed.

Solution to Nine-dot Solution to Nine-dot ProblemProblem

What other possible solution can you What other possible solution can you come up with?come up with?

Matchstick ProblemMatchstick Problem

Move only 2 matches to create 4 Move only 2 matches to create 4

identical match stick squares.identical match stick squares.

Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

AI: The science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to stimulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language.

Language and Language and ThoughtThought

It’s all about communication!!!

LanguageLanguage Our spoken, written, Our spoken, written,

or gestured words or gestured words and the way we and the way we combine them to combine them to communicate communicate meaningmeaning

A complex set of A complex set of symbols with specific symbols with specific meaning to meaning to communicate communicate thoughtsthoughts

Believe it or not, this communication is a form of language!!!

Language as CreativeLanguage as Creative With language, we create and interpret With language, we create and interpret

new ideas continuously.new ideas continuously. Language is a system that allows us to Language is a system that allows us to

reach limitless end from limited means: reach limitless end from limited means: Our stock of memorized meaningful Our stock of memorized meaningful words is finite, but we have capacity to words is finite, but we have capacity to create an infinite number of new create an infinite number of new expressions.expressions.– Example: “That’s a rabbit.” ORExample: “That’s a rabbit.” OR

““That’s a rabbit over there.”That’s a rabbit over there.”““A rabbit is what I see over there.”A rabbit is what I see over there.”““Obviously, that’s a rabbit.”Obviously, that’s a rabbit.”““That’s clearly a rabbit.”That’s clearly a rabbit.”etc.etc.

Language is Highly StructuredLanguage is Highly Structured We construct utterances in accord We construct utterances in accord

with certain abstract principles/rules with certain abstract principles/rules of language structure.of language structure.– Example: would NOT say, “Is rabbit a Example: would NOT say, “Is rabbit a

that.”that.” Structural principles underlie the way Structural principles underlie the way

in which we combine words to make in which we combine words to make up new expression, and they are up new expression, and they are followed by most individuals (so that followed by most individuals (so that we can all understand each other).we can all understand each other).

Prescriptive rules are essentially Prescriptive rules are essentially “rules of grammar.”“rules of grammar.”

Language as MeaningfulLanguage as Meaningful Each word in a language expresses a Each word in a language expresses a

meaningful idea (or concept) about some meaningful idea (or concept) about some thing (e.g., rabbit, camera), action (e.g., run, thing (e.g., rabbit, camera), action (e.g., run, jump), abstraction (e.g., justice, fun), quality jump), abstraction (e.g., justice, fun), quality (e.g., red, altruistic)(e.g., red, altruistic)

– Example: “dogs”, “cats”, and “bites” express Example: “dogs”, “cats”, and “bites” express very different meaningful thoughts depending very different meaningful thoughts depending on how they are put togetheron how they are put together

Language is InterpersonalLanguage is Interpersonal

Many aspects of human language are within the Many aspects of human language are within the individual and are thus the property of each individual and are thus the property of each single human mind.single human mind.

Language is a process that goes beyond the Language is a process that goes beyond the individual, for it is the social activity in which the individual, for it is the social activity in which the thoughts of one mind are communicated to thoughts of one mind are communicated to another mind.another mind.

Each speaker must know the sounds, words, Each speaker must know the sounds, words, and sentences of his/her language as well as and sentences of his/her language as well as the principles of conversation.the principles of conversation.

Structure of Language: Structure of Language: LinguisticsLinguistics

All human languages are organized as a All human languages are organized as a hierarchy of structures.hierarchy of structures.At the bottom of the hierarchy, each At the bottom of the hierarchy, each language consists of little snippets of sound.language consists of little snippets of sound.And at the top, complex dialogues and And at the top, complex dialogues and written creations.written creations.

PhonemesPhonemesPhonemes are the smallest distinctive Phonemes are the smallest distinctive

sound units that are perceived.sound units that are perceived.There are approximately 40 phonemesThere are approximately 40 phonemes

Examples: “th” “z” “b” “er” “t”Examples: “th” “z” “b” “er” “t”How many phonemes

does platypus have?

MorphemesMorphemesFixed sequences of phonemes are joined into Fixed sequences of phonemes are joined into morphemes.morphemes.There are approximately 80,000 morphemes.There are approximately 80,000 morphemes.Morphemes are the smallest language units Morphemes are the smallest language units that carry bits of meaning.that carry bits of meaning.Some words consist of single morphemes Some words consist of single morphemes such as “and” “run” or “strange” such as “and” “run” or “strange” These are These are called called Content MorphemesContent Morphemes..Many morphemes can stand alone and must Many morphemes can stand alone and must be joined with others to make up a complex be joined with others to make up a complex word/idea.word/idea.– Example: “er” “s” Example: “er” “s” These are called These are called

Function Function MorphemesMorphemes..

GrammarGrammar

A system of A system of rules in a rules in a language that language that enables us to enables us to communicate communicate and understand and understand othersothers

Semantics + Semantics + SyntaxSyntax

SemanticsSemantics

The set of rules The set of rules by which we by which we derive meaning derive meaning in a languagein a language

Adding Adding eded at at the end of the end of words means words means past tense.past tense.

