CHAPTER–4

ENFORCEMENTOFSOCIAL

JUSTICEUNDERTHE

CONSTITUTIONOFINDIA:

OR

OTHERPROVISIONSOF

SOCIALJUSTICEUDERTHE

CONSTITUTIONOFINDIA

CHAPTER–4ENFORCEMENTOFSOCIALJUSTICEUNDERTHE

CONSTITUTIONOFINDIA.OR

OTHERPROVISIONSOFSOCIALJUSTICEUDERTHECONSTITUTIONOFINDIA

SocialjusticeandpreambleoftheconstitutionofIndia.

SocialjusticeandfundamentalrightofthecitizenofIndia.

Socialjusticeanddirectiveprinciplesofstatepolicy.

SocialjusticeandotherprovisionoftheconstitutionofIndia.

140

CHAPTER–4ENFORCEMENTOFSOCIALJUSTICEUNDERTHE

CONSTITUTIONOFINDIA.OR

OTHERPROVISIONSOFSOCIALJUSTICEUDERTHECONSTITUTIONOFINDIA

A picture of the constitution will give us the Right perspective for

AppreciationoftheScopeandplaceofSocialJusticeasanaspirationof

theNation. Itsobjectsand themachinery toachieve thoseobjects.The

objectivesoughttobeachievedbytheconstitutionofIndiaechoesinits

preamblewhichreadsthatthepeopleofIndiahavesolemnlyresolvedto

constituteIndiaIntoaSovereignDemocraticRepublic,Secularinsecure

toall itsacitizens, Justice,Social,economicandpoliticaland libertyof

through,expression,belief,faithandworshipandequalityofstatusand

ofopportunity.226

Golak Nath v. state of Punjab227 it is an error to view our

constitution as it was a mere organizational document by which the

people established structureandmechanismof theirGovernment.Our

constitution is intended to bemuchmore, because It, aims at being a,

Social Document inwhich the relationship of society to the Individual

and of Government to both and the rights of the minorities and the

Backwardclassesareclearlylaiddown.Thissocialdocumentisheaded

226 R.G. Chaturvadi "Natural and Social Justice" second edition 1975 Ch XIII Note 4. P. 465.227 AIR 1967 SC 1643

141

byapreamblewhichepitomizes.TheprincipleonwhichtheGovernmentis

intended to function and these principles are later expanded Into

FundamentalRightsinpartIIIandthedirectivePrinciplesofstatepolicyin

part IV.The former represent the limitsof stateactionand the latterare

the obligations and the duties of the Government as good and Social

Government.

The constitution of India is a historicSocio-Legal document embracing

the aspirations of the people belonging to a multifaceted heterogeneous

societyundoubtedly;itisthevolkgeist,thespiritofthepeopleofIndia.The

aimoftheGrundnorm in theconstitutionis social justiceHence, the

aimoftheGrundnorm,TheConstitutionisestablishmentofanegalitarian

policywellentrenchedinSocialJusticeasengrainedinthepreamble.228

The Indian republican constitutions based it on four principal

pillars:

TheIndianrepublicanconstitutionbaseditselfon fourprincipalpillars.A

sovereign parliament with parliamentary democracy, social Justice,

Federalismandsecularismandwehavebeencontinuouslywitnessingan

attackoneachofthesefoundationssinceIndependence,perhapsmoreso

asandwhenthefactorswhichledtothesegainsgetweakened.229

228 Venkatram Narasimha Reddy"Article 21, has The Supreme Court Google Gone Tooyar AIR 2001 Vol. 88 Journal p.289.229 Basu Nilotpal "peoples democracy Vol. XXX Note 44 Act 29 2006 p. 4

142

SocialJusticeAfruitofRevolution:

Social Justicewas initially a doctrine of Social philosophy but now it has

entered into statecraft and has captured. The constitutional field. The

process has been historical. Social Justice Secured equality whereas

Political Justice secured liberty. The revolutions have lent this concept

majesty that humanrelationsand associations inall their social, political

andeconomicformsarenowclaspedwithinitsfold.230

Earlier, in the same judgment, Subba Rao, C.J., had said that the

preamble of our Constitution contains, in a nutshell, its ideals and it’s as

privation worked out in detail in the Constitution. The different

constitutional entities, namely, the Union, the States and the Union

Territories; and the three major instruments of power, namely, the

Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary, have their spheres and

respective jurisdiction demorcated and the scope and themanner of the

exerciseoftheirrespectivepowersregulatedbylaw.Noauthoritycreated

undertheConstitutionissupreme;theconstitutionaloneissupreme231.

Earlier,inStateofMysorev.WorkersofGoldMines,232

Gajendragadkar, J. (as he then was) had observed that social and

economic justice have been given a place of pride in our Constitution.

The Preamble to the Constitution, a basic postulate of the nation's

230 R.G. Chaturvadi "Natural and Social Justice" second edition 1975 Ch XIII Note 4. P. 405

231 Foot note No.. 227232 State of Mysore v. Workers of Gold miners. AIR 1963 S.C

143

founding faith,expresslyarticulates thevisionof thenationasaSocial

JusticeStatewithadynamic,democratic,egalitarianorder.Indeed,Parts

IIIandIVisplainlyFabiansocialist.

1.SocialjusticeandpreambleoftheconstitutionofIndia;

2.SocialjusticeandfundamentalrightsofthecitizenofIndia;

3.Socialjusticeanddirectiveprinciplesofstatepolicy.

4.OtherprovisionsoftheconstitutionofIndia

1.Social justiceandpreambleof theconstitutionof India: Justice,

Social, Economicand Political are a triunephenomenon inscribedas a

pledge in thePreamblegloryofourConstitution.Economicdemocracy

has a crimson material complexion and expressively emphasizes a

socialist democracy. But overlapping this leftist ideology, yet with

independent features and dimensions is social democracy. India,

abandoning the social justice values enshrined in the Preamble,

commenced a neo-colonial voyage, making head way steadily

backwards.Atotalturn-around,avolteface,adiametricalcontradiction

eclipsed theobjective, subverted thepoliciesandshotdown thesocio-

economicparadigmforwhichGandhiNehruerastood.233

TheIndianConstitutionturnedtothisdemocraticcommitmentbegins

it Preamble thus: WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, are having solemnly

resolved to constitute Indiaintoa(SOVEREIGNSOCIALIST

233 D.S. Nakara v. Union of India (1983)(1) SCC. 305.

144

SECULARDEMOCRATICREPUBLIC)andtosecuretoallits

citizens:

JUSTICE,social,economicandpolitical;

LIBERTYofthought,expression,belief,

EQUALITYofstatusandofopportunity;

Andtopromoteamongthemall

FRATERNITYassuringthedignityoftheindividualand

The(unityandintegrityoftheNation);

INOURCONSTITUENTASSEMBLY this twenty sixth day ofNovember,

1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS

CONSTITUTION.234

a.ThePreamblesecuresocialjusticetoallthecitizensofIndia-

Justice-Social,economic,andpolitical.

Liberty-Ofthought,expression,belief,faithandworship

Equality-Of statusandofopportunity.The constitutionof Indiaprofesses

tosecuretothecitizenssocial,economicandpoliticaljustice.Socialjustice

means the abolition of all sorts of inequities whichmay result from the

inequalities ofwealth, opportunity, status, race, religions, caste, title and

the like.Toachieve this idealof social justice, theConstitution laysdown

theDirectivesfortheStateinPartIVoftheConstitution"235

234 Preamble of the constitution of India235 John Rowls - Theory of Justice p. 60

145

Thecourtisindependent,asitshouldbe,uninfluencedbyextraneous

forces or internal pressures. The Judges, high and low, transform the

social order and give justice-social, economic, political and cultural, in

suchmannerthatthepeoplesecurewhatwaspromisedtothembythe

noble Preamble. The access to justice, the faith in fundamental rights

andsocialjusticeandthemaintenanceoftheruleoflawturnonjudicial

integrity. In theConstitutionwhichaimsateliminationof inequality in

income and status and standards of life andmay enable the courts to

leanmoreandmoreinfavourofnationalizationandStateownershipof

industry.Thecourthasalsousedthewordsocialistinthepreamblefor

evolving a concept of social democracy which comes closer to the

conceptofsocialwelfarestateexpressedas'socialstate'forexamplein

theConstitutionsofFranceandGermany236. Theword "socialism" in

the Preamble of the Constitution was expressly brought in the

constitutiontoestablishanegalitariansocialorder throughruleof law

asitsbasicstructure.

InMinervaMillsLtd.v.UnionofIndia.237 TheConstitutionBenchhad

considered the meaning of the word "Socialism" to crystallize a

socialistic State securing to its people socio-economic justice by

interplayoftheFundamentalRightsandtheDirectivePrinciples.

