THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

DEBORAH J ANDREWS

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2017

copy 2017 Deborah J Andrews

This dissertation is dedicated to my father Robert S Andrews Jr who sadly passed away in December 2015 shortly after my return from the last round of field work for this

research He taught me the value of education and encouraged me throughout my schooling from kindergarten to PhD and sacrificed the opportunity to obtain a PhD

himself to support his growing family Gone but not forgotten

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank my parents for instilling the importance of education in me Marianne

Schmink has been a true inspiration for me and her wise advice and appreciation for my

sense of humor made this process enjoyable I would also like to thank the members of

my committee Drs Chris McCarty Ken Sassaman and Frances Putz for their wise

advice

I want to especially thank Dr Juan Marko Aro Aro of the Universidad Nacional

del Altiplano who helped me get the contacts needed to conduct this research in Puno

He spent an inordinate amount of time assisting me and often accompanying me on

field excursions His knowledge of quinoa also helped me double check my facts to

ensure accuracy I also want to thank Dr Ritva Repo-Carrasco who kindly met with me

and suggested that I contact Dr Aro her former student

Dr Aacutengel Mujica Sanchez also of the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano was

also of great inspiration and assistance to me His depth of knowledge of quinoa and

quinoa farmers from an agronomic aspect helped me to understand the details of what it

takes to study quinoa I also want to thank the students at the Universidad Nacional del

Altiplano who participated in this study and also assisted in my understanding of quinoa

farming I especially want to thank Edwin Pandia for his assistance in visiting quinoa

farms I want to thank the leadership and members of COOPAIN who participated in

this study and graciously provided access to their operations and membership Most

importantly I want to thank the quinoa farmers who took their time to participate in this

study and teach me more than they could ever learn from me

To my friends at the University of Florida who made graduate school so much

more interesting and fun A special thanks goes out to Dr Steacutephanie Borios whose

5

example I followed as we progressed through graduate school The inspiration for this

dissertation arose from our casual conversations and the ldquoQuinoa kidsrdquo name we

adopted in the horseshoe tournament at the Armadillo Roast fundraiser for the

University of Florida Department of Anthropology I also want to thank Marlon Carranza

for listening to my woes and providing humor and perspective throughout this process

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

LIST OF TABLES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 11

ABSTRACT 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 14

Research Question 14

Historic Overview 21 Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices 24 Agrodiversity and Globalization 29

2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET 36

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People 36

The Fox and the Condor 38

What is Quinoa 39

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species 41 History of Quinoa in the Andes 45

Resurgence of Quinoa 55 Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa 60 How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa 62

Food 64 Grain Products 64 Processed Quinoa 66

Medicine 68 Ritual Uses 70 Consumer Products 71 Animal Forage 72

Fuel 73 Negative Local Health Effects 74

3 ANDEAN FARMERS AND THE GLOBAL MARKET WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS REMAINED THE SAME 80

Diversification and the Environment 80 What are the Current Farming Practices 82

7

Harvesting 88

Quinoa Processing 93

What are the Strategies for Local Farmers to Access the Market 95 Farmersrsquo Markets 95 Farmersrsquo Cooperatives 96 Future Market Expansion 102 Agricultural Fairs 104

Pricing 107

4 HOW ARE ANDEAN FARMERS PRESERVING QUINOA AGRODIVERSITY DURING A TIME OF GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET 118

What is the Extent of Quinoa Variety Diversity and How is it Classified 123 Farmersrsquo Knowledge 126

Experiment in Comparative Variety Yield 144 How do Andean Farmers Select the Quinoa Variety to Plant 148

Do Andean Farmers Maintain Agrodiversity through their Seed Selection Practices 160

How do Andean Farmers Select Seeds and How do these Processes affect Agrodiversity 166

Womenrsquos Role in Seed Selection 172

A Female Semillista Example 174 What are Menrsquos Roles in Seed Selection 180

5 CONCLUSION 188

APPENDIX

A QUINOA VARIETY NAMES 199

B RAZAS DE QUINUAS RACES OF QUINOA 205

LIST OF REFERENCES 206

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 219

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa 61

4-1 INIA Commercial Varieties of Quinoa in Peru 132

4-2 Altiplano Varieties by Color 138

4-3 Races of Quinoa 139

4-4 Results of Variety Yield Experiment 145

4-5 Frequency of Planting of Quinoa Varieties 149

4-6 Average Number of Quinoa Varieties Grown 153

4-7 Collective Number of Quinoa Varieties 154

4-8 Reasons for Variety Selection 156

4-9 Sources of Quinoa Seeds 161

4-10 Reasons for Seed Selection 167

4-11 Quinoa Uses 179

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches 47

2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013 58

2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa 59

2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products 63

2-5 Peske 65

2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools 67

2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products 68

2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven 73

2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa 74

3-1 Drying quinoa at UNAP research station 89

3-2 Student farmers learning to use the trilladora to thresh quinoa fruits from the plant 90

3-3 Student farmer removing the grain from the panicle 91

3-4 Further sifting of quinoa grains 92

3-5 Wind winnowing at INIA 92

3-6 Puno Farmersrsquo Market 95

3-7 Powdered cantildeihua at Puno Farmersrsquo Market 96

3-8 Quinoa drying in the sun at COOPAIN 99

3-9 Quinoa-battered fried whole fish eyeballs included 107

3-10 Quinoa Production Volumes 2001-2014 108

3-11 Peru Quinoa Producer Prices 1991-2003 109

3-12 Puno Producer Prices 1990-2012 109

3-13 Quinoa Price Drop 110

10

4-1 Quinoa samples at the INIA office 132

4-2 Quinoa Variety Frequency University Student Farmers N=24 152

4-3 Quinoa Variety Frequency Co-op Farmers N=35 152

4-4 Mamarsquos quinoa 174

4-5 Expert Arsquos map of quinoa field 175

4-6 Expert Arsquos Seed Display 176

4-7 Rosada Taraco quinoa after harvest 182

4-8 Rosada taraco quinoa grains 183

4-9 Expert Brsquos seed selection display 183

11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANAPQUI Asociacioacuten National de Productores de Quinoa

COOPAIN Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash Cabana

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

INIA Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten Agraria

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non-governmental organization

UN United Nations

UNAP Universidad Nacional del Altiplano

US United States

12

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS

AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

Deborah J Andrews

August 2017

Chair Marianne Schmink Co-chair Christopher McCarty Major Anthropology

This research seeks to seeks to understand the inter-relationship between small-

scale Andean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa

crop and how they are maintaining same-species agrodiversity during a time of

globalization of the market Despite Spanish suppression of the crop as well as post-

colonial discriminatory practices against quinoa and the indigenous populations who ate

it this crop survived due to the inter-species relationship with Andean farmers who

relied on quinoa as an important food source The popularization of quinoa however

has changed the quinoa market with potential effects on quinoa agrodiversity

maintenance and increased risk to farmers

The study was carried out in Puno Peru using participant observation surveys

and interviews with both Quechua and Aymara farmers as well as other experts This

study investigated the quinoa variety agrodiversity practices of small-scale farmers

including the number of varieties grown during the past season the reasons farmers

selected quinoa varieties for production how seeds were selected and who influenced

variety and seed choice The literature review and field research revealed over 200

13

quinoa names including 63 varieties grown by the participant farmers during the period

of this study The farmers selected these varieties by analyzing and balancing a number

of factors including market demand environmental adaptation yield culinary

properties cultural practices and experimentation The farmers who participated in this

study grew an average of 257 quinoa varieties during the past season with a range of

between one to thirty-two varieties being grown by an individual farmer The results of

this study demonstrate that there are various influences on agrodiversity maintenance

including the availability of seed the promotion of varieties by organizations including

the government NGOs and cooperatives as well as farm-saved seed reliant upon

existing local germplasm Ongoing and future investigation of quinoa at the variety level

including nutritional and health benefit distinctions as well as culinary and other

consumer uses can maintain agrodiversity while serving the goals of both continued

crop resilience as well as competitiveness in the market through diverse unique and

marketable options Knowledge and agrodiversity maintenance by Andean farmers

especially the local experts can play a valuable role in future investigations into the

beneficial interspecies relationship between people and plants and their joint

contributions to global food security

14

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Research Question

This research addresses the inter-relationship between small-scale Andean

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa crop and how the

farmers maintain agrodiversity during a time of globalization of the quinoa market

Humans have been breeding plants for thousands of years leading to the rise of

agriculture This breeding of plants has altered biodiversity based on human selection

Unfortunately only a small number of crops now dominate global agricultural production

and human diets which is detrimental to long-term food security Murphy et al (2016)

consider maintenance of quinoa diversity to be an imperative Many cultures including

Andean farmers have maintained lesser-known traditional crops and have a wealth of

agricultural heritage and knowledge The study of quinoa and the people who have

grown it for thousands of years offers an example of ldquohumannonhuman minglingrdquo that is

the hallmark of multispecies ethnography which focuses on how other organisms as

well as humans are shaped by cultural political and economic forces (Kirksey and

Helmreich 2010546)

In light of the long-term historical suppression of quinoa starting with Spanish

colonialists and continuing with post-colonial practices this research addresses the

question of whether intra-species quinoa diversity is being maintained during a time of

market globalization In the context of a traditionally-maintained crop that has gained

global attention the working hypothesis is that the global attention on quinoa will lead to

losses in sub-species agrodiversity due to external market demands and trends towards

monocultural practices The expectation of diversity loss is further justified by the

15

dominance of the white-colored Bolivian real variety in the market which was the initial

market entry for quinoa While aggregation of quinoa of the same variety or at least

color allows for small-scale farmers to pool their crops and contribute to the global

market this market benefit could be at the expense of agrodiversity

Traditional Andean grains grown by Peruvian farmers increasingly are served on

dinner plates across the Western world With the discovery of the excellent nutritional

benefits the quinoa boom has exploded on the market as a trendy healthy new food

source in the modern world In contrast Andeans have been farming quinoa for

thousands of years While most Andean farmers still produce quinoa using traditional

small-scale farming techniques the global demands for quinoa may be affecting within-

species diversity Thus the timing of the expansion of the quinoa market especially in

light of its multi-millennial usage is an important factor in this study

This research arises from questions that have been raised by the media about

the effects of the global demand for quinoa on local farmers such as whether their diets

have suffered due to a decrease in quinoa consumption or whether other agricultural

practices have been affected such as llama or alpaca grazing areas being converted to

quinoa fields (Eg Aubrey 2013 Romero and Shahriari 2011) More recently the

popular press has also questioned the effects that the global popularity of quinoa

specifically has had on agrodiversity with claims that ldquoExport demand has focused on

very few of the 3000 or so different varieties of quinoa prompting farmers to abandon

many of those varietiesrdquo (Cherfas 2016) While this statement about the number of

varieties of quinoa is often repeated it derives from a misunderstanding of the

difference between varieties and accessioned samples in seed banks which is explored