The Chinese languages do not have expansive semantic rules. They usually have totally different symbols for different tenses.

SyntaxSyntax

The rules for The rules for combining words combining words into grammatically into grammatically sensible sentencessensible sentences

In English, In English, adjectives come adjectives come before nouns, but before nouns, but not in Spanish!!not in Spanish!!

Is this the White House or the House White?

Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentLanguage is developed in a sequence of steps.Language is developed in a sequence of steps.

1.1. CryingCrying (birth – 1 month) (birth – 1 month) Crying is innateCrying is innate.. The first signs of language is crying. (The The first signs of language is crying. (The

beginning of sound.)beginning of sound.)1.1. CooingCooing (2 months – 6 months) By the second (2 months – 6 months) By the second

month, babies begin cooing. month, babies begin cooing. Coos are vowel Coos are vowel soundssounds – expressing feelings of pleasure. – expressing feelings of pleasure.

2.2. BabblingBabbling (3/4 months – 10 months) (3/4 months – 10 months) Babbling Babbling is the combination of vowel and is the combination of vowel and consonant soundsconsonant sounds. Example: “ba”, “ga”, “da”. Example: “ba”, “ga”, “da”

3.3. WordsWords (11 months – 18 months) (11 months – 18 months)4.4. Learning grammar - rules of languageLearning grammar - rules of language

(beyond 18 months)(beyond 18 months)

Language DevelopmentLanguage Development► Crying, cooing and babblingCrying, cooing and babbling are basic are basic

human abilities regardless of culture or human abilities regardless of culture or language (these steps are universal around language (these steps are universal around the world). the world).

► All babies produce the same early sounds no All babies produce the same early sounds no matter the culture or language. matter the culture or language.

► By about the eleventh month, babies begin to By about the eleventh month, babies begin to create sounds that they pick out and repeat create sounds that they pick out and repeat from phonemes used by the people around from phonemes used by the people around them. Example: “mama” them. Example: “mama”

► One-word stageOne-word stage – From age 1-2 a child speaks – From age 1-2 a child speaks mostly in single words. mostly in single words.

► The start of real language begins with The start of real language begins with wordswords..

Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

► Word acquisition occurs slowly. After the Word acquisition occurs slowly. After the baby has learned its first word, it might be baby has learned its first word, it might be another 3 or 4 months before the baby another 3 or 4 months before the baby develops a 10-word vocabulary.develops a 10-word vocabulary.

► By 18 months, a child has dozens of words By 18 months, a child has dozens of words in his/her vocabulary (mostly nouns).in his/her vocabulary (mostly nouns).

► Reading to young children increases their Reading to young children increases their vocabulary.vocabulary.

► Children sometimes overreach – they try to Children sometimes overreach – they try to talk about more things than they have talk about more things than they have words for. This is called words for. This is called overextensionoverextension.. Example: “dog” used for other animals.Example: “dog” used for other animals.

Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

► Two-word stageTwo-word stage – by 2 years, most children – by 2 years, most children begin to use two-word sentences. “That begin to use two-word sentences. “That doggie.” means “that is a dog.”doggie.” means “that is a dog.”

► Even brief two-word utterances show Even brief two-word utterances show understanding of grammar, “Sit chair” or understanding of grammar, “Sit chair” or “My doggy” – “Mommy go” vs. “Go mommy”“My doggy” – “Mommy go” vs. “Go mommy”

► Telegraphic speechTelegraphic speech – Early stage in which a – Early stage in which a child speaks like a telegram – using mostly child speaks like a telegram – using mostly nouns and verbs; omitting “auxiliary words.”nouns and verbs; omitting “auxiliary words.”

► Between 2-3 years, children begin to add the Between 2-3 years, children begin to add the missing words such as conjunctions, articles, missing words such as conjunctions, articles, pronouns, etc.pronouns, etc.

How do we explain language How do we explain language development?development?

►Skinner thought Skinner thought that we can that we can explain language explain language development development through through social social learning learning theorytheory (which (which is?).is?). The young boy imitates

his dad, then gets a reward.

ChomskyChomskyInborn Universal GrammarInborn Universal Grammar

►We acquire We acquire language too language too quickly for it to be quickly for it to be learned.learned.

►We have this We have this “learning box” “learning box” inside our heads inside our heads that enable us to that enable us to learn any human learn any human language.language.

Does language influence our Does language influence our thinking?thinking?

►Whorf’s Linguistic RelativityWhorf’s Linguistic Relativity►The idea that language determines The idea that language determines

the way we think (not vise versa).the way we think (not vise versa).

• The Hopi tribe has no past

tense in their language, so

Whorf says they rarely think

of the past.

Thinking without LanguageThinking without Language►We can think in words.We can think in words.►But more often we think in mental But more often we think in mental

pictures.pictures.

In 1977, Reggie Jackson hit 3 HR’s against the Dodgers. He has stated that before each at bat, he visualizes crushing a home run. Do you think visualization helps?

Do Animals Think?Do Animals Think?

Kohler’s ChimpanzeesKohler’s Chimpanzees►Kohler Kohler

exhibited that exhibited that Chimps can Chimps can problem solve.problem solve.

Honeybees seem to Honeybees seem to communicatecommunicate

Apes and SigningApes and Signing