236 Exil Wear v. Union of India (1978) p. 4245.237 A.I.R. 1980 SC 1789

146

Thesocial,economicandpolitical justiceasathree foldsclassification

of justice. It is difficult to conceive the latter two as independent and

apart from society. Conceived generically social Justice includes

economicandpoliticalJusticeSocialJusticeasthenameindicatesmust

conformtoJusticeinall initssocialaspects.ThedeeperrootsofSocial

JusticearetobefoundineconomicJustice.Thesocialwelfaretheorythe

statewhich takesacomprehensiveviewof thestate activities includes

bothsocialandeconomicJustice238

Philosophers had recognized such social rights as natural Rights"

Fundamental Rights are infects, themodern name forwhat have been

traditionallyknownasTheNaturalRights. Ithasbeenheldbyauthors

thattheyaremoralRightswhicheveryhumanbeingeverywhereatall

times ought to process and enjoy simply because of the fact that in

contra distinction with other being. The human being is Rational and

moral.Theyaretheprimordialrightsnecessaryforthedevelopmentof

humanpersonality.239

2.SocialRightsthroughtheFundamentalrightofcitizen:

a.SocialRightsSubjecttoSocialControlasChartedoutinpartIII

oftheconstitution:

Social Rights Subject to social control, as charted out inpart III of the

constitutionof India.Social JusticeConcernswithsuchRightsonlyasa

238 Valsamma paul v. Cochin University AIR 1996 SC p. 14239 .D.S.Nakarav.union of India AIR 1983 SCC.305

147

have a social impact which can be controlled from wider social

perspective. Speaking broadly, every rights has a social element man

being a creature of the society social justice concerns itself with the

rightsofsocialratherthanofapersonalnature.240

KeshavanandBhartiv.stateofKerala241

The fundamental Rights and directive principles are supplement each

other and aim at the same goal of about a social revolution and the

establishment of a welfare state. The fundamental rights of our

constitution are social justice. It is mentioned in the preamble itself-

Justice:Social,Political,andEconomic.Ittheideasofsocialjusticewere

nottoremainonpaper,howdowegivethemconcreteshape?Howdo

citizens realize that it is through governance they ought to get social

Justice?

TheconstitutionofEnglandiswrittenandthesupremacyofparliament

isitsdominantcharacteristicofsocialjustice“RuleofLaw"explainsthat

an individual in England has the right and freedom to take whatever

actionhelike,solongas,hedoesnotviolateanyruleoftheordinarylaw

oftheland.TheAmericansConstitutionframedin1787andbroughtin

toforcein1789,didnotcontainanyfundamentalrightsforAmericans.

It was met with serious condemnation. Consequently, the first ten

amendmentswereenactedin1791,incorporatingthefundamental

240 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab University AIR 1967 SC 1643241 AIR 1973 SCC 225

148

rights.TheseamendmentshavebeendescribedastheAmerican"Billof

Rights". The Rights are binding on the Executive as well as the

Legislature.242

b.FundamentalRightsinIndia-NatureandScope:

Part - IIIof theConstitution issaid tocontain thebill ofRights for the

peopleofIndia.Theyhavebeensaidtobetheveryfoundationandthe

corner-stoneofthedemocraticwayoflifeusheredinthiscountrybythe

Constitution.Theserightshavebeendeclaredassacrosanct,inalienable

andinviolable.IthasbeenemphasizedthatFundamentalRightsarenot

tobereadinisolation.TheyhavetobereadalongwiththeChapteron

Directive Principles of State Policy and the Fundamental Duties

enshrined inArticle51A.TheRightsare tobekept inconformitywith

the changing socio-economic conditions. For the purpose, the

Constitution confers power on the State, the constituent power, the

powertoamendtheConstitutionincludingtheFundamentalRights.For

example,theConstitution1stAmendment,1951,amendedtheprovision

relatingtoFundamentalRights.243

C.SocialjusticethroughtheFundamentalrightsofcitizen.

TheFundamentalRights,whicharesecuredbytheConstitutionofIndia,

aregroupedunderthefollowingheads-

242 Dicey. AV "Introduction to Law of Constitution 1991 P. 198243 State of Madras v. Champak am Dorairajan. AIR 1951 SC 226

149

(i) RighttoEquality(Articles14to18)

(ii) RighttoFreedom(Articles19to22)

(iii) RighttoEducation(Article21-A)

(iv) RightagainstExploitation(Articles23and24)

(v) RighttoFreedomofReligion(Articles25to28)

(vi) CulturalandEducationalRightsofminorities(Articles29and30)

and

(vii) RighttoConstitutionalRemedies(Article32)244

D.FundamentalRightsareAvailableagainsttheState:

According to the philosophy behind Fundamental Rights, they are

availableonlyagainsttheState,fortheyarelimitationsuponthepowers

of the Government, Legislative as well as Executive. It is against the

might of the State that an individual needs constitutional protection

Conceptually,thefundamentalrightsareavailableonlyagainsttheState,

However, there are provisions in part III of the Constitution, which

impose limitations upon the action of private individuals as well, for

example, Articles 15(2), 17, 18(2), 23(1), and 24. As regards these

provisions,theSupremeCourt inPeople'sUnion forDemocraticRights

v.Unionof Indian ruled that itwas the constitutionalobligationof the

State of takes necessary steps for the purposes of interdicting such

244 Javed v. State of Haryana AIR 2003 SC 3057.

150

violation and ensuring observance of the fundamental rights by the

privateindividualwhowastransgressingthesame.245

ThefirstFundamentalRightsecuredtothepeopleofIndiaisthe"Rights

toEquality". It is contained inArticles 14 to18.These provisionsare

discussedunderthefollowingheads-

1. EqualityBeforeLaworEqualProtectionofLaws(Article14)

2. ProhibitionofDiscriminationAgainstCitizens(Articles15)

3. EqualityofOpportunityinPublicEmployment(Article16)

4. Abolitionof"Unsociability"(Article17)

5. AbolitionofTitles(Article18)

Theconceptofequalityhasbeenheldbasictotheruleoflaw:

themajority of the Supreme Court has held that the right to equality

conferred byArticle14 is aBasic Structureof theConstitution andan

essentialfeatureofdemocracyorruleoflaw246.

Article 14 provides: The state shall not deny to any person equality

beforethelaworequalprotectionoflawswithintheterritoryofIndia.

Article14usestwoexpressionsnamely-

1.EqualitybeforeLaw

2.Equalprotectionoflaws

1.EqualitybeforeLawThephrase"equalitybefore law" isEnglish in

origin. It is a familiar feature of what Dicey called the "Rule of Law".

245 Peoples Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India AIR 1982 SC 1473246 Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narayan AIR 1975 SC 2299

151

"RuleofLaw"meansthatnomanisabovethelawandthateveryperson

whateverbehisrankorcondition,issubjectedtotheordinarylawofthe

land is amendable to the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals. He

observes: "With us every official, from the Prime Minister down to a

constable or a Collector of taxes, is under the same responsibility for

everyactdonewithoutlegaljustificationasanyothercitizen.

2. Equal protection of laws the phrase "equal protection of laws" is

basedonSection1oftheFourteenthAmendmentoftheConstitutionof

theUnitedStatesofAmerica adoptedon July28,1868,which runsas:

"norshallanyState-denytoanypersonwithinitsjurisdictiontheequal

protectionoflaws".

Thisphraseisinterpretedtomean"subjectionofequallawsapplyingto

all inthesamecircumstances". Itmeansthatallpersonshavetheright

to equal treatment in similar circumstances, both in the privileges

conferred and in the liabilities imposedby laws. It requires that equal

lawsshouldbeappliedtoallinthesamesituationandthatthereshould

benodiscriminationbetweenonepersonandanother.Thus,thephrase

"equalprotectionoflaws"laysdowntherulethat"likeshouldbetreated

alikeandnotthatunlikeshouldbetreatedalike".Article7oftheUniversal

DeclarationofHumanRights,proclaimedonDecember10,1948,uses

152

both the expressions. It says: "All are equal before the law and are

entitledwithoutanydiscriminationtoequalprotectionofthelaw"247.

3 .Who may claim under Article 14-Protection: The obligation

imposed on the state by Article 14, is for the benefit of all persons,

within theTerritoryof India.TheBenefitofArticle14is, thereforenot

limited to citizens.Every personwhethernatural or Artificialwhether

he isacitizenoranalien isentitled to theprotectionof thisArticle. It

mayhoweverbenoticed thatanalien(a foreignnationalcannot claim

equalrightsUnderArticle14,withoftheIndianNationals,Soforasthe

grantofcitizenshipofIndia.248

4.Article14permitsReasonableClassification:

The principle of equality embodied in Article 14, thus, permits

classification. But, the classification permitted by Article 14 must rest

upon reasonable grounds of distinction. It must not be "arbitrary,

artificialorevasive".Itmustbeareasonableclassification.249

5.Article14ProhibitsClassLegislation.

Article14prohibitsclasslegislation,"Classlegislation"meanslegislation

differentiating between the same classes of persons. When persons

belongtothesameclassorthattheyareequalamongthemselves247 Article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Proclaimed on Dec. 10, 1948248 Satish Nambiar v. Union of India AIR 2008 Bom p. 158.249 State of west Bangal v. Anwar Ali AIR 1952 SC 75

153

incertainrespects,theyhavetobetreatedequallyinsuchmatters.Law

wouldbevolatileofArticle14ifittreatsthesepersonsdifferently.

6.SocialjusticeandtotestforReasonableClassification:

(I) that, the classificationmustbe foundedonan intelligibledifferentia

which distinguishes persons of things that are grouped together from

othersleftoutofthegroupand

(ii) that, the differentia must have a rational relation to the object

soughttobeachievedbytheStatuteinquestion.

Afterlayingdowntheabovetwobroadtests,theCourtpropoundedthe

following principles which were to be borne in mind by the Court in

determiningthevalidityofaStatuteonthegroundofviolationofArticle

14.250

7.Article 14StrikesatArbitrariness-ADynamicApproach to save

socialjustice:

The Supreme Court in E.P. Royappa State v. of Tamil Nadu 251 has

given a dynamic connotation to the equalizing principle. The Court

declared this equalizingprinciplecontained inArticle 14as a "founding

faith', a way of life" must not be subjected to "a narrow pedantic or

lexicographicapproach.Equalityisadynamicconceptwithmanyaspects

anddimensionsanditcannotbe"cribbed,cabinedandconfined"within

traditional and doctrinaire limits. From a positivistic point of view,

250 Ram Krishnan Dalmia v. Justice Tendalkar AIR 1958 SC 538251 AIR 1974 SC 555.

154

equality isantithetictoarbitrariness. In fact,equalityandarbitrariness

areswornenemies;onebelongtotheruleoflawinarepublicwhilethe

other,tothewhimandcapriceofanabsolutemonarchy.