16

below Nevertheless it clearly raised concern for continued quinoa agrodiversity This

study focuses on the current extent of quinoa agrodiversity and how it has been

maintained and conserved by small-scale Andean farmers in the Peruvian altiplano

While this study focuses on how Andean quinoa farmers are maintaining agrodiversity

this does not imply that these farmers are solely responsible for agrodiversity

maintenance or loss but rather they are an important part of the discussion and need

to be included in discourse about future efforts to maintain or improve diversity

practices In addition their knowledge can contribute to an overall understanding of the

biodiversity of quinoa

The anthropological discourse on globalization describes various processes that

affect local communities and their culture due to the pressures of global demands for

resources originating in these communities ldquoGlobalization is a long-term uneven and

paradoxical process in which widening social cooperation and deepening inequality go

togetherrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20043-4) This study investigated the practices of small-

scale Andean farmers as well as their folk knowledge related to quinoa varieties and

how they changed in response to market globalization

Since food is very much linked to cultural identity (Weismantel 1988) quinoa

provides an excellent exemplar for studying the effects of globalization on local cultures

especially since quinoa is considered to be one of the most important food crops in the

Andes having both economic and cultural importance (Christensen et al 2007 Castillo

et al 2007) Quinoa is used as a diverse food product and is also used during ritual

festivals for consumption and to make symbolic figurines out of quinoa dough (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) In this regard quinoa is like other plants that are valued for

17

symbolic ritual and sociocultural practice rather than just for direct economic benefits

(Kawa 2012) and provides evidence that money is not always the principal factor in

decision-making With this in mind this study analyzes the cultural factors in

agrodiversity decision-making during a time of globalization of this traditional product In

acknowledging the link between traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found

that those who eat more traditional foods including quinoa maintain more farm

diversity including more crop diversity and more varieties Thus there is an association

with biodiversity and food products that have a strong cultural link to the farmer and

quinoa is a prime crop to investigate this phenomenon

Prior studies of Andean crops including the aptly titled book ldquoLost Crops of the

Incardquo (1989) described quinoa and other important crops in direct connection with the

Andean people who had a deep history with the plant

Today in the high Andes the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants who are largely pure-blooded Indian and continue to grow the crops of their forbears During the centuries they have maintained the Incarsquos food crops in the face of neglect and even scorn by much of the society around them In local markets women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than 500 years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains baskets of beans of every color and bowls containing luscious fruits At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers ndash red yellow purple even candy striped some as round and bright as billiard balls others long and thin and wrinkled These are the ldquolost crops of the Incasrdquo (NRC 19893)

The National Research Councilrsquos (NRC) comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-

blooded Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including

quinoarsquos ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and

people through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food

18

Similarly in 1990 Wilson observed the relationship between the race of people

and the status of quinoa he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed complexesrdquo

where the wild ancestral plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the domesticated

varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial areasrdquo

associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including the

Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo provided a place for both indigenous

Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes from the outside world

Wilson (1990) observed as other scientists before him that there was a strong

association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and culture and

the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and plant diversity

thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live side-by-side

Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both survived

colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency

The United Nations (ldquoUNrdquo) determined that quinoa is a product that can

contribute to food security for the worldrsquos growing population (UN 2011a) Over a

decade earlier the National Research Council commented that ldquoBecause it is now

primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing its production is a good

way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo (NRC 1989150) In

contrast the process of globalization may put local farmers and the biodiversity of the

crop at risk Given the fact that the Andean altiplano is a harsh growing environment

coupled with climate change and attendant crop risk agrodiversity effects are an

important issue in understanding local effects of globalization that could lead to long

term negative consequences

19

For this dissertation the relationship between Andean quinoa farmers and this

traditional subsistence crop was studied during a time of rapid globalization and growing

popularity of quinoa As Mintz observed ldquothe social history of the use of new foods in a

western nation can contribute to an anthropology of modern liferdquo (Mintz 1985xxviii)

Quinoa provides a classic example since it is a traditional crop with a long history

culminating in recent global popularity and demand that has affected small-scale

farmers whose product climbed onto the world stage When peripheral economies such

as that of the Andean farmers are integrated into a larger capitalist system it is usually

on unequal terms (Lewis 2005) This raises the question of the effect on the local

quinoa farmers due to the increased popularity of their crop This scenario is a classic

example of the idea that ldquoglobalization involves more intensive interaction across wider

space and in shorter time than before in other words the experience of a shrinking

worldrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20048)

The product of Andean farmers vaulted to global attention in a relatively rapid

fashion after a multi-millennial relationship with the people of the Andes What was a

long-term relationship between Andeans and quinoa was altered by outside attention

and demand Since the world has noticed quinoa what has happened to the quinoa

farmers and their relationship to quinoa To understand local farmers we need to

understand the contextual components of their relationships to external markets (Dove

2011247) especially given the strong Andean cultural identity that includes quinoa The

farmersrsquo connections to the market can include a number of points of access some of

which lead directly to the global market

20

Due to the globalization of the quinoa market the popular press has raised

concerns about changes to local diets and loss of grazing areas (Aubrey 2013 Romero

and Shafiari 2011) Much like accedilaiacute (Euterpe oleraceae Mart) from the Amazon studied

by Brondizio (2008) quinoa has rocketed onto the global market yet as Brondizio

found local farmers pejoratively called caboclos in Brazil can be disenfranchised

despite the high acclaim of their plant partner on the world stage In addition to the

farmers the global attention on quinoa can also have adverse effects on the species as

noted in the popular press with regard to the maintenance of agrodiversity of quinoa

(Cherfas 2016) Thus both farmers and their partner crop can be affected by

globalization and this study investigates some of these changes including the

relationship between the two

While globalized agriculture is often associated with large factory farms in the

Andes quinoa is primarily produced on small family farms with most of the tasks done

by hand with little mechanization through the harvesting stage (Ton and Bijman 2006)

Despite the small size of the farms they are not isolated from what Dove (2011) calls

larger networks of economic exchange Indeed the farmers in this study who live in the

remote Andes are participants in the global quinoa market Farmers are not just a

collection of individuals but rather are part of a complex system (Escobar 1991) The

social organization in rural communities can substantially influence crop biodiversity

(Leclerc and Copperns drsquoEeckenbrugge 2012) While many studies of crop agrodiversity

focus on seed selection factors related to the environment culture is also an important

factor in diversity and ultimately food security Indeed at the outset agricultural crops

were selected by humans for cultivation and ultimately domestication which

21

emphasizes the human element in agrodiversity This process is not static especially in

the context of globalization when external socially driven market demands factor into

the equation

Ecological anthropology seeks to understand the relationship between social

organizations population dynamics human culture and the environment (Orlove 1980)

Coupling ecological anthropology with biodiversity discourse further focuses the

question of human factors in biodiversity maintenance Biodiversity is important and

there is concern about the loss of plant biodiversity (FAO 1999) There has been a call

for increased emphasis for biodiversity in the agricultural landscape (Brush 1995 2005)

Past agricultural research demonstrates that commercial markets often seek out

consistent standardized products which allows for the pooling and consolidation of

crops from different farms to be aggregated and sold in bulk volumes on larger markets

The drive for a singular similar-looking product however can have agrodiversity

consequences especially if the external market seeks one look But quinoa is a

polyploid plant that produces grain with highly diverse morphological characteristics and

various colors White quinoa was the initial product popularized on the global market

through the early market entry of the Bolivian real variety The emphasis on a singular

color potentially might deleteriously affect the agrodiversity of the crop which can lead

to higher production risks for local farmers due to the harsh environment in the Andes

Thus reduced agrodiversity can have immense consequences for both local farmers

and crop agrodiversity

Historic Overview

The history of quinoa and how it reached the global market and the utilization of

quinoa in the Andes are described in Chapter 2 Quinoa provides an especially

22

interesting example because it was not adopted into European agriculture for centuries

whereas the adoption of other food crops from the Andes such as potatoes was rapid

(Maughan et al 2007) From the colonial period through the first half of the twentieth

century quinoa production was in great decline Due to its association with indigenous

rituals and its ceremonial importance quinoa was suppressed by the Spanish

colonizers although cultivation continued in remote areas with mostly indigenous

populations (Sauer 1950 Simmonds 1965 Wilson 1990) What was once derogatorily

classified as an indigenous food suppressed by European colonizers under racist

practices has transformed into a global commodity

Notions of discrimination permeate the historical treatment of quinoa and the

Andeans with an interesting joint-species racialized experience As noted by Hartigan

past discourse by cultural anthropologists in the US focused on ldquomaintaining the

bulwark between culture and biologyrdquo (2013373) especially when discussing racial

classification but this research seeks to breach that bulwark using multispecies

ethnography in an attempt to understand the relationship between Andeans and

quinoa and how this relationship which has successfully maintained quinoa diversity

for thousands of years is being affected by globalization In this study I use a

multispecies approach to this analysis which means that I investigate both the plant as

well as human culture which is especially fitting here considering the history of

discrimination that both Andeans and quinoa have jointly experienced across time due

to cultural beliefs

The second chapter addresses the biological nature of quinoa and its

complicated taxonomic history Other species of Chenopodium grow throughout the

23

world with closely related species in the US and Mexico that may provide insights into

the migrations of both the plants and their associated people (Heiser 1990)

The second chapter also describes the more recent history of quinoa and the

events that led to its international resurgence as an important food crop Plants have a

history of interactions with humans and how we think about the importance or

relevance of different plant species varies Quinoa has a unique history of suppression

by Spaniards during the Conquest to the post-colonial attitudes of quinoa as an ldquoIndian

foodrdquo to the present cultural belief in quinoa as a ldquosuper-foodrdquo Scientific investigations

of quinoa led to its current status as a food for astronauts and its increasing popularity

as a health food in the West

Quinoa has high nutritional value with more protein essential amino acids and

minerals than other cereal crops (Medina et al 2010 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) A

recent UN publication states ldquoIn countries (such as Peru and Bolivia) where malnutrition

levels are high it is essential to boost quinoa consumption in order to benefit from its

exceptional nutritional propertiesrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa has tremendous

implications for human health and food security even in countries that traditionally grow

quinoa such as Peru and Bolivia yet still have malnutrition Stunting is a problem in the

Peruvian Andes which has been linked to poor diet (Mayer 2002) providing additional

reasons to investigate this highly nutritious product

Research on quinoa has been conducted by agronomists geneticists and other

agricultural scientists with more limited anthropological research on the topic which

has been growing recently While the history of quinoa and timeliness of its global

popularity is well suited to this study it is the people and the human cultural association

24

with an important food crop that are the focus here This is a prime opportunity to

investigate debate and perhaps prevent the problems that globalized agriculture has

caused in the past

Food security is a worldwide issue and this study of the cultural aspects of

quinoa production in a globalized market can provide anthropological perspectives in

agricultural contexts The FAO Rome Declaration on World Food Security (1996)

defines global food security as follows

Food security exists when all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