InManekaGandhi v.Union of India,252 the SupremeCourt reiterated

the majority view in E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu and

emphasizingon thecontentandreachofthegreatequalizingprinciple

enunciated in Article 14, stated. Article 14 Strikes at arbitrariness in

Stateactionandensuresfairnessandequaloftreatment.

8.Article14andAdmissiontoEducationalInstitutions:

TheCourtheldthattheschemehadtheeffectofnationalizingeducation

inrespectofimportantfeatures,viz.,andtherightofaprivateun-aided

institution togiveadmissionand to fix the fee. Itwasheldneither fair

nor reasonable. The Apex Court observed that the private unaided

educational institutions imparted education and that could not be the

reason to take away their choice in matters, inter alia, of selection of

studentsandfixationoffees.253

Reservationofseatsforpersonsbelongingtoareas,whicharesocially&

educationally backward, is constitutionally permissible. Allotment of

seatsinviewofthehistoricalbackgroundispermissibleunderArticles14

252 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India AIR 1978 SC 597253 Uhnikrishan v. State of Andra Pradesh AIR 1993 SC 10

155

and15.Ruralelementdoesnotmake it a classandprovision for rural

areascannotbesustained.254

The Apex Court in R.K.Daria v. Rajasthan Public Service

Commission255 ruledthatreservationforwomenintheStateJudicial

Services,beinghorizontal(special)reservation,wouldbecountedwithin

the vertical reservation. Thus women selected on merit within the

vertical reservation quota would be counted against the horizontal

reservationforwomen.

NoDiscriminationagainstCitizensArticle15(1):

Clause (1) of Article 15 provides: "The State shall not discriminate

againstanycitizenongroundonlyofreligion,race,caste,sex,andplace

ofbirthoranyofthem".Discrimination,inthecontextofArticle15also

meansclassificationamongpersonsor thingsandalsoreservations for

someofthemembersofagrouporaclass. Ifanysuchclassificationor

reservation isbasedonanyof thegroundsmentioned inArticle15(1),

i.e., religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, it would be violative of

Article15(1).256

254 Narayan Sharma v. Pankaj Krlehkar AIR 2000 SC 72255 AIR 2007 SC 3727256 General Manager v. Rangchari AIR 1962 SC 36

156

9.NoDiscriminationastoUseorAccesstoPublicArticle15(2):

Clause(2)ofArticle15provides : "Nocitizenshall,ongroundsonlyof

religion,race,caste,sex,placeofbirthoranythem,besubjectedtoany

disability,liability,restrictionorconditionwithregardto-

(a) Access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public

entertainments;or

(b) Theuseofwells, tanks,bathingGhats, roadsandplacesofpublic

resortmaintainedwhollyorpartlyoutofStatefundsordecidedto

theuseofgeneralpublic".

While theprohibitionunderClause(1) isagainstStateonlyClause(2)

prohibitsnot only theStatebut also private individuals from violating

thedirectioncontainedtherein

10.SpecialProvisionforWomenandChildrenArticle15(3):Clause

(3)ofArticle15provides:NothinginthisarticleshallpreventtheState

frommakinganyspecialprovisionforwomenandchildren".ThisClause

isanexceptiontotheruleagainstdiscriminationembodiedinClause(1)

aswellasClause(2).While,boththeseClausesprohibitdiscrimination

onthegroundofsex,Clause(3)enablestheStatetoconferspecialrights

uponwomen,sincewomenareawelldefinedclass.257

11.SpecialProvisionforBackwardClassesArticle15(4):Clause(4)

of Article 15 contains another exception to Clauses (1) and (2). It

257 State of M.P. v. G.D. Terthani A.I.R. 2003 SC 2952

157

provides: "Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall

prevent the State from making any special provision for the

advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of

citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes". This

Clausewasaddedby theConstitution(FirstAmendment)Act,1951,as

anequaltothedecisionoftheSupremeCourt258

Scope of Clause (4) of Article 15 and social justice: Clause (4) of

Article 15 enables the State to make special provisions. "Special

Provision for advancement" is a wide expression and should not be

construed inarestrictedsenseasmeaningonlysocialandeducational

advancement. The expression may include many more things besides

merereservationofseatsincolleges259

SociallyandEducationallyBackwardClasses:

CastemaybetheSoleBasis:

In M.R. Balaji v. State of Mysore,260 the Supreme Court held that

backwardnessunderClause(4)ofArticle15mustbeboth,sociallyand

educationally.Thecasteofagroupofpersons,theCourtsaidcouldnot

be the sole or evenpredominant basis to ascertainwhether that class

should be taken to be backward for the purpose of Article 15(4). The

Courtheldthatasregardssocialbackwardness,themaindetermining

258 State of Madaras v. Champak am Darairajan AIR 1951 SC 226259 K.C. Vasanth Kumar v. State of Karnataka AIR 1985 SC 1495260 AIR 1963 SC 649

158

factorwould be the result of poverty.InState ofU.P. v. PradeepTan

don261, the Uttar Pradesh Government made reservation of seats for

admission to the medical colleges in the State in favour areas. The

SupremeCourtheldthatthereservationinfavourofcandidatescoming

fromruralareaswasunconstitutional.

12.ReservationforBackwardandMoreBackwardClasses:

In Indira Sawhney v. Union of India,262 the Supreme Court has held

that classification of Backward Classes into "Backward" and "More

Backward"notonlypermissiblebutessential.TheCourtexplainedthat

theobjectofthespecialprovisioncontainedintheconstitutionwasnot

touplifta few individualsand families in theBackwardClasses, but to

ensuretheadvancementoftheBackwardClassesasawhole.

Transplant in Backward Caste by Adoption or Marriages or

Conversion/Migration:

In Valsamma Paul v. Cochin University, 263the Supreme Court

explained that theDalits (SC) and Tribes (ST) had suffered social and

economic disabilities recognized by Articles 17 and 15(2) and as a

consequence, they had become socially, culturally and educationally

backward.TheobjectofreservationpermissibleunderArticle15(4)and

261 AIR 1975 SC 563262 AIR 199 SC 477263 AIR 1996 SC

159

Article16(4),theCourtsaid,wastoremovethesehandicaps.Thecourt,

however,cautionedthatacquisitionofthestatusofScheduledCaste,etc.

by voluntary mobility into these categories, would play fraud on the

Constitutionandwouldfrustratethebenignconstitutionalpolicyunder

Articles15(4)and16(4)oftheConstitution.TheCourt,thus,ruledthata

candidatewhohadtheadvantageousstartinlifebeingborninforward

caste and had march of advantageous life but was transplanted in

backward caste by adoption or marriage or conversion, would not

becomeeligibletothebenefitofreservation,eitherunderArticle15(4)

or16(4),asthecasemightbe.264

13. Special Provisions Relating to Admission to Educational

InstitutionsforSCsS.TsandOBCinArticle15(15):

The Constitution (Ninety-third Amendment) Act, 2005 has inserted a

new Clause (5) law, special provisions, for the advancement of any

socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the

Scheduled Castes or the Scheduled Tribes, in so far as, such special

provisions relate to their admission to educational institutions,

includingprivateeducational institutions,whetheraidedorunaidedby

theState,otherthantheminorityeducationalinstitutions,referredtoin

Clause(1)ofArticle30.265

264 S. Pushpa v. Slvachan mugavelu AIR 2005 SC 1058265 The constitutional 93rd Amendment act 2005

160

AshokeKumarthakurv.UnionofIndia266SC

Heldthat93constitutionalamendmenthasdeclaredvalid

14. Equality of Opportunity in Matters of Public Employment:

Another particular application of the general principle of equality or

protection clause enshrined in Article 14 is contained in Article

16.Clause (1) of Article 16 guarantees to all citizens, equality of

opportunity, inmatters relating to employmentor appointment toany

office under the State. Clause (2) further strengthens the guarantee

contained in Clause

(1)bydeclaringthat"Nocitizenshall,ongroundsonlyofreligion,race,

caste,sex,descent,placeofbirth,residenceoranyofthem,beineligible

for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office

undertheState".Clauses(3),(4)and(5)ofArticle16containexceptions

totheruleofequalityofopportunity,embodiedinClauses(1)and(2).267

Article 16 prohibits discrimination only in respect to one particular

matter, i.e., relating to employmentor appointment topostsunder the

State,Article15laysdownageneralruleandprohibitsdiscriminationin

respect to all or anymatters. In one respect, Article 16 iswider than

Article 15, i.e., the grounds on the basis of which discrimination is

prohibited, i.e. religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth; Article 16

266 2007 SC88267 Artical of the constitutionalof India

161

contains seven prohibited grounds of discrimination. However, both

theseArticlescanbeinvokedbycitizensonly.268

Equality of Opportunity-State may lay down Qualifications or

Conditions Article 16 (1): .Educational Qualifications As basis of

Classification:

Educational qualifications can justifiably be made a basis of

classificationforpurposesofpromotiontohigherpost.

15. No Discrimination on the ground of region, Race,

Caste,Sex,Desent ,Place of Birth, Residence or any of them etc

Article16(2):

Where discrimination is based, partly on the grounds contained in

Article 16(2) and partly on other consideration, there will be no

contravention of this Clause. Also, where discrimination is based on

groundsother than thosementioned inClause(2), itwouldnotattract

thisClause,butthecasewillhavetobeweighedandjudgedinthelight

ofthegeneralprinciplelaiddowninClause(1)ofArticle16.269

16..RequirementastoresidenceinstateArticle16(3):Reservation

ofPostsforBackwardClassesArticle16(4):

Clause(4)ofArticle16expresslypermits theStatetomake"provision

forthereservationofappointmentsorpostsinfavourofanybackward

class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately

representedintheservicesundertheState”.Theexpression"backward

classofcitizens"inArticle16(4)includestheScheduledCastesandthe

268 Union of India v. Vinod Kumar AIR 2008 SC 5269 Kailash Chand Sharma v. State of Rajasthan AIR 2002 SC 2877

162

ScheduledTribes.ThisClause,however,cannotbeextendedtopersons

acquiringSC/STstatusbyvoluntarymobility.Further,childrenofinter-

caste married couples, of which one is SC/ST, have been held not

entitled toclaimreservationbenefit.However, suchchildrencan claim

relaxationofmarks.

17.Reservation in promotion-seventy seventh, Amendment, 1995

Article16(4-A):

TheCourtobservedthatwhileitwascertainlyjusttosaythatahandicap

should be given to backward classes of citizens at the stage of initial

appointment, but itwould be a serious andunacceptable inroad into the

rule of equality of opportunity to say that such a handicap should be

providedateverystageofpromotionthroughouttheircareer.Thatabove

rulehasbeenmodifiedasregardsthemembersbelongingtothescheduled

Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, by the Constitution (Seventhly-seventh

Amendment)Act,1995,whichhasaddedanewClause(4A)toArticle16

whichprovides:NothinginthisarticleshallpreventtheStatefrommaking

any provision for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or

classesofpostsintheservicesundertheStateinfavouroftheScheduled

Castes and the Scheduled Tribes which, in the

163

opinionof theStatearenotadequatelyrepresented in theservicesunder

theState270.

18. Reservation in promotion, catch-up rule negated 85th

amendment2001:

The Apex Curt further observed that the rule of reservation gave

accelerated promotion, but it did not give the accelerated consequential

seniority.TheCourtexplainedthatareasonablebalancingoftherightsof

generalcandidateandrostercandidatewouldbeachievedbyfollowingthe

catch-uprule.Accordingtothisruleif"incaseanyseniorgeneralcandidate

atlevel3goesfurtheruptolevel4,inthatcasetheseniorityatlevel3has

to be modified by placing such a general candidate above the roster

promotereflectingtheirinterseseniorityatlevel.271

EqualpayforEqualWork:InRandhirSinghv.UnionofIndia272the

SupremeCourtenunciatedtheprincipleof"equalpayforequalwork".The

Courtobservedthatitwastruethattheprincipleof"equalpayfor

equal work" was not expressly declared by the Constitution to be a

fundamentalright.But,itcertainlywastheConstitutionalgoal.TheCourt

heldthatthisprinciplecouldbedeductedfromArticle14and16,when

theseprovisionswereconstruedinthelightofthePreambleandArticle

39(d)oftheconstitution.TheCourtfurtherlaiddownthattheprinciple

270Article 16 of the constitution of India 271 Article 16-(4-A)85th amendment act 2001272 AIR 1982 SC 879

164

could be properly applied to cases of unequal scales of pay based on no

classificationorirrationalclassification.

19.AbolitionofUntouchability:Article17abolished"Unsociability"and

forbidsitspracticeinanyform.Itfurtherdeclaresthat"theenforcementof

anydisabilityarisingoutofUntouchabilityshallbeanoffencepunishable

in accordance with law. It contains another specific application of the

principle of equality before the law.273Article 17 places the term

"Untouchability" in inverted commas. Accordingly, the subject-matter of

thisArticleisnotUntouchabilityinitsliteralorgrammaticalsense,butthe

practice as it has developedhistorically in India. So understood, itwas a

productof theHinduCasteSystem,according towhichparticular section

amongst theHindushadbeen lookeddownasuntouchablesbytheother

sectionsofthatsociety.274

A.WhoareDalits:India’scastesysteminvolvesasocialhierarchyand

isoftenunderstoodtobeafeatureofHinduism.Individualsare

considered to be born into a particular caste and remain in that caste

throughout their lives. Broad caste categories (Varna’s) separate caste

groups according to occupation (although mobility between occupations

doesnotleadtochangesincasteidentity).Outsidethesecastecategories

arethe"untouchables",nowcommonlyknownasdalitswhose

273 Article 35 Empowers parliament to make laws Inter alia prescribing to be offence under part III of the constitution p. 110274 Shastri Yana Puriusdali v. Muldas Bhudradas Vaish AIR 1996 SC 1119

165

occupations--sweepers,tanners,sanitationworkers,etc--wereviewed

as"polluting"thecommunity.275

B.ProtectiveDiscrimination-SubstantiveEquality:

"Protective discrimination" may be defined as, 'discrimination

permissibleundertheConstitution'.Theobjectistoensure"substantive

equality", to secure "real equality". It is to provide for an egalitarian

societywovenintotheidealof"socialjustice"enshrinedinthePreamble

totheConstitution.TheConstitution,Therefore,whilesecuring"equality

before law" and "equal protection of laws", enables the State tomade

special provisions for the upliftment of the socially and educationally

backward classesof citizens, inparticular for the citizens, to complete

withtheadvancedsectionsofthepeople.276

20. Right to Freedom: The Fundamental Right to Freedom is

guaranteedunderArticle19to22oftheConstitution.TheseArticledeal

withthefollowingdifferentaspectsoftherighttofreedom-

1. SixFundamentalFreedoms(Article19)

2. ProtectioninRespectofConvictionforOffences(Article20)

3. ProtectionofLifeandPersonalLiberty(Article21)

4. RighttoEducation(Article21-A)

5. ProtectionagainstArrestandDetentioninCertainCases(Article22).

275StateofM.P.v.RamKishanBalothia.AIR1995SC1198276Dramduttv.UnionofIndiaAIR2004SC1295

166

ASixfundamentalfreedoms:Article19guaranteestoeveryCitizenof

Indiathefollowingsixbasic,fundamentalfreedoms-

A. Freedomofspeechandexpression;

B. Freedomofassemblepeaceablyandwithoutarms;

C. Freedomofformassociationsorunions;

D. FreedomofmovefreelythroughouttheterritoryofIndia;

E. Freedomofresideandsettle inanypartof theterritoryofIndia;

and

F. Freedomofpracticeandprofession,ortocarryonanyoccupation,

tradeorbusiness.

B. ImportanceofFreedomofSpeechandExpression:Freedomof

speech and expression has been held to be basic and indivisible for a

democratic polity. It is said to be a cornerstone of functioning of the

democracy.Itisthefoundationofademocraticsociety.

C.ScopeandContentoftheFreedomofSpeechandExpression:

Thedifferentfacetsconstitutingthescopeandcontentofthefreedomof

speechandexpressionarediscussedbelow-

DRighttoknowandtoobtaininformation:

The right of information is indisputably fundamental right, a facet of

"speech and expression" as contained in Article 19(1)(a). It has been

saidthatinagovernmentofresponsibilitylikeours,itiselementarythat

citizensought toknowwhat their government isdoing.Theyhave the

167

righttoknoweverypublicact,everything that isdone inapublicway,

by their public functionaries. No democratic government can survive

without accountability and thebasicpostulateof accountability is that

the people should have information about the functioning of the

Government.277

Article19(1)(d)guaranteestherighttomovefreelynotmerelyfrom

oneStatetoanotherState,butalsofromoneplacetoanother,withinthe

sameState.TherightisnotabsoluteinthesensethatClause5ofArticle

19enables theState to imposereasonable restrictionson the freedom

onthefollowinggrounds-

(a) Intheinterestofgeneralpublic;or

(b) FortheprotectionoftheinterestsofanyScheduledTribe

FreedomofResidenceArticle19(1)(e):

Article19(1)(e)guarantees toeverycitizenofIndia,therighttoreside

andsettleinanypartoftheterritoryofIndia.Thisrightissubjectedto

reasonable restrictions which may be imposed by the State, by law,

under Article 19(5), in the interests of general public or for the

protectionoftheinterestsofanyScheduledTribe.278

InVishakav.StateofRajasthan,279theSupremeCourtobservedthat

sexualharassmentofworkingwomeninworkplaceswouldbeviolation

277 Peoples Union for civil Liberties v. Union of India 2004 SC 1442278 Article 19 (1) (d) Right to move and Residence free p. 132279 AIR 1997 SC 3011

168

ofthevictims',fundamentalrightunderArticle19(1)(g).Inthiscase,a

socialworkerwasbrutallygangrapedinavillageofRajasthan.The

Courttookaseriousnoteofthematterandissuedbindingdirectionsfor

the prevention of such incidents. The interests of general public" in

Article19(6)hasbeenheldtobeofwideimportcomprehendingpublic

order, public health, public security, sanitation, morals, education or

economicwelfareof the community and theobjectsmentioned inPart

IVoftheConstitution280

E. Article 20 provides protection in respect of conviction for

offences. The protection contained in Article 20 is available to all

persons, citizens or non-citizens. The term "person" in Article 20 also

includes a corporation and unincorporated body which is accused,

prosecuted, convicted or punished for an offence. Article 20 provides

protectionagainst-

A. Ex-postfactolaws[Article20(1)]

B. Doublejeopardy[Article20(2)]

C. Self-incrimination[Article20(3)]

Likewise, inSoniDevrajbhaiBabubhaiv. StateofGujarat,281 itwas

held that Section 304B inserted in the Indian Penal Code, 1860, on

November 19, 1986, creating a district offence of dowry death and

providingaminimumsentenceofsevenyears'imprisonment,couldnot

beappliedtosuchdeathcausedbeforetheinsertionoftheSection,i.e.,

280 M.P. Sharma v. Satish Chandra AIR 1954 SC 300281 AIR 1991 SC 217

169

before November 19, 1986, because of the prohibition contained in

Article20(1).