This study seeks to provide information that can be used to improve food security

through the maintenance of diversity of an important food crop This research can also

inform debates about globalization of the quinoa market The intent of this study is to

reflect upon and suggest ways to mitigate the unintended consequences to local

farmers as well as to mitigate agrodiversity loss

Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices

Chapter 3 describes the present farming practices of Andean farmers based on

participant observation and interviews with quinoa farmers and experts This study

describes the continuation of traditional farming practices as well as analyzing modern

changes to these practices and how they may affect agrodiversity maintenance

The research for this dissertation was based in Puno Peru on the shores of

Lake Titicaca since that is the place of greatest genetic diversity (Medina et al 2010)

as well as where there have been archaeological discoveries of ancient quinoa (Langlie

et al 2011) Presently the main producers and exporters of quinoa are Bolivia and Peru

(Medina et al 2010) The Puno region is the main quinoa agricultural growing area in

25

the altiplano Andes of Peru is a major production area in Peru is a market exchange

location for both Peru and Bolivia and is believed to have the highest range of quinoa

agrodiversity The Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (UNAP) is located in Puno and I

obtained an official affiliation with that institution and worked with professors who had a

long history of working with quinoa farmers This study was conducted during several

extensive trips to Puno from 2012 to 2015 The initial field investigation took place

during May and June 2012 I returned to Puno from May to June in 2014 and 2015 with

the fieldwork concluding in December 2015 While I was based in the City of Puno I

traveled to the nearby farms and villages in the Puno region including Cabana

Cabanillas Juli Juliaca Ilave Kilca Chucuito and Desaguadero

I primarily gathered information from farmers (N=66) student farmers (N=24)

and professors at the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (N=10) In addition to these

100 participants I conducted numerous informal interviews with quinoa wholesale

vendors government officials farmers at farmers markets fair participants three field

researchers and relatives of two of the university professors

Since I obtained an affiliation with the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano I was

introduced to numerous professors who were linked to quinoa research in various ways

The expertise of the professors was varied and included anthropology agronomy food

safety entomology and animal science I worked extensively with two professors ndash Dr

Marco Aro and Dr Aacutengel Mujicamdashthroughout this process Two additional professors

took me to their family farms where I observed their practices and informally interviewed

their relatives although they did not participate in the formal agrodiversity surveys since

it was early in the research process For the professor group I conducted interviews

26

with each of the 10 professors to gain insight and information on various aspects of

quinoa and culture This information ranged from cultural traditions to pest problems

with the crop I also sought to find an existing list of quinoa varieties upon which I could

base my agrodiversity inventory and research but was unable to locate one as further

described in my research findings

Working with Dr Mujica I participated in the agricultural field school in

Camacani where students were taught to harvest quinoa at the university research

station Twenty-three of the student farmers participated in formal surveys during this

field school and one additional student participated in the survey who did not attend this

field session In addition to the student surveys I participated in the harvest where I

took many photographs and extensively interviewed Dr Mujica In 2015 I also went on

a three-day field trip with a group of agricultural students to Arequipa Majes and

surrounding communities I obtained the additional student survey from one of these

participants who also assisted in providing farmer contacts

The first group of non-student farmers that I worked with were a convenience

sample of 31 farmers who attended a meeting conducted by Dr Mujica in the city of

Puno Since this was a convenience sample it had some bias and is not necessarily a

representative sample of all farmers in the region because they were associated with an

outreach program affiliated with the University and had the means to travel to the city

for the meeting Due to travel constraints I was not able to individually interview this set

of farmers

Towards the end of the meeting I explained my research project by going

through the Institutional Review Board-approved disclosures and request for consent

27

After answering a few questions including one question about compensation and why

they should help me for free I conducted a formal agrodiversity survey of 31 of the

farmers present who were primarily of Aymara ethnicity Several farmers declined to

participate for unknown reasons although I suspect one reason was that they could not

write another bias in this sample selection All but one of these farmers were men

Thus it was not a random sample and was skewed in both gender roles as well as in

individual motivation availability education or opportunity to travel to Puno for a

meeting

The second group of farmers that I worked with were affiliated with COOPAIN

the local cooperative located in the town of Cabana which is a small town north of the

city of Puno COOPAIN stands for Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash

Cabana COOPAIN is a democratically run organization with elections each year It is

organized into two committees the ManagementAdministration Committee and the

Oversight Committee Each committee has four members three permanent and one

substitute member Under the ManagementAdministration Committee are four

subcommittees Production Education Womenrsquos and Election each with the same

membership size and structure

The education committee focused on promotion of growing quinoa and joining

COOPAIN The education committee was primarily concerned with young people

getting involved in farming to replace the aging farmer population This concern with the

future of farming and the need to attract or keep young people in farming is an important

issue for the continuation of quinoa farming in the altiplano At the education meetings

they answer questions from the audience and also discuss climate change

28

At this cooperative farmers bring their harvested quinoa to the small factory for

processing and refinement The farmers process the quinoa in the field which includes

threshing sifting and winnowing prior to bringing their production to the cooperative in

large bags The cooperative further processes the quinoa by washing the quinoa and

removing the saponins and sorting the quinoa by color These processes will be further

described in the following chapters The cooperative distributes to the national and

global market although sales direct to consumers are also available at the remote

factory COOPAIN provides access to the globalized market due to marketing efforts

that connects the small farmers to the larger market COOPAIN maintains a market

presence through its connections with non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

international and local researchers the press its own outreach programs as well as a

website Since the farmer-members of COOPAIN were selling their crops on the global

market it offered a unique opportunity to see the effects of globalization on the local

farmers and quinoa agrodiversity While the COOPAIN facility is located in Cabana the

members live in the small communities in the surrounding region and they bring their

harvests to Cabana The meetings regarding the operation of COOPAIN occur in

Cabana and this tiny town was a central location for finding participants for this study

A total of 35 farmers affiliated with COOPAIN participated in this study I

personally met with 21 of the 35 farmers conducting a formal survey and semi-

structured interviews The additional 14 farmer participants were surveyed by student

volunteers that both Dr Aro and I trained to interview the participants gather and

record consistent data and demographics using a written interview guide In addition to

the surveys and interviews I observed the manufacturing practices at COOPAIN and

29

met with the management and leadership on several occasions conducting formal

informational and background interviews

As noted above across the period of this study I gathered information from a

variety of more informal sources I visited farmersrsquo markets and also investigated the

local food stores to gather pricing and marketing data on quinoa I attended two

agricultural fairs and observed the display of quinoa products and the competition

regarding quinoa food recipes I met with two governmental officials in Puno to gather

data on regional quinoa production I also visited the Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten

Agraria (INIA) to observe their quinoa research station and interviewed a government

official running the program The information I gathered from INIA related to quinoa

agrodiversity and they had many samples on display in the office I asked for a list of

the quinoa varieties and was told that the information was in their recent publication

which I purchased It turned out that the publication was not quite as helpful or

comprehensive as I had hoped as further discussed in Chapter 4

Agrodiversity and Globalization

Chapter 4 describes the investigation into agrodiversity conservation practices

during globalization of the quinoa market There are several components to this study

to evaluate the agrodiversity of quinoa the first component of this research was to

develop a list of quinoa varieties especially since my research discovered that a

published comprehensive list did not already exist While the popular press reported

thousands of quinoa varieties (eg Cherfas 2016) I discovered that the term ldquovarietyrdquo

was mistakenly used for ldquoaccessionsrdquo associated with seed bank collections which are

not necessarily separate varieties for each accession Thus the number of purported

quinoa varieties was both undocumented and inflated Without the collection of accurate

30

or existing data to use as a starting point I re-tooled my research to establish a set of

data from which I could evaluate the present state of agrodiversity of quinoa and its

relationship to Andean farming culture

To establish a starting point for quinoa agrodiversity I conducted a study of local

quinoa farmers and asked them to list the quinoa varieties that they had grown over the

past two years I also reviewed published research to create a comprehensive list of

quinoa names As research progressed additional varieties were added to the list after

consulting with quinoa experts to determine if the new names were indeed a different

type or just another name for a previously-listed variety Thus this component of the

study created the comprehensive quinoa variety domain

While this research started with an investigation into quinoa variety diversity it

became apparent that the nomenclature for categories within species at least for

quinoa is an area that needs further refinement and consensus which is evaluated in

Chapter 4 While I started this research using the term ldquovarietyrdquo it became readily

apparent that the use of that term was less than clear In Chapter 4 I discuss the race-

based classification systems that have been proposed by Peruvian researchers which

provides an intermediate level of taxonomic classification between species and variety

sometimes referred to as landrace which is a loosely defined term associated with

varieties developed by farmers rather than commercial organizations

The next component of the study was to interview and survey farmers about their

quinoa farming practices including quinoa variety selection This component of the

research investigated the number of different quinoa varieties grown during the recent

season the variety selection and the reasons for both seed selection and variety

31

selection by the farmers This chapter describes the factors involved in variety selection

such as yield environmental conditions culinary qualities as well as seed availability

and the importance of those reasons The sources for seeds are also analyzed as well

as the maintenance of quinoa agrodiversity on the farms To determine a comparative

and current evaluation of the variety yields during the 2014-2015 growing season I also

describe an experiment conducted by Dr Mujica at UNAP and compare it to the

dominant quinoa varieties that were in production during the time of this study

In addition to the compilation of the list I also researched the reasons for

selection of both the varieties as well as how seeds themselves are selected Since

Andean farmers have had to address a high-risk environment for thousands of years

this study investigated the cultural adaptations in seeking to benefit from the global

demand of a local product while still reducing economic risk under current climatic

conditions Producing a crop that can survive the growing season and producing a crop

that is commercially desired may not necessarily be congruent so the selection factors

were investigated to understand the trade-offs and analysis that could affect

agrodiversity maintenance

External market factors may be the reason for lack of crop agrodiversity

maintenance External consumer-driven preferences can influence the market as well

as agrodiversity which Kawa et al (2013) found in their study of social networks of

Amazonian manioc farmers They found that two crop characteristics were desired for

the manioc market high biomass and yellow color As a result varieties that produced

large manioc tubers of a yellow color were selected by farmers for production to the

external market explaining a lower agrodiversity than found in non-market contexts

32

Thus external market demands such as varieties with preferred colors can affect

agrodiversity through human selection In the Andes due to the higher prices for

quinoa other researchers found that farmers were selling their quinoa crops rather than

using them solely for their familiesrsquo consumption (Hellin and Higman 2005) Thus

quinoa is also being grown for the market and therefore the characteristics of the end

product are subject to market pressures and consumer preferences such as preferred

color as well as yield or biomass The dominance of the white sweet flavored large-

grained Bolivian real variety in the international market exemplifies external market

pressures related to color and biomass as well as flavor Color and biomass are but a

few examples of the diverse characteristics of quinoa and a range of other

characteristics are desired for other traditional Andean uses which are described in