Clause (2)ofArticle20providesprotectionagainst "double jeopardy".

TheClauseprovides:"Nopersonshallbeprosecutedapunishedforthe

sameoffencemorethanonce".TheClauseisbasedontheCommonLaw

Maxim"Nebodebetbisvexari",whichmeansthatamanmustnotbe

puttwiceinperilforthesameoffence.

The protection contained inArticle 20(2) is narrower than that under

theEnglishandtheAmericanlaw.Article20(2)wouldbeinvokedonlyif

thefollowingessentialsarecompliedwith-

(I) thepersonmustbeaccusedofan"offence"

Theterm"offence"mans"anyactoromissionmadepunishableby

anylawforthetimebeinginforce.

(ii) ThepersonmusthavebeenprosecutedbeforeaCourtorajudicial

tribunal.282

F.Righttolifeandpersonalliberty:

Article21readsas"Nopersonshallbedeprivedofhis lifeorpersonal

libertyexceptaccordingtoprocedureestablishedbylaw".Thisrighthas

beenheldtobetheheartoftheconstitution,283

Article21securestworights-

A. Righttolife;and

282 Narayan Lal v. M.P. Mistry AIR 1963 SC 29283 I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamilnadu AIR 2007 SC 84

170

B.Righttopersonalliberty.

Article21prohibitsthedeprivationoftheaboverightsexceptaccording

toprocedureestablishedbylaw.Article21canbeclaimedonlywhena

person is deprived of his "life" or personal liberty" by the "State" as

definedbyArticle21.Violationoftherightbyaprivateindividualisnot

withinthepurviewofArticle21.

Thecourt,explainingthescopeofthe"righttolife".Laydown:

Therighttolifeincludestherighttolivelihood.Iftherighttolivelihood

is not treated as a part of the constitutional right to right to life, the

easiestwayofdeprivingapersonofhisrighttolifewouldbetodeprive

him of his means of livelihood to the point of abrogation. Deprive a

personofhisrighttolivelihoodandyoushallhavedeprivedhimofhis

life.284

In Apparel Export Promotion Council v. A.K. Chopra,285 the

Supreme Court took a serious note of the incidents of sexual

harassmentofwomenatworkplaces.Suchan incident,theCourtsaid,

resulted inviolation of theFundamental Right to Gender Equality and

theRighttolifeandLiberty-thetwomostpreciousFundamentalRights.

(A)Righttoshelter

InChameliSinghv.StateofU.P.286,theSupremeCourtemphasizedon

the importanceof theright toshelterasoneofthebasichumanrights

284 Bombay Dyning v. E.A. Group AIR 2006 SC 1489285 AIR 1999 SC 625286 AIR 1996 SC 1050

171

designed to ensure all facilities to the man to develop himself as a

memberof a civilized society.TheCourt said that shelter for ahuman

beingisnotamereprotectionofhislifeandlimb.Itisahomewherehe

has opportunities to grow physically, mentally, intellectually and

spiritually.

(b)RighttoEducation:Havingregardtothesignificanceofeducation

in the life of individual and the Nation, the majority of the Supreme

Court

In Unni Krishnan v. A.P.,287 State of held that the right to education

wasafundamentalrightunderArticle21andthat"itdirectlyflowsfrom

thefighttolife",thatitscontentandparametershavetobedetermined

inthelightofArticles41and45,theCourtsaid

(c) Right to personal liberty: Later, in Kharak Singh v. State of

U.P.,288 theCourtdidnot follow theaboverestrictive interpretationof

theterm,andheldthat"personalliberty"wasononlylimitedtobodily

restraint or confinement of person only. The Court held: (f) a new

dynamicdimension–factsofpersonalliberty.

(d) Right to privacy: It is 'the rightful claim of an individual to

determinetowhichhewishestosharehimselfwithothersandcontrol

overthetime,placeandcircumstancestocommunicatewithothers.

287 AIR 1993 SC 2178288 Karak Singh v. State of U.P. AIR 1963 SC 1295

172

InR.Rajgopalv.StateofTamilNadu,289 theSupremeCourtheldthat

the "right to privacy" meant a "right to be let alone", Explaining the

scopeofthe"righttoprivacy"whichwasheldtobeimplicitintheright

to life and personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21 the Court

observedA citizenhas a right to safeguard theprivacy ofhis own,his

family,marriage,procreation,motherhood,childbearingandeducation

amongothermatters..

(e) Right to free legalaid:The Court further laid down that right to

freelegalaidatthecostoftheStatetoanaccused,whocouldnotafford

legal services for reasons of poverty, indigence implicit in Article 21.

Freelegalaidtotheindigenthasbeendeclaredtobe"aState'sdutyand

notgovernmentcharity290

(f)RighttoSpeedyjustice:itwasbroughttothenoticeoftheSupreme

Courtthatanalarminglargenumberofmen,women,childrenincluding,

werekeptinprisonsforyearsawaitingtrialincourtsoflaw.TheCourt

took a serious note of the situation and observed that it was a crying

shameonthejudicialsystemwhichpermittedincarcerationofmenand

womanforsuchlongperiodsoftimewithouttrials.,291

289 Raj Gopal v. State of Tamilnadu AIR - 2005 SC 15290 290 M.H. Hoskote v. State of MaharastraAIR 1978 SC 1548291 Hussainarakhatoon v. State of Bihar AIR 1979 SC 1360

173

(g)Rightstofairtrial/fairinvestigation:

The Supreme Court in Nirmal Singh Kahlon v. State of Punjab

observed: 292"fair investigation and fair trial are concomitant to

preservationoffundamentalrightofanaccusedunderArticle21ofthe

ConstitutionofIndia.HoldingthattheStatehadalargerobligation,i.e.,

tomaintain lawandorder,publicorderandpreservationofpeaceand

harmony in the society, the Court said that a victim of a crime was

equallyentitledtoafairinvestigation.

TheApexCourt inZahiraHabibullahSheikh v. StateofGujarat,293

saidthatrighttofairtrialbeavailablenotonlytotheaccusedbutalsoto

the victims, their familymembers and relatives, as also, the society at

large. The right has been held to be a part rule of law which is an

importantfacetofArticle21and14.

(h)Righttobail:Havingregardtotheaboveconsideration,theCourtheld

that"righttobail"wasincludedinthe"personalliberty"underArticle21

and its refusal would be deprivation of that liberty which could be

authorizedinaccordancewiththeprocedureestablishedbylaw.However,

recentlyinRajeshRanjanYadavv.C.B.I.,294theApexCourthasruledthat

there isnoabsoluterulethatalongperiodofincarceration,

292 AIR 2009 SC 985293 AIR 2006 SC 3167294 AIR 2007 SC 451

174

byitself,wouldentitletheaccusedtoobtainbail.Itdependsonfactsand

circumstancesofeachcase.

(i)RightagainstInhumanTreatment-ThirdDegreeMethods

The incidents of torture, assault, injury and deaths in police custody,

havebeensaidtobeworstformofhumanrightsviolation.

InNilabati Behera v. State ofOrissa,295 the SupremeCourt granted

Rs. 1, 50,000/- to the petitioner for the death of her son in police

custody. The Court also relied on Article 9(5) of the International

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, which indicated that

anyonewhohadbeenthevictimofunlawfularrestordetentionshould

haveanenforceablerighttocompensation.

SupremeCourtoverruledA.K.Gopalancaseandheldthatinorderto

complywith themandateofArticle21, themere prescriptionof some

kindofprocedurewasnotenough.But,theproceduremustbejust,fair,

and reasonable and not arbitrary, fanciful or oppressive296.The Apex

Court ruled that Articles 14, 19 and 21, represented the foundational

values,whichformedthebasisofjudicialreviewapartfromtheruleof

law and separation of powers. This Article, the Court ruled, "is the

golden triangle, the basic feature of the Constitution, as it stands for

equalityandruleoflaw".297

295AIR 1993 SC 1960296 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India AIR 1978 SC 597297 I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamilnadu AIR 2007 SC 861

175

(j)Right toEducation (Article21-A):Article21Aprovides: "TheState

shallprovidefreeandcompulsoryeducationtoallchildrenoftheageof

six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law,

determine".

Article 21A added by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002

makeseducation from6 to14yearsold, fundamental right,within the

meaningofpartIIIoftheConstitution.Itispopularlyknownas"primary

education".

Article21AmaybereadwithnewsubstitutedArticle45andnewclause

(k) inserted inArticle51Aby theConstitution (86thAmendment)Act,

2002

While thenewArticle 45obligates theState "to Endeavour toprovide

earlychildhoodcareandeducation forall childrenuntil theycomplete

the age of six years", Clause (k) inserted in Article 51A imposes a

fundamental duty on parent/guardian "to provide opportunities for

educationtohischildor,asthecasemaybe,ward,betweentheageof

sixandfourteenyears"298.

The86thAmendmenthasbeenenforced fromadate tobenotifiedby

the Department of Education in the Ministry of Human Resource

Development.1Apr2010.