Chapter 2

Seed selection is of great importance in agricultural and survival strategies (Tuxill

et al 2010) Andean farms tend to be highly diversified (Zimmerer 2003) The farm

diversity is implemented by using various ecological zones across the terrain (Jacoby

1992) The reason for such high diversity is due to the extreme climate and high risk of

potential crop failure By planting varieties that thrive under various climatic conditions

a harvest is more likely to succeed since at least some of the seeds will thrive in any

given range of climatic conditions (Tuxill et al 2010 Rivera 1998) Thus farmers often

select seeds based on different criteria including color as well as other factors such as

early ripening and yield (Rosero et al 2010 Tuxill et al 2010) Thus while agrodiversity

maintenance is a traditional risk-averting strategy findings also imply that other market-

based or aesthetic factors such as color influence seed selection This research tested

33

these previous findings regarding agrodiversity conservation practices among small-

scale farmers

Due to globalization the concern is the early market entry established limited

characteristics related to color and perhaps sweet taste that could influence Andean

farmersrsquo conservation practices In the global quinoa market the white colored quinoa

Bolivian real is the dominant variety (Castillo et al 2007) and is widely available in US

supermarkets Due to the consumer and market driven desire for a consistent product

the harvests from multiple farms can be collected and managed in a large scale

benefiting larger organizations and distributors Thus commercialized large scale

distribution practices can have the effect of inhibit biodiversity while at the same time

allowing for market entry and competition If farmers grow sweet white quinoa since it is

in demand by the market and discontinue growing the other varieties then there would

be consequences for in situ agrodiversity maintenance

In the past but not that long after quinoa gained global recognition it was

reported that local Andean peasants preserved their biodiversity practices (Apffel-

Marglin 1998) These varieties were often used for subsistence personal and

community purposes with the certain varieties including commercially produced

varieties grown for the external commercial market (Apffel-Marglin 1998) However

due to the more recent global market pressures the observations of Apffel-Marglin

(1998) need to be tested to see if they continue to hold true Quite recently Skarbo

(2015) documented a loss of quinoa diversity in Ecuador in association with

development projects linked to commercialized quinoa varieties raising an alarm for the

preservation of quinoa diversity during what she calls a ldquoquinoa Renaissancerdquo A goal of

34

this study is to analyze these notions of food security and agrobiodiversity in the context

of quinoa variety selection during a time of dramatic price increase In Chapter 4 I also

analyze to a very limited degree the differing roles of men and women in quinoa

agrodiversity conservation and the importance of local experts

In summary this research investigated the historical and current farming

practices that affect agrodiversity maintenance of quinoa during a time of globalization

in the context of culturally-laden meaning due to the long-term beneficial mutual

relationship between quinoa and Andean farmers The dissertation tells the unique

history of this co-evolving relationship between Andeans and quinoa from

domestication thousands of years ago through Spanish suppression of both humans

and quinoa through lingering post-colonial attitudes against ldquodirty Indiansrdquo and ldquoIndian

foodrdquo through the present worldwide acclaim and attention focused on quinoa but not

necessarily its human partners in survival This story involves the success of Andean

people who have not only survived in a harsh climate but have survived through harsh

aspects of human history The mutually-beneficial relationship between Andeans and

quinoa is a survival story that has not concluded Andean farmers cultivated and

nurtured quinoa through thousands of years of harvests resulting in human selection

playing a substantial role in the evolution of the crop alongside other genetic influences

such as natural selection gene flow mutation and genetic drift The result is a highly

diverse species that survived despite competition with introduced crops and animal

husbandry as well as intentional Spanish suppression In return quinoa provided

Andean farmers with a highly nutritious crop that can both thrive in the harsh

environment and also be stored for many years This research looks at the

35

agrodiversity methods farmers use in selecting the types of quinoa to grow during a time

of global pressure to increase production of the crop which can decrease agrodiversity

maintenance through the use of monoculture-type practices adopted from Western

agricultural practices This research has resulted in a compilation of names of different

quinoa varieties to establish a varietal domain to facilitate further investigation into

agrodiversity of the crop I discuss the agrodiversity practices including reasons for

variety selection as well as seed selection I present a survey of current quinoa variety

selection and discuss it in the context of the larger domain of quinoa types and the

future implications for agrodiversity maintenance Thus while monoculture-type

practices have clearly influenced Andean farming practices as demonstrated by the

dominance of the white Bolivian real variety there are ways to prevent further

agrodiversity loss which would be a loss not only to the species but to their millennial-

long partners ndash Andean farmers

36

CHAPTER 2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People

This chapter traces the history of agrodiversity and quinoa in Peru to place the

present status of the globalized quinoa market in historical perspective Quinoa has a

long-term connection among Andean people and a review of the history of the human-

plant relationship explains why and how an agricultural product which was once little

known outside of the Andes attained great global acclaim and associated market

expansion This chapter addresses the questions of what is quinoa and how is it

associated with human culture This chapter describes the botanical nature of quinoa

its taxonomic place and the problems with the classification of varieties as well as the

nutritional benefits and uses it provides to people This chapter also describes the

natural biodiversity and plasticity of the species as well as the effects that history has

had on the survival and success of this plant and what this information may indicate

about the present and future conservation practices

In the Andes there is a diversity of geography and ecology as well as cultures

Peru has a large variety of plants amounting to about 10 of the total plants in the

world Perursquos diverse floral regime includes about 25000 species 128 domesticated

plants and 4400 native species with known uses ranging from food to medicinal to

cosmetic (Powell and Chavarro 2008) The presence of a variety of climates and

ecozones in the Andes favors the generation and maintenance of genetic diversity

(Rivera 1998) This fact alone however does not account for the high rate of diversity

The presence of Andean culture that supports the observation and nurturance of plants

is a key factor in the development of a wide variety of domesticated plants (Rivera

37

1998) Thus humans are an important factor in the generation and maintenance of

biodiversity and Andean cosmology has a role in the successful maintenance of plant

diversity

Plant domestication signified by changes that rely upon human intervention for

continued survival is considered a key factor in the understanding of past human

behavior related to the rise of agriculture Domestication can result in the alteration of

plant life cycles such as reduction in dormancy enhancement of seedling vigor or

enhancement of stored food reserves in seeds and loss of dispersal mechanisms

(Gremillion 1993) A notable difference between domestic and wild plants is that the

latter lack seed dormancy (DeWet and Harlan 1975) Selective pressures linked to

reduced seed dormancy can encourage quick sprouting after planting and increase

survival (Smith 1995) The outer epidermis or testa has an important role in seed

development since it controls imbibition of water and hence seed germination (Smith

1995) The testa thus prevents premature germination in nature and a reduced outer

seed coat testa allow early germination (Gremillion 1993) Domesticated quinoa has a

thin seed coat and is one of the key ways that archaeologists can determine if an

archaeological sample is from a wild or domesticated plant The thin seed coat versions

cannot survive without human intervention even in the Andes (Wilson 1981) and thus

seed coat thickness is an important indicator of domestication The thin seed coat in

domesticated chenopods is the key factor in distinguishing wild from domesticated

versions and hence human intervention

The development of agriculture demonstrates the importance and contribution of

traditional ecological knowledge by farmers in Peru Agriculture developed

38

independently in several disparate locations across the globe One of the most

important locations is the Andes The Andes are one of Vavilovrsquos ldquocenters of

domesticationrdquo (Murphy 2007) including the domestication of 45 species of plants

which is more than all of the domesticated plants in Europe at the time of contact with

the Americas (Rivera 1998)

Many agricultural products were first domesticated in the Andes including

potatoes and quinoa There are 3500 different varieties of potatoes grown in the Andes

(Apffel-Marglin 1998) One province in the Peruvian Andes has more potato diversity

than the entire North American continent (Brush 2005) While potatoes are a well-known

agricultural product of the Andes there are other plants that have gained recent

notoriety Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) kaniwa or canihua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L) also known as amaranth or

love-lies-bleeding were domesticated in Peru thousands of years ago (Langlie et al

2011) More recently however the global community became more informed about the

excellent nutritional value of these products (Repo-Carrasco 2003 Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Massawe et al 2016 Gordillo-Bastidas et al 2016) and demand is at an all-time

high (Jacobsen 2011) Quinoa has become a household word in the US and can be

found at local grocery stores This chapter will review the co-evolving history of humans

and quinoa agrodiversity in Peru along with the cultural significance and scientific

discoveries about this plant

The Fox and the Condor

The Andean people have a unique relationship with quinoa and it is involved in

ritual uses and ceremonies and is a part of Andean cosmology I was told an origin

story by an Aymara participant in this study According to ancient lore in a story called

39

The Fox and the Condor quinoa was responsible for saving the Andean people from

starving recounted below

The fox meets with the condor and wants to go to Pati which is the sky The

condor tells the fox that he must be respectful when he is there and not take or touch

anything The fox agrees and he rides on the condor to Pati When they arrive the fox

sees food and violates the agreement by eating all the food The food was there for a

ceremony but when the others arrive the food was all gone because the fox ate it The

others decide to send the fox back to earth so they prepare a rope to lower the fox back

to earth While the fox was being lowered back to earth about half way down the fox

says some bad things The others then decide to cut the cord and the fox falls to the

earth with his body exploding upon impact Since the foxrsquos stomach was full all of the

food spread across the land including the Andean grains of quinoa kantildeiwa kiwicha

and all the other Andean foods That is why these grains are called the food of the gods

ndash since they fell from the sky If any of these grains are found growing out of fox feces it

is considered good Today traditional Andean people say ldquoquinoa is our liferdquo as

described by a participant since quinoa provides sustenance for their survival

This story which is one of many about quinoa demonstrates the importance of

the native Andean foods in their cosmology as well as survival Andeans understand

the life-sustaining role quinoa and other Andean grains have in their ability to continue

living in the otherwise harsh environment

What is Quinoa

Quinoa or quinua the Spanish spelling of the word (C quinoa Willd) is a

domesticated plant that grows in both the Andes and at lower elevations in South

America and is now being grown in many countries around the world Quinoa is a

40

pseudo-cereal that has been used by South Americans for thousands of years While a

primary use is similar to grains since it is often used to make flour among other things

it is not a grass but rather is a weedy species and inhabits disturbed soil environments

(Wilson 1990) Thus quinoa is an opportunistic species which may account for its wide

variation and adaption to various climates and micro-climates

Depending on growing conditions quinoa plant height can vary from 20 cm to 2

m tall (Simmonds 1965) One gram of grains can have between 250 and 520 fruits

(Simmonds 1965) and thus the yields can be quite different Along with weight quinoa

grains also vary in size with the grain area varying from 256 to 51 mmsup2 (Medina et al