(G)Protectionagainstarrestanddetentionunderarticle22.Article

22doesnotapplytocaseswherearrestordetentionisunderawarrant

of a Court. The safeguards contained inArticle 22 are available in the

followingtwocases:-

298 Article 45 Contains Directive principles of state policy.

176

A. Where the arrest or detention is made under the ordinary law

relatingtocommissionofoffences.

B. Wherethedetentionismadeunderalawprovidingforpreventive

detention.

Safeguards against Arrest or Detention made under the ordinary law

relatingtocommissionofoffences[Article22(1)]

Article 22 guarantees the following safeguards against arrest or

detentionmade under the ordinary law relating to the commission of

offences-

(a) Righttobeinformed,assoonasmaybe,ofthegroundsforarrest

ordetention.

(b) Righttoconsultandtobedefendedbyalegalpractitionerofhis

choice.

(c) RighttobeproducedbeforethenearestMagistratewithin24

hoursofarrest.

(d) Rightnottobedetainedincustodybeyond24hourswithoutthe

authorityoftheMagistrateSafeguardsagainstArrestorDetention

madeUnderLawProvidingforPreventiveDetention[Articles

22(4)to7]299

Clauses (4) to (7) of Article 22 contain the following procedural

requirementswhicharetobecompliedwithwhenapersonisdetained

underalawprovidingforpreventivedetention.Theseareasfollows-

299 Article 22 of the constitution of India

177

(a) No detention beyond three months unless such detention is

approvedbytheAdvisoryBoard;

(b) Thedetainingauthoritymustcommunicate,assoonasmaybe,to

thedetune,thegroundsforsuchdetention;

(c) Thedetentemustbeaffordedtheearliestopportunityofmakinga

representationagainsttheorderofdetention;

(d) Nodetentionbeyondthemaximumperiodprescribedunderalaw

madebyParliamentunderClause7(b).

H.Rightagainstexploitationunderarticle23.24:

Article 23 and 24 guarantee "the fundamental right against

exploitation". This right is secured to every person, whether citizen,

non-citizenoranalien.Theprotectioncontainedtherein,isavailablenot

only against the State but also against private individuals. These

provisions are to be protection of children and youth against

exploitationandagainstmoralandmaterialabandonment.

Article23(1)provides "Traffic inhumanbeingsandbeggarandother

similarformsofforcedlabourareprohibitedandanycontraventionofthis

provision shall be on offence punishable in accordancewith law. In the

StateofUttarPradesh,thebarbersanddhobis(washermen)used

178

to refuse rendering their personal services to harijans. To abolish this

practiceofuntouchability300

(I)EmploymentofChildren[Article24]:

Article24provides: "No childbelowtheageof fourteenyears shall be

employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other

hazardous employmentwhere children below 14 years should not be

employed.

TheSupremeCourt inLabourersWorkingonSalalHydroProjectv.J.

& K.301, State o held that building construction work was such

hazardous employmentwhere children below 14 years should not be

employed.

(J)TheRightto"freedomofreligion": is

containedinArticles25to28of theConstitution.Variousrightswhich

gotoconstitutethe"righttofreedomofreligion"are-

A. Freedomofconscienceandtherighttofreelyprofesspracticeand

propagatereligion(Article25);

B. Right of a religious denomination to manage religious affairs

(Article26);

C. Freedom frompayment of taxes for promotion of any particular

religion(Article27);and

D. Freedom from attendance at religious instructions in certain

educationalinstitutions(Article28).

300 Article 23-24 of the Indian constitution301 AIR 1994 SC 177

179

Articles25to28usetheterm"person".Therefore, freedomofreligion,

so secured, is available to everyperson. It ismadeexplicit in thevery

Preamble that India is a "Secular State". The concept of secularism,

merely explains that in thematters of religion, the State is neutral. It

eitherpromotesorpracticesanyparticularreligion,nordoesitinterfere

withanyreligiouspractice.Itensuresequalfreedomtoallreligions.The

Constitution, thus, secures right to Freedom of Religion. The right to

freedomofreligion,itsscopeandsignificancehowever,istobestudied

inviewoftheSecularDemocracyestablishedundertheConstitution.302

(K)Righttoculturalandeducationalrightunderarticle29.30ofthe

constitutionofIndia:

Article29(1)securestoeverysectionofcitizens,residingintheterritory

ofIndia,therighttoconserveitsownlanguage,scriptorculture,Article

30(1) guarantees to every religious or linguisticminority, the right to

establishandadministereducationalinstitutionsoftheirchoice.

(a)RighttoconserveLanguage,Scriptorculture(Article29(1))

Clause(1)ofArticle29provides;"Anysectionofthecitizensresidingin

the territory of India or any part thereof having a district language,

script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.

Article29(a),thus,guaranteestherighttoconserveone'sownlanguage,

scriptorculture.

302 Article 25-28 of the constitution of India

180

TherightcontainedinArticle29(2)isavailabletoeverycitizenofIndia,

whether belonging to a minority or majority group. It is a right of a

citizenasacitizenandnotasamemberofanycommunityorclass.303

In State of Bombay v. Bombay Education Society,304 the

Government'sOrderbanningadmissionofallthosewhoselanguagewas

not English into schools having English as medium of instructionwas

struckdownasviolativeofArticle29(2).Article29(2) also,wouldnot

prevent the State from making any special provision for the

advancement of any educationally and socially backward classes of

citizensorfortheScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes".

(B) Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational

Institutions[Article30(1)]

Article 30(1) provides: "All minorities whether based on religion or

language,shallhavetherighttoestablishandadministereducationali"The

State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate

against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the

managementofaminority,whetherbasedonreligionorlanguage305".The

rightcontainedinArticle30(1)isavailableonlyto minoritieswhether

based on religion orlanguage.Theword'or'inArticle

303 Article 29 of the constitution of India304 S.R. Bommai v. Union of India AIR 1994 SC 1918305 Article 30 of the constitution of India

181

30(1) indicates that a minority, for the purposes of this Article, may

eitherbelinguisticorreligiousandthatitdoesnothavetobeboth.Inso

farasArticle30(1)isconcerned,religiousandlinguisticminoritieshave

beenputatpar.306

Minority:

Theterm'minority'isnotdefinedintheConstitution.Literally,itmeans

a non-dominant group. It is a relative term and is referred to, to

represent the smaller of two numbers, sections or groups. In re the

KeralaEducationBill,theSupremeCourtobservedthatwhileitwaseasy

tosaythattheminoritymeantacommunitywhichwasnumericallyless

than 50% the important question was 50%, of what-the entire

populationofIndiaorofaStateorofapartthereof?307

Countries that have special provision for minorities include China,

Canada, Germany, India, Russia and U.K. or the Frisians in the

Netherlands. The word minority has not been defined in the

Constitution. The Motilal Nehru Report (1928) showed a prominent

desire to afford protection to minorities, but did not define the

expression. The Sapru Report (1945) also proposed, inter alia, a

Minorities Commission but did not define Minorities Commission but

did not define Minority. The U.N. Sub-Commission on Prevention of

Discrimination and Protection of Minorities has defined minority as

under:

306 Joseph Thomas v. State of Kerala AIR 1958 K 33307 T.M.A. Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka AIR 2003 SC 355

182

1) The term 'minority' includesonly thosenon-documentsgroupof

the population which possesses and wish to preserve stable

ethnic,religiousorlinguistictraditionsorcharacteristicmarkedly

differentfromthoseoftherestofthepopulation;

2) Suchminorities should properly include the number of persons

sufficient by themselves to preserve such traditions or

characteristics;and

3) Such minorities should be loyal to the State of which they are

national308

ConstituentAssemblyDebatesonMinorityRights

IntheAssembly'sdeliberations,theminoritiesquestionwasregardedas

encompassing the claims of three kinds of communities: religious

minorities, Scheduled Castes, and 'backward' tribes, for all of whom

safeguardsindifferentformshadbeeninstitutedbythecolonialperiod.

Therepresentativesofmostgroupclaiming specialprovisions insome

form emphasized that the group wasminority of some kind. So close

was the identificationof the term 'minority'with thenotionof special

treatment for a group that even those opposed to continuation of the

colonial system of minority safeguards employed the same to justify

their stand. For instance, it argued that the 'real minorities'. Not all

representativesoftheScheduledCastesclaimedminoritystatusforthe

308 Re-Kerala Education bill AIR 1958 SC 956

183

communityand theconcomitant 'political safeguards'.Someargued, in

keepingwithdominantnationalistopinion, thatthereservedquotas in

legislatures and public employment were undesirable, and that the

solutiontotheproblemsofthesegroupslayintheremovalofeconomic

disabilities.309

(L) Saving of LawsProviding forAcquisition ofEstate, etc .Article

31a is aimed removing social and economic disparities in the

agriculturesector.

Article31-AaddedbytheConstitution1stAmendmentin1951provides

thatalawwhichcomesunderanyoftheSub-clausesofClause(1)ofthis

Articleshallnotbeopentochallengeonthegroundof infringementof

Article14orArticle19.But,whensuchlawisalawhasbeenassentedto

bythePresident.Article31-Aisaimedatremovingsocialandeconomic

disparitiesintheagriculturesector.

Article31-BwasaddedbytheConstitution(FirstAmendment)Act,1951.It

istobereadwithNinthScheduletotheConstitutionwhichwasalsoadded

by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act 1951. Article 31-B is a

constitutionaldevice toplacethe specifiedStatutesbeyondanyattackon

thegroundthattheyinfringePartIIIoftheConstitution.Forexample,the

ForeignExchangeRegulationAct,1973,addedto the9thSchedulebythe

39th Amendment, 1975,washeldprotectedfromchallengeby

309 Dr. Pallival Anand "Minority Rights and Nationalistic Opinion” AIR 2009 August – Journal p.l119.

184

Article 31-B.310Recently, a nine-judge Bench of the Apex Court, in

I.R.Coelhov.StateofTamilNadu,311explainedthattheobjectbehind

Article31-Bwastoremovedifficultiesand"nottoobliteratePartIII in

its entirety or judicial review". The original intent seemed to be to

protect a limited number of laws. But, "the unchecked and rampant

exercise of this power, the number, having gone from 13 to 284",

showedthat"itwasnotlongeramereexception".TheCourtruledthat

additionoflawto9thSchedulewouldbereviewedonthetouchstoneof

basicstructuredoctrineineachcase.

Article 31-C was amended by the Constitution (Forty-second

Amendment)Act,1976andtheprotectionofArticle31-Cwasextended

tothelawsgivingeffecttoalloranyoftheprinciplescontainedinPart

IV.However,thischangewasstruckdownbytheApexCourtin

MinervaMillsLtd.v.UnionofIndia312,

(M) Right to move the Supreme Court and high court for the

enforcementoffundamentalrightregardingsocialjustice:

Article32confersoneofthe"highlycherishedrights". It istheright to

movetheSupremeCourtfortheenforcementofthefundamentalrights.

Thisrighthasbeenheldtobeanimportantandintegralpartofthebasic

structureoftheConstitution",anditcannotbeabrogatebyanyAct.The

powerunderArticle32hasbeendescribedasthe"heartandsoul"ofthe

310 Article 31 of the constitution of India311 AIR 2006 SC 20312 AIR 1980 SC 1789

185

Constitution.ItisbecauseofthisArticlethattheSupremeCourtshouldbe

declared"astheprotectorandguarantoroffundamentalrights".313

Clause(1)ofArticle32declares:"TherighttomovetheSupremeCourtby

appropriateproceedingsfortheenforcementoftherightsconferredbythis

part is guaranteed”. Thus, the right to move the Supreme Court for the

enforcement of the fundamental rights is itself declared to be a

fundamental right. In some cases, the Courts have even taken suemotu

cognizance of "news" published in the newspapers and treated them as

petitioners. Public interest legation involving question of rescue,

rehabilitation,etc.offallenwomen/prostitutesandtheirchildrenhasbeen

treatednotadversarialinnature.ItwasheldthattheSupremeCourtwas

entitledandempowered,underArticle32,toadoptsuchprocedureaswas

expedient in a given fact situation and deal with the matter

appropriately.314

InDattarajNathujiThawarev.StateofMaharashtra,315theApexcourt

observedwheretheaffectedpersonsbelongtothedisadvantagedsections

of society (women, children, bonded labour, unorganized labour,

etc.)Where judicial law-making is necessary to avoid exploitation (inter-

country adoption, theeducationof the childrenof theprostitutes)where

judicialinterventionisnecessaryfortheprotectionofthesanctityof

313 Article 32 of the constitution of India314 Gaurave Jain v. Union of India AIR 1997 S. 302315 AIR 2005 SC 540

186

democratic institutions (independence of the judiciary, existence of

grievancesredressal forums).Whereadministrativedecisionsrelatedto

development are harmful to the resources such as airorwater.These

parametershavebeensaidtobemerelydescriptiveandnotexclusive.

In Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra,316 a five-judge Constitution

BenchoftheApexCourtwasreferredtothequestionsthat:(I)whether

a curative write petition could be entertained under Article 32 to

questionthevalidityofa judgmentoftheApexCourtafterthepetition

forreviewofthesaidjudgmenthadbeendismissed;and(ii)whetheran

aggrievedpersonwasentitledtoanreliefagainstafinaljudgmentafter

dismissalof its reviewpetition.TheCourtruledthatthe jurisdictionof

thisCourtunderArticle32couldnotbeinvokedtochallengethevalidity

of a final judgment/order passed by this Court, after exhausting the

remedy of review under Article 137, read with order XI Rule 1 o the

SupremeCourtRules,

3. Directive principles of state under 35 to51provid social

economicandpoliticaljustice:

Part IV of the Constitution sets forth the ideals and objectives to be

achievedbytheStateforsettingupinIndiaaSocialWelfareState,which

aims at social welfare and the common good and to secure to all its

citizens,justice-socialandeconomic.Theinspirationforincludinginthe316 AIR 2002 SC 177

187

Constitution, such Principle is drawn from the Constitution of Ireland,

1937.

(A)ObjectandpurposeBehindtheDirectivePrinciples: is tobring

socialwelfarestate:

The founding-fathers were aware of the drawbacks; the country had

been suffering from, such as, poverty, unemployment, and lack of

education,social,economic,andpoliticalbackwardness.They, inorder

to eradicate, theseevils, set forth in theveryPreamble, the ideals and

objectives to be achieved. The intention was to establish in India a

democracy-political,economicandsocial.Toachievethischerishedgoal,

the trainerswereunanimous tosecure to thepeoplepracticallyall the

prevailing political, social and economic rights. The effect of the

insertion of Articles 31C was to provide supremacy for Directive

Principles contained in Articles 39(b) and 39(c) over Fundamental

RightscontainedinArticles14,19and31.

(B.)Promotionofsocialjusticeorderinwhichsocial,economicand

politicaljustice:

State of Mysore v. workers of gold mines 317Gajendragadkar had

observed that social and economic justice have been given a place of

prideinourconstitution.Article38(1)and43oftheconstitution:

317 AIR 1958 SC 923

188

38(1)providesrequires-Thestateshallstrivetopromotethewelfare

ofthepeoplebysecuringandprotectingas,effectivelyasitmay,asocial

orderinwhichjusticesocial,economic,andpolitical,shallinformallthe

institutionofnationallife.

Clauses (2) article 38—which was inserted by the constitution (44th

amendment) act 1978 further requires—the state shall, in particular,

strive to minimize inequalities income and Endeavour to eliminate

inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities, not only amongst,

individuals, but also amongst groups of people residing in different

areasorengagedindifferentvocations318—

Article 43—enunciates another directive principal by providing that.

The Shall Endeavour to secure, by suitable legislation or economic

originationorinanyotherway,toallworkersagriculture,industrialor

otherwise, worth a living wage, condition of work ensuring a decent

standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural

opportunitiessupremecourtemphasizedthattheconceptofsocialand

economicjusticeisalivingconceptofrevolutionaryimport,whichgives

substancestotheRuleoflawandmeaningandsignificancetotheideal

ofawelfarestate.319

Article 39 provides: "The State shall, in particular, direct its policy

towardssecuring-

318 Article 38 of Indian constitution319 M.K. Nawaj "Prospects of Legal aid, AIR 1974 Journal p. 59

189

(a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an

adequatemeansoflivelihood;

(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the

community are so distributed as best to sub serve the common

good;

(c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in

concentrationofwealthandmeansofproductiontothecommon

detriment;

(d) thatthereisequalpayforequalworkorbothmenandwomen;

(e) thatthehealthandstrengthofworkers,menandwomen,andthe

tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not

forcedby theeconomicnecessitytoenteravocationsunsuitedto

their age or strength320. Those children are given opportunities

andfacilitiestodevelopinahealthymannerandinconditionsof

freedomanddignityand that childhoodandyouthareprotected

againstexploitationandagainstmoralandmaterialabandonment.

(D).EqualJusticeandFreeLegalAid(Article39-A):

Article39AobligatestheStatetosecurethat"theoperationofthe legal

system promotes justice, on a basis of equal opportunity, and shall, in

particularprovide free legal aid, by suitable legislationor schemesor in

anyotherway,toensurethatopportunitiesforsecuringjusticeare not

320 Article 39 of the constitution of India

190

denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities". This

DirectivePrinciplewasinsertedbytheConstitution(42ndAmendment)

Act 1976.Article 39A promotes justice on the basis of equal

opportunities. It imposesanimperativedutyupontheStatetoprovide

freelegalaidtothepoor321

The court in RajanDwivedi v. Union of India 322ruled that it could

issue a writ of mandamus to enforce Article 39-A and the social

obligationofequaljusticeandthatfreelegalaidhadtobeimplemented

by suitable legislation or by formulating scheme for free legal aid. In

pursuance of this suggestion Parliament passed the Legal services

AuthoritiesAct,1987

Article 39-A of the Constitution of India provides that State shall

securethattheoperationofthelegalsystempromotesjusticeonabasis

of equal opportunity, and shall in particular, provide free legal aid, by

suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that

opportunitiesforsecuringjusticearenotdeniedtoanycitizenbyreason

of economic or other disability. Articles 14 and 22(1) also make it

obligatoryfortheStatetoensureequalitybeforelawandalegalsystem

whichpromotesjusticeonabasisofequalopportunitytoall.Legalaid

strives to ensure that constitutional pledge is fulfilled in its letter and

spiritandequaljusticeismadeavailabletothepoor,downtroddenand

321 Article 39-A of Indian constitution inserted by the42 amendment 1976322 AIR 1995 SC 10

191

weakersectionsofthesociety. 323 LatertheprovisionsforLegalAidto

the poor in civil matter were also incorporated in the Code of Civil

Procedure.Theseprovisionsareconfined to exemption fromCourt-fee

forfillingsuitsandforappealbyapauper,subjecttothepermissionof

high courts. 304. (1)Where, in a trial before the Court of Session, the

accused is not represented by a pleader, and where it appears to the

Courtthattheaccusedhasnotsufficientmeanstoengageapleader,the

Court shall assign a pleader for his defiance at the expenses of the

State.324

(E) Village Panchayats (Article 40 of the constitution and social

justice

Article40commands that"theState shall takesteps toorganizevillage

panchayatsand endow themwith suchpowers andauthorityasmaybe

necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government". The

Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 and the Constitution (74th

Amendment) Act, 1992which have inserted Article 243 to 243ZG are

the major steps taken in the direction of implementing the Directive

Principles contained in Article 40. The Constitution of India has

guaranteedsocial,economicandpoliticalrights tothewomeninorder

topromoteequalityofstatusandopportunityinallspheres.Equalityin

allspheresisinseparablefromactivepoliticalparticipation.The73rd

323 Chaudhary Baidynath "Legal Aid Programme as an Instrument for Social Justice’’ I.L. I vol 38/2 1996324 Dr. A Subramanianm "Distributed Justice Indian Perspective AIR 2004 Journal 19.