2010) again a factor that can affect yield a factor that is used by farmers for selection

discussed in later chapters Another characteristic of quinoa is that in the domesticated

varieties seed dormancy is absent and germination is rapid (Simmonds 1965) as

previously noted in the context of archaeological samples Thus the quinoa grain

exhibits a wide range of morphology which diversity is not just limited to the grains

Quinoa flowers in a variety of colors and shades of those colors The most widely

known colors are white red and black In 1960 JL Lescano described 42 color tones

and 7 basic colors of quinoa white red purple yellow gray brown and black (Ayala

Olazaacutebal 2015) Additional colors include pink orange and green Thus quinoa has a

wide range of color variation which reflects the diversity of the species at an easily

detectible morphological level Thus for human selection the color of the flower or the

grain can be used to distinguish varieties and to use as a marker for identifying co-

related characteristics beyond color

41

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species

The purpose of taxonomic classification is to facilitate comprehension and

communicate ideas about the relationship of organisms to each other (Stevens 2002)

ldquoHierarchical naming systems pervade our whole language and thought and from this

point of view the Linnaean hierarchy is simply one such systemrdquo (Stevens 200212)

Taxonomies are not just simple descriptions but contain embedded theories about

natural order based on human perceptions of nature (Gould 2000) Thus human beliefs

and perceptions influence taxonomic categorization in attempts to organize and

understand species diversity This concept holds especially true as it relates to the on-

going categorization of varieties in the efforts to understand a diverse species such as

quinoa and its variety of usefulness to humans

Taxonomically quinoa is a member of the Amaranthaceae family The

Amaranthaceae family has dicotyledonous plants that are often halophytic herbs which

are salt-tolerant (Bhargava et al 2009) The chenopods used to be classified in the

Chenopodiaceae family but are now classified in the Amaranthaceae family with

Chenopodiaceae being a sub-family Thus there is a history of confusion and change

regarding the scientific classification of quinoa

Especially in older accounts quinoa and other chenopods have sometimes been

misidentified in the literature as being in the genus Amaranthus (Ford 1981) For

example quinoa has also been mis-identified as Amaranthus caudatus (Simmonds

1965) locally known as kiwicha and indeed this same error occurred during my field

work as further described in Chapter 4 This misidentification makes it difficult to

establish the early history of quinoa based on travelersrsquo accounts and colonial reports

In addition and more recently paleobotanical analysis of pollen often identifies the

42

pollen to the family level as Amaranthaceae rather than to genus thus limiting the

usefulness of such studies to the extent the precise species and variety is needed for

analysis

Finally another reason for the great difficulty in classifying some chenopods is

due to their polyploidy ldquoThe reasons for the taxonomic difficulties are the usual ones

encountered in polyploid complexes involving annual weedy groups viz marked

phenotypic plasticity parallel evolution and putative hybridizationrdquo (Rahiminejad and

Gornal 2004) Thus while polyploidy can lead to great diversity classification systems

attempt to be static and the classification history of quinoa demonstrates the foibles of

attempting to categorize dynamic plants Hartigan (2013) talks about the plasticity of

genomes of which quinoa is a good example The plasticity of quinoa has led to great

agrodiversity of the crop which will be discussed infra yet makes it difficult to classify in

a hierarchical system Considering the problems with classifying quinoa at a genus and

species level attempts to organize quinoa at the variety level for purposes of studying

and evaluating variety diversity are similarly problematic as further discussed in

Chapter 4

Quinoa is a tetraploid (Pickersgill 2007) which means that it is a polyploid plant

that has four times the number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus rather than a single

pair of chromosomes like humans have As a polyploid plant quinoa has genetic

complexity that can contribute to great intra-species diversity

Quinoa is a member of the Chenopodium genus which contains at least 250

species (Rana et al 2010) Other chenopods are present in other parts of the old and

new worlds In Europe lambsquarter or fat hen (C album L) was grown but apparently

43

was not a substantial crop in early history likely due to the availability of other grass

crops that can thrive at the lower elevations (Simmonds 1965) In China C giganticum

is grown for many uses (Maughan et al 2006) and thus the Chenopodium genus is

spread across the globe

Quinoa was assigned to the Chenopodium taxa as its place in the Linnaean

classification system in 1797 and two hundred years later was described as having

ldquoarchaic relictual and rather mysterious elements of the world of ethnoflorardquo (Wilson

199093) Quinoa was initially was thought to be a unique New World domesticated

Chenopodium species but in 1917 it was determined that a second domesticated

Chenopodium species C nuttalliae existed in domesticated form in Mexico (Wilson

and Heiser 1979) and thus quinoa has relatives in other parts of the New World

Alongside quinoa canihua (or kaniwa) (C pallidacuale Aellen) also grows in the Andes

Canihua can grow at higher altitudes and withstands cold better than quinoa (Repo-

Carrasco-Valencia et al 2009)

In Mexico C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae Moq is present in both domesticated and

wild forms This species has three well-known varieties known as huauzontle quelite

and chia roja (Wilson 1981 Glore 2006) In North America goosefoot (C berlandieri

ssp jonesium Moq) was also domesticated but the domesticated variety is now extinct

Wild goosefoot species including C berlandieri ssp zschackei C bushianum C

boscianum and C macrocalycium are present in North America (Maughan et al 2006

Ford 1981) The two most discussed North American species are C berlandieri ssp

zschackei and C bushianum Chenopodium berlandieri ssp zschackei extends across

the US west of the Mississippi as well as the Gulf coast and east of the Mississippi into

44

Wisconsin Illinois Michigan and part of Indiana and is infrequently in Mississippi

Alabama Georgia Florida and the Carolinas (Smith 1992) Chenopodium bushianum

has larger fruits (often called grains) and its geographical range includes much of the

Northeast and Midwest and has been found in Tennessee Alabama and South

Carolina (Smith 1992) The Chenopodium genus has a great number of species that

grow all over the world demonstrating its plasticity

It appears that quinoa was domesticated independently from goosefoot (C

berlandieri) and huauzontle (C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae) (Rana et al 2010 Pickersgill

2007) however it is not yet conclusive whether goosefoot and huauzontle were

domesticated independently (Pickersgill 2007 cf Ford 1981) Past genetic analysis

indicated that another North American species C berlandieri ssp zschackei may be

more closely related to quinoa and may perhaps be an intermediate subspecies

between quinoa and huauzontle (Rana et al 2010) especially since hybrids of quinoa

and C berlandieri ssp zschackei can produce fertile offspring (Maughan et al 2006)

Notably the three New World species discussed above quinoa goosefoot and

huauzontle are all tetraploids (Rahiminejad and Gornall 2009) which can account for

great genetic diversity It has been suggested that quinoa and C berlandieri ssp

zschackei as allotetraploids may share a common ancestor (Rana et al 2010)

Recently the quinoa genome was sequenced and compared to other species

including C berlandieri (goosefoot) C hircinum and C pallidicuale (kaniwa) The

quinoa genome has 44776 genes and the genomic analysis revealed that original

ancestry included the hybridization of two diploids labelled A of likely North American

origin and B of likely Eurasian origin (Jarvis et al 2016) This tetraploidization split

45

occurred 33 to 63 million years ago although Jarvis et al (2016) noted that there has

been some recombination between the A and B sub-genomes across time Now that the

quinoa genome has been sequenced additional genetic analysis can lead to further

hybridization of the species which may lead to more involvement by global agro-

industrial corporations which thus far have had limited success in tapping into the

quinoa market from a production standpoint While there are many smaller companies

involved in quinoa production including growing and marketing quinoa products the

large multi-national corporations that dominate many agricultural systems do not

presently dominate the quinoa market and do not grow significant yields or otherwise

dominate the quinoa market at the sales or distribution level The genetic manipulation

of quinoa can lead to the creation of new varieties that are qualified to receive a patent

and will surely bring significant changes to the global quinoa market in the future

History of Quinoa in the Andes

Humans have had a direct relationship with quinoa for thousands of years

Quinoa is a domesticated species with human selection occurring perhaps as early as

15000 years ago (Wilson 1990) although that date is not confirmed by the

archaeological record While the precise time when human manipulation of quinoa

plants began is unknown archaeological evidence indicates that quinoa was an

important agricultural product by the Formative Period 2000 BC in Peru (Bruno 2008)

Quinoa use pre-dates the Inca and Wari ceremonial vases have figures of quinoa on

them (Tapia et al 201413) Archaeologists continue to investigate Bolivian and

Peruvian archaeological sites with regard to the archaeobotany of the Lake Titicaca

Basin (Langlie et al 2011 Rumold 2010 Whitehead 2007) providing additional depth

of history and knowledge of the inception of agriculture and domestication of quinoa

46

Quinoa is often marketed in the US as the food of the Inca gods due to its

current cachet and popularity in Western diets thus associating it with its deep historical

association with a famous civilization Over the past several decades quinoa has

vaulted from a crop threatened with extinction to a popular food product readily

available in grocery stores across the US and elsewhere in the world The reputation of

quinoa has gone from low status ldquoIndian foodrdquo to high status health food The

relationship between humans and quinoa has evolved across time and is a dynamic

fluid relationship As Medin and Atran state ldquoMuch of human history has been spent

(and is being spent) in intimate contact with plants and animals and it is difficult to

imagine that human cognition would not be molded by that factrdquo (Medin and Atran

19991) The human-quinoa interspecies relationship can provide insight into the

concepts of biodiversity through understanding the knowledge of the people who have

been connected in time and space with the plant

Historically the three major agricultural foods in the Andes were maize potatoes

and quinoa (Wilson 1990) However there are limitations on growing food at elevations

over 10000 feet where quinoa is harvested (Simmonds 1965) While quinoa and

potatoes are grown in the altiplano corn is rarely grown with any success due to the

harsh climate Of these three products both corn and potato were adopted into

European diets during the colonial period but not so for quinoa and today corn and

potatoes rank among the most widely grown food products across the world

Quinoa was an important food crop in the Andes at the time of European contact

(Simmonds 1965) Quinoa was sacred to the Incas who called it chisiya mama or

mother grain (NRC 1989149) Quinoa was considered to have significance to the Inca

47

above other crops (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Quinoa was used by the Inca to produce

fermentation of chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of

harvest and sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and

so ensure prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Figure 2-1 is a depiction of Pachamama

holding quinoa based on an undated bronze artifact from an archaeological context in

Argentina

Figure 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches -Image credit Mintzer 193360

Thus quinoa was closely linked to spiritual beliefs and ritual practices at the time of

European contact The production of chicha using quinoa continues today as does the

reverence for Pachamama

48

Perhaps due to its ritual role Europeans did not adopt quinoa into their

agriculture (Maughan et al 2007) Plants can be perceived as having magic (Kawa

2012) In articulating several reasons for the decline in quinoa production Mujica et al

(2013) specifically listed magic

The conquistadores fear the lsquomagic quinoarsquo They believed that consuming quinoa and the religious ceremonies with quinoa were the same and they might attribute extraordinary forces to the Indians and endanger the conquest (Mujica et al 201311) This colonial concern that a plant could have the ability to empower people thus

threatening colonial conquest and domination caused the Spaniards to engage in

discrimination and suppression against quinoa to suppress this perceived powerful

alliance between quinoa and Andeans Ceremonial and ritually significant indigenous

foods such as quinoa were ldquotargeted for extinctionrdquo during the Spanish colonial period

(Wilson 1990108) European colonization dramatically affected quinoa production

relegating it to a low status food associated with the indigenous population with its

production shrinking in range through much of the 20th century (Wilson 1990)

Instead of being adopted into European cuisine quinoa remained an indigenous

local food In a report by the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG Kew) in 1909 it was

noted that quinoa was a food of the ldquoIndians or the laboring classesrdquo (RBG Kew 1909)

providing an example of the discrimination against people eating quinoa and it was

considered ldquoIndian foodrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 201526 Bazile et al 2014) a derogatory

reference based on continuing neocolonial mind-sets that considered Indians to be

inferior to either the white or the mestizo population Based on recent ethnographic

research at least in Puno quinoa sometimes is still perceived as food for poor people

with rich people eating rice noodles and chicken (Aguumlero Garcia 2014) although

49

quinoa is marketed to tourists today and there is a strong native Peruvian food

revitalization movement Thus while the production of quinoa was suppressed by the

Spaniards due to its ritual use along with neo-colonial perceptions of low social status

associated with Indians that lingered until recent globalization and coupled with

competition from other newly introduced crops as well as animals quinoa production

declined except in Andean regions where its cultural significance survived European

contact and neo-colonial discrimination against indigenous Andeans and quinoa

Besides the history of suppression and racism associated with ldquoIndian foodrdquo

another reason postulated for the reduction in quinoa production was the introduction of

sheep and cattle as alternative sources of protein (Mujica et al 2013) The increased

competition with broad beans oats and barley is yet another reason for the past decline

in quinoa production (Wilson 1990) In 1990 Wilson remarked that ldquothis leafy grain

apparently failed in direct global competition with the true cerealsrdquo (Wilson 199096)

although at the time of Wilsonrsquos publication the trend was changing and he was

apparently referring to the earlier decline across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This fact however has changed since then While Europeans failed to recognize the

value of quinoa for hundreds of years South American indigenous communities

continued to cultivate quinoa Thus much of the traditional indigenous knowledge is still

present in these farming communities and can be key to the conservation of the

biodiversity Cultural traditions therefore are very important in the understanding of

Andean agriculture and ecosystems

Perhaps quinoarsquos symbolic representation of Inca or indigenous culture coupled

with the time-consuming processing required to remove the toxic saponins (Safford

50

1968 [1915]) dissuaded Europeans from adopting quinoa into their diets Consuming

quinoa without first removing the saponins which requires vigorous abrasion of the

seeds and washing with water can have unpleasant effects on the digestive tract as

well as having an unpleasant bitter taste Either reason or perhaps both may have

contributed to the European rejection of quinoa starting with colonial times

While Europeans failed to recognize the value of quinoa for hundreds of years

South American indigenous communities managed to maintain quinoa as a

domesticated plant for personal and local consumption Indigenous Andean women are

responsible for approximately 70 of agricultural work (Tapia and De La Torre 1997)

so it is likely that women were the conservators of quinoa knowledge and diversity

through silent resistance to colonial domination Thus despite the rejection of quinoa by

European colonizers quinoa survived in remote indigenous populations that

maintained traditional knowledge and practices

While quinoa was not adopted into European cuisine it has been described

across time in various reports emanating from the Andes by European and American

explorers and scientists In 1551 Spaniard Pedro Valdivia described fields of Chilean

quinoa which he called quingua (Wilson 1990) Other early explorers including

Garcilaso de la Vega also described quinoa and stated that it resembled millet or short-

grained rice (Mujica et al 2013) Such descriptions continued into the 19th and 20th

centuries (eg Ledesma and Bollaert 1856 Jameson 1861 Forbes 1870 Milstead

1928) Ledesman and Bollaert (1856) noted that quinoa was grown on the island of

Lake Titicaca Forbes (1870) noted the different varieties of quinoa that were yellow

red and white and called it Inca rice a hint at the diversity of the crop while

51

acknowledging that it was a Chenopodium species In 1891 Safford observed the time-

consuming processing of quinoa grains in Bolivia and found it to have good flavor

(Safford 1968 [1915]) In 1931 Standley noted that quinoa was a common crop in the

Andes due to its edible seeds Thus across time explorers and researchers took note of

quinoa although it was not adopted into European cuisine and therefore not widely

known

While indigenous Andeans maintained local quinoa production botanists

continued to explore species across the globe including lesser-known plants In the

1800s Alexander von Humboldt observed that quinoa was like ldquolsquowine was to the

Greeks wheat to the Romans cotton to the Arabsrsquordquo (NRC 1989151) Quinoa was a

plant that was observed by scientists known and classified yet was not otherwise well-

known to global consumers maintaining an air of mystery to it What was this plant that

the Spaniards rejected yet that still managed to survive

In 1909 the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens issued a short report on quinoa and

noted an interest by Americans for potential import into the US (RBG Kew 1909) In

1928 quinoa was described in a published survey of Peruvian agricultural crops

(Milstead 1928) At that time it was reported to be grown in small patches but spread

out across the landscape of farms Milstead noted that quinoa provides ldquoa palatable and

nutritious article of food for the highland Indiansrdquo (Milstead 1928101) although he does

not otherwise describe how he came to the conclusion that it was a nutritious food In a

Spanish language publication Mintzer (1933) published an extensive article on the

botanical cultural and agronomic characteristics of quinoa including study in the

Peruvian altiplano and included nutritional data Mintzer (1933) also noted the presence

52

of different varieties that could be distinguished by pigmentation and ecological zone

growing conditions a noteworthy acknowledgement of the agrodiversity based on both

color and environment in which he used the terms ldquovarietiesrdquo and ldquoracesrdquo somewhat

interchangeably

While there were prior hints at the nutritional value of quinoa (eg Milstead

1928) over the past fifty years or more there have been ongoing studies of the

nutritional values of quinoa (Eg Repo-Carrasco 1991 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003

Repo de Carrasco 2014 Villa et al 2014) Much of this scholarship is based in South

America often presented at conferences but not often published in scholarly journals

and rarely in English language journals Between 1970 and 1986 there were at least 43

published papers about quinoa over half of which were in Spanish and most of which

were published in gray literature (Rafats 1986) While there was much information about

quinoa in the South American scholarly articles and gray literature not all of it is widely

distributed or easily accessible which may have also delayed its explosion onto the

world market until the scientific analysis was more widely-accessible More widespread

publications of the nutritional benefits of quinoa in English language articles along with

the growing popularity of health foods in the US and Europe led to the rise in global

consumption

The rejection of quinoa continued well past Spanish colonial domination and in

1950 Sauer reported that quinoa has now retreated from the extremities of its earlier

range but is still a characteristic food plant of the Inca-dominated Highlands (Sauer

1950) In the mid-1960s it was also reported that quinoa was in decline in Ecuador

Chile and Argentina and absent in Columbia (Simmonds 1965) In 1965 Simmonds

53

reported that quinoa had excellent protein content especially as compared to other

cereals and noted that ldquothe uses to which this plant are put are intimately bound up with

the lore and customs of the people that grow themrdquo (232) Again the nutritional value of

quinoa was noted in the scientific literature without much acclaim Simmonds (1965)

however acknowledged the meaningful interspecies relationship between quinoa and

Andeans by including the intimate connection between quinoa people and customs

In 1968 an international convention on quinoa and kantildeiwa was held in Puno

Peru organized by prominent South American scientists to demonstrate and

consolidate their efforts to emphasize the importance of Andean grains to modern

science (NRC 1989) Over a decade later some of those same South American

scientists published what the National Research Council has called a ldquomajor

collaborative work on quinoa and kaniwardquo (NRC 198913) referring to Tapia et al

1979 Notwithstanding the scholarship and efforts of Andean researchers who

extensively studied quinoa the National Research Council acknowledged that they

ldquostruggled for decades to promote them in the face of deeply ingrained prejudices in

favor of European foodrdquo (NRC 1989v) Thus not only were quinoa and other Andean

products disparaged as inferior ldquoIndian foodrdquo the efforts by Andean scholars were also

affected by this bias

Events occurred in the 1970s and 1980s that would lead quinoa to the global

market The scientific community continued to study quinoa including its nutritional

value and in 1975 scientists reported that quinoa was ldquoa little known plant hellip with a

high protein contentrdquo that could contribute to food security if problems associated with

processing were resolved (Brown and Pariser 1975) referring to the saponin removal

54

process Scientific interest in quinoa started to increase and in 1980 in Peru the

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria established the Programa de Cultivos

Andinos which included investigations into quinoa (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Across the

border international marketing of Bolivian quinoa began in 1983 when the national

quinoa growers association was established (ANAPQUI) (Jacobsen 2011) The main

producers and exporters of quinoa currently are in Bolivia and Peru Quinoa is also

cultivated in Colombia Ecuador Argentina and Chile (Medina et al 2010) Quinoa is

also grown in lesser amounts in various countries around the world

In 1986 the FAO defined quinoa as a strategic food crop for the Andes and later

acknowledged its high nutritional value Based on this acclaim by a world-renowned

organization quinoa was no longer a ldquosecond-rate productrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015 26)

The National Research Council collaborated with over 600 scientists to produce a book

in 1989 called ldquoLost Crops of the Incasrdquo led by Dr Hugh Popenoe of the University of

Florida and included quinoa as one of the so-called lost crops These crops including

the ldquoglowing grainsrdquo of quinoa were aptly described in connection with the Andean

people (NRC 19893) The NRCrsquos comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-blooded

Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including the

ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and people

through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food The NRC commented

that ldquoBecause it is now primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing

its production is a good way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo

(NRC 1989150) Thus even in 1989 quinoa was still considered food for the poor with

both viewed together through a socio-economic lens

55

The relationship between quinoa and Andeans was also noted by Wilson (1990)

who similarly observed the relationship between the race of people and the status of

quinoa in a paper published in 1990 he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed

complexesrdquo where the wild parent plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the

domesticated varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial

areasrdquo associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including

the Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo (Wilson 1990108) provided a

place for both indigenous Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes

from the outside world Wilson observed as other scientists before him that there was

a strong association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and

culture and the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and

plant diversity thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live

side-by-side Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both

survived colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency Thus while

Wilson could observe as recently as 1990 that quinoa was in a downward spiral from a

production standpoint struggling to survive much as their human Andean counterparts

prior literature regarding the nutritional value hinted at things to come Over time the

world re-discovered what the Andeans already knew quinoa is a high-value nutritional

food source worthy of consumer attention and acclaim as demonstrated by its

noteworthy rise on the world market and place on grocery shelves across the Western

world

Resurgence of Quinoa

Quinoa gained international attention in 1993 from a report by NASA in which it

was identified as suitable for astronauts on long-term space missions (Bubenheim and