192

AmendmenttotheIndianConstitutionhasprovidedforthereservation

oftheseatsandpositionsforwomeninthePanchayatiRajinstitutions.

Itwasconsideredasthemosteffectiveinstitutiontoremoveinequality,

invisibility and powerlessness among the Indianwomen. The question

of political empowerment of women in rural India had assumed

considerablesignificancewiththe73rdConstitutionalAmendment.This

amendmentmandatedtheminimumone-thirdreservationforwomenin

PanchayatiRajbodies,whichisoneofthemostimportantaspectsofthis

constitutional initiative. Along with that it also brought unlimited

opportunities for the women to participate in the grassroots level

politicstoensurethatthevoiceoftheruralwomenisheard.Inthisway

the role of women at the grassroots level is not limited only to their

involvement in the decisionmaking but also in the rural development

process 325 It is disheartening that even after providing themwith 33

percentreservationinthestatePanchyats;theyarestillconfinedtothe

four walls of their house. 'Going by the participation level of these

women in the election, one can safely say that majority of them are

merelypresentbut theyarenotparticipatingatall.Theirparticipation

inthePanchayatiRajinstitutionsseemstobeafarce.326

It is also necessary that the women functionaries are provided with

adequatearrangementforchildcareanddomesticworksothattheycan

325 Prabhjot Kaur "Emergency women Leader Ship In Panchayati Raj pub-Jaipur 2007 p. 245326 Sunder Ram "Panchayati Raj reforms in India 2007 p. 176.

193

concentrateontheirpublicresponsibilities.Womenmustbeencouraged

tocomeoutoftheirfamiliesandgetexposedtotheworldasanganvadi

worker, teacher etc. It is only through this exposure that women can

becomefreeofrestrictionontheirmovements,areabletoparticipatein

the meetings and participate in discussions. This would prepare the

groundfortheirempowermentbyensuringmoreeffectiveparticipation

inthePanchayatiRajInstitutions.327

WomenwhentheycometothepowerinthePanchyatiRajshouldfirst

trytoprovidelegalliteracytotheircounterparts.Itisonlythenthatthey

willcometoknowwhattheyarelegallyentitledto,andtheymaycome

forward to utilize it. The women member with the assistance of the

otherwomenofGramSabashouldtrytoremovediscriminatoryfamily

laws.They shouldalso see that these casesare speedilydisposed.The

women should raise their voice against social customs. Those holding

officeinPanchayatcantakeuptheleadincollectiveaction.

(F)Right to work, to Education and to Public Assistance (Article

41)328:Article41 requires that"theState,shallwithinthelimitsof its

economic capacity and development, make effective provision, for

securingtherighttowork,toeducationandtopublicassistanceincases

ofunemployment,oldagesicknessanddisablement,andinothercases

ofunderservedwant.

327 Mohd. Shabber "Quist for women empower ment 73rd constitutional Amendment Act 2008 p. 367328 Article 41 of the Indian constitution.

194

(G)JustandHumaneConditionsofWork(Article42)329:

Article42requiresthat"theStateshallmakeprovisions forsecuring

just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief “This

Article exhibits the concern of the framers of the Constitution for the

welfareoftheworkers.

(H)Article43setsouttheidealstowhichourSocialWelfareStatehas

toapproximate inanattempt toamelioratethelivingconditionsofthe

workers.

(I) Participation of Workers in Management of Industry (Article

43A): Article 43A obligates: "The State shall take steps, by suitable

legislationorinanyotherway,tosecuretheparticipationofworkersin

themanagementofundertakings,establishmentsorotherorganizations

engaged in any industry “Article 43Awas inserted by theConstitution

(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976. The workers participation may mean

sharingindecision-makingandpolicy-makingwiththemanagement,or

it may be described as transfer of decision-making right in the

enterprise or undertakings. The Supreme Court held that it was an

accepted doctrine today that labour was the backbone of the Nation,

particularlyintheareaofeconomicself-reliance.330

329 Article 42 of the Indian constitution.330 Mumbai Kamgar Sabh v. Abdul Bhai AIR 1976 SC 1455

195

(J)CommonCivilCode(Article44)Article44directs:"TheStateshall

Endeavour to secure for thecitizensauniformcivil code throughout the

territoryofIndia.".331

(K) Free and compulsory Education for Children (Article 45)

Compulsory Early Childhood Care & Education for Children- the State

shall Endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all

children until they complete the age of six years.332 "The State shall

Endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the

commencementofthisConstitution, freeandcompulsoryeducationfor

allchildrenuntiltheycompletetheageoffourteenyears.

(L) Promotion of Educational and Economic Interest of Weaker

Sections (Article 46) “The State shall promote with special care the

educationalandeconomicinterestsoftheweakersectionsofthepeople,

and,inparticular,oftheScheduledCastesandtheScheduledTribes,and

shallprotectthemfromsocialinjusticeandformsofexploitation333.The

expression "weaker sections of the people" is not defined in the

Constitution. It includesall sectionsof thesociety,whowere rendered

weaker due to various causes including poverty and natural and

physicalhandicaps.

331 Sarla Mudgal v. Union of India AIR 1995 SC 153332 Unni Krishan v. State of Ap. 1993 SC 2178333 Article 46 of the Indian constitution.

196

(M)DutytoRaisetheLevelofNutritionandtheStandardofLiving

(Article47):provides:"TheStateshallregardtheraisingofthelevelof

nutritionandthestandardoflivingofitspeopleandtheimprovementof

public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, the State

shall Endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except

for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are

injurioustohealth.334

(N) Implementation of Directive principles of state policy-Role of

Judiciary regarding social justice:It is well settled that both the

FundamentalRightsandtheDirectivePrinciplesaimatthesamegoalof

bringing about a social revolution and the establishment of aWelfare

State. It is amandateof theConstitutionnot to theConstitution (86th

Amendment)Act,2002,insertingArticle21-A

4.OtherprovisionsofsocialjusticeundertheconstitutionofIndia:

(A)FundamentaldutiesregardingsocialjusticeU\A51A

Toprotect and improve thenaturalenvironment including forests,

lakes, rivers andwildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.

Lakes,riversandwildlife,andtohavecompassionforlivingcreatures.

Todevelopthescientifictemper,humanismandthespiritofenquiry

Aparentorguardiantoprovideopportunitiesforeducationtohischild

or,asthecasemaybe,wardbetweentheageofsixandfourteenyears.

334 Article 47 of the constitution of India

197

These Duties have been added to implement the recommendations of

the Swaran Singh Committee reported in 1976. These duties are

intended tocreatepsychologicalconsciousnessamong the citizensand

areofmerelyeducativevalue.335

(B)ObjectandImportanceoftheFundamentalDuties:

ThefundamentaldutieshavebeenincorporatedintheConstitutionwith

the mere object to remind every citizen that while enforcing his

fundamentalrights,hemustalsobeconsciousofhisfundamentalduties.

Theseduties, itissaid,wouldhelptostrengthenourdemocracy.These

provisionsaremadeforEnforcementofFundamentalDuties. InSurya

Narain v. union of India336. The Rajasthan High Court held that the

dutiesunderArticle51Awerethedutiesoftheindividualcitizens.They

cast no public duties and, therefore, amandamus could not be sought

againstanindividualwhodidnotobservehisdutiesunderArticle51A.

Ministerinchargeoftribalwelfarewhomayinadditionbeinchargeof

thewelfareofthescheduledcastesandbackwardclasses.Article244(1

)Regardingadministrationofscheduledareasandtribalareas-(1)The

provisions of the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration and

controlof theScheduledareas andScheduled tribes in any stateother

thanthestateofAssam,Meghalaya,TripuraandMizoram.(2)The

335 The New Caluse (K) was Insurted by the 86 Constitutional Amendment Act 2002336 AIR 1982SC135.

198

provisionsofthesixthscheduleshallapplytotheadministrationofthe

tribalareasinthestateofAssam,Meghalaya,TripuraandMizoram.

a) Article 330: Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and

scheduledtribesintheHouseofPeople. Article332:Reservation

of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the

LegislativeAssembliesofthestates.

b) Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation in

Legislative Assemblies and House of People to cease after fifty

years.

c) Article 335: Claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to

service and posts. The claims of the members of the scheduled

castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken into consideration

consistentlywith themaintenanceofefficiencyof administration

inthemakingofappointmentstoserviceandpostsinconnection

withtheaffairsoftheUnionorofastate.

d) Article 338: National Commission for scheduled castes and

scheduledtribes.

e) Article 339: Control of the Union over the administration of

ScheduledcastesandScheduledtribes.

f) Article 340: Appointment of a commission by the president to

investigatetheconditionsofbackwardclasses.

199

g) Article341:PowerofthePresidenttospecifythecastes,racesor

tribes or posts of or groups within castes, races or tribes as

scheduledcastes337.

337 Article 330 to 342 of the Indian constitution.

200