56

Schlick 1993) Due to its high protein value and unique combination of amino acids

including lysine NASA concluded that it is a food that can provide life-sustaining

nutrients from one species Interestingly NASA noted the varying colors of quinoa and

speculated that the colors are associated with ldquoeco-typesrdquo hinting at diversity of the

species but not further explaining the significance of these factors or what they mean by

ldquoeco-typerdquo The results of this NASA report had a significant effect on the worldwide

market If quinoa was a premium food for astronauts it was a commodity that health

food stores certainly wanted in stock Gradually the quinoa market in the US

expanded from health food stores to mainstream grocers

Twenty years after the NASA report the United Nations (UN) named 2013 to be

the Year of Quinoa (UN Resolution 66221 22 December 2011) (UN 2011b) This

proclamation elevated quinoa to an exclusive club alongside other UN designated

years including lofty goals such as education human rights peace literacy biodiversity

and sustainable energy to name a few The reason that quinoa achieved such

accolades by the UN was due to its high nutritional status The resolution seeking this

status stated the importance of quinoa and of the indigenous people who grow it (UN

2011b)

Recognizing that Andean indigenous peoples through their traditional knowledge and practices of living well in harmony with mother earth and nature have maintained controlled protected and preserved quinoa in its natural state including its many varieties and landraces as food for present and future generations Affirming the need to focus world attention on the role that quinoa biodiversity plays owing to the nutritional value of quinoa in providing food security and nutrition the eradication of poverty in support of the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals including the Millennium Development Goals and the outcome document of the High-Level Plenary Meeting on the Millennium Development Goals

57

Recalling the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (13-17 November 1996) the Declaration of the World Food Summit five years later (10-13 June 2002) and the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (16-18 November 2009) Affirming the need to heighten public awareness of the nutritional economic environmental and cultural properties of quinoa The recognition given to this traditional food crop by the UN is linked to important

issues including global food security and eradication of poverty Notably the UN

acknowledged that traditional Andean practices and relationship with nature have

conserved quinoa varieties for future generations This UN declaration acknowledged

the scientific contributions of the traditional Andean farmers and also emphasized the

environmentally-sensitive sustainable traditional farming practices they need Notably

the UN declaration points out that the Andean people preserved the biodiversity of the

quinoa agricultural complex including its ldquonatural state including its many varieties and

landracesrdquo (UN 2011b) This statement harkens to Wilsonrsquos (1990) observation about

the importance of the intact ldquocropweedrdquo complex associated with the indigenous people

who maintained this agricultural strategy Thus the selection of quinoa as the focus of a

UN ldquoyear ofrdquo sends multiple messages about the relationship of quinoa to the Andean

people and their harmonious farming practices and traditions and their joint

contributions to the world including the biodiversity maintenance of varieties drawing

an interesting parallel between plants and humans where diversity maintenance can

lead to worldwide contributions to humanity including global-scale food security and

support of UN Millennium Goals

What is interesting about quinoa is that it is a relative newcomer to the world

market Since 1959 the UN has elevated three crops to the ldquoYear ofrdquo status rice

58

(2004) potato (2008) quinoa (2013) (UN nd) and more recently pulses (legumes

including beans peas lentils and chickpeas) (UN 2016) While both potato and quinoa

originated in the Andes and were domesticated there of the two only the potato was

taken to Europe during early colonization by Spain and adopted into foodways across

the globe While quinoa was part of the Andean diet when the Spaniards arrived it was

not adopted into European diets and was relegated the status of ldquoIndian foodrdquo Thus

for quinoa to achieve UN recognition a mere five years after the potato is a remarkable

shift in status While both have been lauded by the UN a distinction between potatoes

and quinoa is the relative nutritional value of these products with quinoa being highly

nutritional compared to potato as has been revealed by recent scientific investigation

While quinoa is a crop that is endemic to the Andes it is presently being grown in

various countries across the globe (Figure 2-2) According to FAO databases however

the only countries that export quinoa in quantity are Bolivia Peru and Ecuador

although it is grown in all the Andean countries as well as scattered locations across

the world including the US and Canada

Source Bazile et al 2014

Figure 2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013

59

The expansion of quinoa production beyond the Andean countries is fairly recent

although there were some noteworthy earlier efforts including in Kenya and the US

Figure 2-3 shows plots the growth in the number of UN countries that grow quinoa from

1900 to 2014

Source Bazile et al 2016

Figure 2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa

The interest in quinoa as a global food product sharply increased in conjunction with

increased scientific and development efforts as well as the recognition due to the UN

Year of Quinoa Thus quinoa now has widespread global acceptance and other

countries are growing or attempting to grown quinoa This chart tracks the history of

quinoa outlined above and shows that an increase in global production was associated

with significant historical events including the formation of the quinoa producers

association in Bolivia in the early 1980s to the expanded scientific investigation from

the 1980s to the present

60

Peru Bolivia and Ecuador are the only significant sources of quinoa for export

more countries are involved in growing quinoa or conducting research on how to grow

quinoa under their climate conditions While the FAO does not list the US as a quinoa

exporter it is being grown in various locations including Colorado Washington

Oregon California and Utah There are different companies in the US that are involved

in quinoa sales including Ancient Harvests Quinoa Corporation Quinoa Foods

Company Keen One Quinoa Inca Organics Eden Foods Alter Eco Foods Quaker

Oats and Trader Joersquos The Ancient Harvests company claims to be the first company

to import quinoa into the US from Bolivia in 1983 Farms in the US that grow quinoa

include White Mountains Farm in Colorado and Lundberg Family Farms in California

Quinoa is also grown in Canada and Northern Quinoa Production Company both grows

and markets quinoa products While the global quinoa market is dominated by Peru and

Bolivia and Ecuador to a lesser extent production has expanded across the globe and

there is no doubt that there will be a larger global presence in the future including large

multi-national industrial agriculture corporations

Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa

Based on its unique history of being an important ritual food then suppressed by

the Spanish then once again returning to high acclaim by the scientific community

quinoa has left its mark on the global stage This section reviews scientific investigation

into the nutritional qualities and values of quinoa

Quinoa is high in protein especially as compared to other cereal crops (Table 2-

3 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) While Repo-Carrasco et al (2003) found that quinoa had

144 g100 g of protein the actual protein contents vary 12-17 depending on the

variety (Murphy et al 2016)

61

Table 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa

PRODUCT PROTEIN CONTENT g100g FAT CONTENT g100g

QUINOA 144 6 COMMON RYE 134 18 BARLEY 118 18 OATS 116 52 CORN 111 49 ENGLISH WHEAT 105 26 RICE 91 22

Source Data compiled from Repo-Carrasco et al 2003181

Quinoa contains amino acids that are similar to casein which is milk protein

(Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) ldquoThe amino acid content of the quinoa grainacutes protein

meets the amino acid requirements recommended for preschool children school

children and adultsrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa provides an important protein for human

growth and is likened to the importance of milk in a childrsquos modern diet Beyond its

protein content quinoa contains high calcium magnesium iron copper and zinc

content In addition to the grains quinoa leaves also contain protein as well as calcium

phosphorous and iron (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003)

Quinoa contains fatty acids that are about 82 unsaturated (Repo-Carrasco et

al 2003) Since it contains omega 3 and omega 6 it helps reduce LDL (or bad

cholesterol) and helps raise HDL (or good cholesterol) (UN 2011a) Quinoa also

contains tocopherols as Vitamin E which is an antioxidant This protects cell

membranes against free radical attack thus providing additional health benefits (Repo-

Carrasco et al 2003)

The carbohydrates in quinoa seeds contain between 58 and 68 starch and 5

sugar Quinoa is also a good energy source that is slowly released into the body due to

its high fiber content (UN 2011a)

62

In addition to the high nutritional value quinoa also has a high percentage of total

dietary fiber As such quinoa is a food that can be used to detoxify the body (UN

2011a) Quinoa also has the ability to absorb water and remain for a longer period of

time in the stomach (UN 2011a) The dietary fiber in quinoa promotes intestinal transit

and regulates cholesterol (UN 2011a)

Interestingly quinoa has two phytoestrogens deaidzein and cenisteina These

two phytoestrogens help prevent osteoporosis In addition they may alleviate disorders

caused by the lack of estrogen during menopause (UN 2011a) Due to these various

properties of quinoa it certainly deserves the title ldquosuperfoodrdquo

Quinoa is also gluten free and provides an excellent alternative to grains such as

wheat (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) Some studies indicate that the consumption of

quinoa by people with celiac disease improves their condition (UN 2011) Thus quinoa

is an alternative food source for populations with food sensitivities Quinoa is now being

touted as an alternative for a gluten-free diet has anti-oxidant characteristics linked to

cancer preventions (Villa et al 2014) and has anti-inflammatory effects (Yao et al

2014) all of which are prevalent health concerns today

Fueled by studies of quinoarsquos nutritional value which is now well-known the

global market has expanded and consumer choices across the world can affect the

farming practices of Andeans The next section discusses the Andean uses of quinoa

which is also a part of the deep history of this human-plant relationship

How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa

Prior to the globalization of quinoa the crop was primarily used for personal

consumption and was not historically a cash crop (Jacobsen 2011) While globalization

has changed quinoa into a cash crop Andeans still use quinoa and this section

63

describes the current uses of quinoa by Andeans Many commercial quinoa products

are currently available on the Peruvian consumer food market (Figure 2-4) All parts of

the plants can be used for various products and uses While Andean people primarily

consumed quinoa as food it also has a variety of other uses including medicinal ritual

cultural artistic industrial and for animal forage In acknowledging the link between

traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found that those who eat more

traditional foods maintain higher levels of farm diversity both between and within

species Thus having a strong tradition of quinoa use has a positive correlation with

agrodiversity and the variety of Andean uses for quinoa demonstrates this link

Various parts of the plant have different uses Quinoa grains are the primary

focus of production although other parts of the plant including the flower stems and

leaves also have economic value The leaves are similar to spinach and are also

consumed either as a salad or potherb (Simmonds 1965) Thus while quinoa is

commonly associated today as a nutritious grain the quinoa plant is very productive

and plays a diverse role in Andean culture and economy

Figure 2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products Image Credit Deborah Andrews

2012

64

Food

As previously noted quinoa is an important Andean food product Quinoa is

consumed as a part of any meal of the day including snacks Quinoa varieties can have

different flavors which can sometimes be distinguished based on the color although

there are also flavor distinctions within the same color but based on different varieties

In addition the texture varies based on variety with some varieties preferred for certain

recipes and uses Different quinoa varieties have culinary qualities that are used for

different cooking purposes For example chullpi is used for soups pasankalla is used

for toasting altiplano is used for flour and real is used for pissara or grains (Mujica et

al 2001) Black quinoa is harder to cook and harder to grind for flour Thus Andeans

have distinct culinary uses for the different types or varieties of quinoa which

underscores the relevance of agrodiversity The selection of quinoa varieties based on

culinary uses is further explored in Chapter 4 which focuses on agrodiversity and

farmer variety selection

Grain Products

The grain is the primary focus of quinoa production Andeans frequently

consume quinoa in the form of grain which is boiled with two parts water and one part

quinoa similar to rice The grains can be used in many recipes in the place of rice

although in the Andes rice appears to be more frequently consumed than quinoa The

grains are often used to make porridge and soups A common Andean dish is peske

which is boiled quinoa served with milk as depicted in Figure 2-5 The variety used for

the peske that I was served was kancolla which has a large grain so it can be prepared

like rice In addition to boiling the grain can be toasted or puffed

65

Figure 2-5 Peske Image Credit Deborah Andrews 2014

Since the time of the Inca quinoa has been used to produce fermentation of

chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of harvest and

sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and so ensure

prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) In Quechua culture Isbell (1978) observed that

quinoa was added to corn-based chicha to make a special ritual drink called machka

celebrating the first planting of the season Andeans also presently prepare a juice from

quinoa usually made with orange juice Indeed chicha is widely available in Peru

beyond the Andes and is a symbol of national pride and patrimony

A more trendy use of quinoa is the manufacture of protein bars containing

combinations of quinoa and other products such as peanuts kiwicha or cantildeihua which

are sold in modern grocery stores in Peru These bars are similar in style and

convenience to granola bars and appear to be a more recent modern consumer

product since I did not see these bars being either sold or consumed in small stores in

villages or by farmers

66

Processed Quinoa

While raw quinoa grain is the primary form of the product that is sold

commercially and for export there is also a market for products that are further

processed and used in forms other than as raw grain Processed quinoa products can

be found in Peruvian grocery stores and include items such as quinoa flour as well as

products made using quinoa flour such as pasta There are a variety of modern recipes

for quinoa using either the grains or milled flour The grains are milled into flour for

baking purposes for bread and other products Based on my use of quinoa flour it

makes a stiffer product than wheat flour so it is not necessarily an acceptable substitute

for bread wheat flour unless a firmer product is desired such as in crisp cookies

Quinoa is also milled to make flakes which can be used as a breakfast food or added

to yogurt smoothies purees soups and drinks (Montoya Restrepo et al 2005) Quinoa

smoothies can be purchased from roadside vendors in Puno as a quick portable

breakfast Other Peruvian retail products include a breakfast porridge that combines

quinoa flakes with oatmeal A limited variety of quinoa products are sold in retail stores

in the United States including pasta and baby food

In the Andes one of the local complaints about consuming quinoa relates to the

length of time it takes to prepare If the quinoa grain has not been processed past the

winnowing stage the grain needs to be further prepared before cooking This important

step is the removal of the saponins Due to the mild toxicity of the saponins they need

to be removed prior to cooking This is done by abrading the grain to remove the outer

layer as well as washing the grains and disposing of the waste-water For quinoa that is

exported on the global market the saponin removal process can occur at different

stages of the distribution chain including by the end-use consumer However most

67

quinoa on the US market today already has the saponin removed with no additional

rinsing needed by the consumer although this was not always the case

Another time-consuming tedious process is the grinding of quinoa into flour The

traditional method of milling quinoa is to actually grind the grains on a mill stone using

an oblong stone tool as depicted in Figure 2-6 One informant said that when he was a

child when he came home from school he would have to grind quinoa using the grind

stone before he could go out to play He said that he resents quinoa due to this

childhood chore While modern electric mills are now available the female informants

agreed that stone ground quinoa tastes better than the modern processing and that they

can tell the difference in flavor between the two milling practices A problem of

modernization however is that at least in the Juli region south of Puno the man who

makes the stone grinding tools is getting old and no one else in the area is known to

make the stone grinding tools COOPAIN has an industrial mill at their processing plant

in Cabana for the members to mill their quinoa into flour for personal consumption

Figure 2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools Image

credit Deborah Andrews 2014

68

Masamora is a dish made with quinoa flour with added calcium obtained from

rocks Figure 2-7 depicts masamora along with other quinoa food products Masamora

is cooked into a paste-like dish usually eaten for breakfast Krsquoispina is steamed quinoa

dough Many families have their own special krsquoispina recipe for lunch as well as for trips

Traditional Andeans also use krsquoispina formed into special shapes for ritual ceremonial

purposes

Figure 2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products Image credit Deborah Andrews

2014

Medicine

While scientists are studying medicinal values of quinoa (Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Yao et al 2014 Navruz-Varley and Sanlier 2016) various parts of the quinoa

plant are used in traditional Aymara medicine (UN 2011) as well as Quechua medicine

The seeds leaves and stems are used to cure many diseases (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015)

Traditional healing uses include as an antiseptic gargle heartburn relief constipation

relief nausea relief as a poultice as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory (UN

2011a) In addition quinoa is traditionally used to treat liver problems tonsillitis fever

69

urinary problems contusions hemorrhages bowel disorders wounds insect bites loss

of blood irritation loss of appetite loss of strength insomnia headache dizziness

anemia loss of focus and to prevent osteoporosis (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Thus in

addition to having an important role as a food product in Andean diets quinoa also is

traditionally used for a variety of medical ailments

Ajara or wild quinoa which is black colored is normally used for traditional

medicine usually by community members who specialize in healing Traditional

medicine can be purchased at the open-air farmersrsquo markets in Puno Ajara is not

normally used for consumption because it does not taste good since it is bitter

however it is used for medicinal purposes such as paste placed on the body next to

broken bones The black quinoa has more saponin than the other varieties and is used

for medicine against cancer and diabetes based on folk knowledge Recent research

on saponins in quinoa have linked it to anti-inflammatory properties (Yao et al 2014)

providing scientific support for traditional Andean medicine Based on this recent

scientific confirmation of medicinal values black quinoa is now fetching a higher price

since it is considered to have medicinal value which is being more widely-reported and

studied In other parts of the world C album has been used for medicinal purposes

(Bharagava et al 2009) Scientific analysis has revealed that Chenopodium has

antibacterial antifungal anti-parasitic anthelmintic antispasmodic antipruritic and

antinociceptive properties (Bharagava et al 2009) Thus properties of quinoa have

medicinal value and research into the variety distinctions from a medicinal or

therapeutic perspective can potentially contribute to efforts to conserve agrodiversity

70

Another medicinal use of quinoa is in relation to the practice of chewing coca In

the Andes coca is often used to alleviate symptoms of hypoxia related to the high

altitude and is also used as a stimulant which can also suppress hunger Alkaline from

the ash of burned quinoa stems (lliptu) is used for coca chewing (Simmonds 1965) The

stems of the quinoa plant are still considered to be the best for this purpose as

compared to other kinds of plants Thus quinoa has a variety of traditional and

scientifically confirmed medical benefits and the correlation of the beneficial properties

with certain varieties can provide impetus to conserve agrodiversity

Ritual Uses

Andean farmers have a close relationship with nature Many believe in

Pachamama or Earth Mother as well as the presence of spirits in the rivers springs

and tombs This cosmology also extends to sharing quinoa with other species such as

birds as exemplified by the lack of vigor to some degree in keeping birds away from

their crop because they do not want the birds to ldquocryrdquo This spiritual religion is a close

relationship between life and the actions of the farmer in the fields (Ayala Olazaacutebal

2015)

As noted above Andeans ferment quinoa to make chicha (Simmonds 1965)

Chicha is fermented with quinoa and is involved in religious and magical ancestral

ceremonies in giving to the Earth (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) This is likely one of the most

well-known ritual and culturally-laden uses of quinoa linked to Andean cosmology

Traditional Andeans make different shapes by hand from a quinoa flour

preparation called krsquoispina as noted above which are used for different festivals and

celebrations including the Carnival celebration and All Saints Day During the San Juan

Festival which is in June some people make animal shapes with this form of quinoa

71

The San Juan Festival is the day of the farmer Families have specific shapes that they

use for this product and community members recognize who made the product due to

their trademark-like shape Among the Aymara quinoa dough was used to make

figurines and shapes such as babies llamas and wreaths for use at funerals (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) Thus quinoa is not only symbolic it is used to make other

symbols

One quinoa variety has alternating white and red panicles on the same plant

Andeans usually do not eat this variety which is called miste misti misa quinua misa

jiura or mistiza but it is used in Pachamama rituals There is a ceremonycelebration

for Pachamama in which there are offerings of quinoa corn habas and guinea pig

blood The reason they use guinea pig blood is because guinea pigs reproduce quickly

and the farmers are asking Pachamama for a high yield agricultural production

Consumer Products

Quinoa can also be processed for products such as oils starch saponin and

coloring (UN 2011a) These extractions are used to produce a variety of consumer

products such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (UN 2011a) Saponins are a mixture

of triterpene glycosides and over 100 different saponins have been identified in quinoa

(Jarvis et al 2017) Saponins are mildly toxic so they are extracted before

consumption and can then be used for other items making it an efficient use of the

plant Quinoa is also used to make industrial alcohol cartons paper starch flour oil

shampoo creams detergent and industrial colorants (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Red

quinoa is used to redden lips as well as for dye

72

Animal Forage

The quinoa plant is also used for livestock forage Waste leaves and stems are

used for livestock feed for their high protein content (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Animals

however cannot consume the dried stalks One study suggests that quinoa be grown in

Colombia as sustainable forage for livestock (Rosero et al 2010) Thus quinoa can be

marketed as livestock forage which may be appealing in locations where grass does

not grow well

During this study a local professor suggested that there should be development

projects introducing more chickens to Andean farms since there is a lot of quinoa grain

waste during harvesting The chickens could feed upon the quinoa that falls to the

ground during the harvest thereby providing a nutritious animal feed Indeed chickens

were ready to eat quinoa during threshing and provided a source of humor for me while

I observed farming demonstrations

One problem with introducing more chickens to the Andes is that they need to

become acclimated to the lower-oxygen environment much like humans so the

introduction of chickens from lower elevations can be problematic The alternative would

be to breed the chickens acclimated to the highlands Chickens can thrive at the high

elevations but while I observed chickens on many farms there often were less than 10

chickens and therefore appeared to be for household egg production rather than

commercial production Large scale egg production occurs in Bolivia with eggs shipped

into Peru and the Bolivian chickens have apparently adapted to the environmental

conditions

73

Fuel

The dried stalks left over from quinoa processing can be used for fuel When it is

available it is used for fuel in earthen ovens that are constructed to bake potatoes and

oca The quinoa stalks are used to start the fire and get the embers going The root

foods are poured in the oven then the oven is then collapsed during cooking (Figures 2-

8)

A B

C D Figure 2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven A) Lighting fire with quinoa

stems B) Pouring potatoes and oca into oven C) View of potatoes and oca in oven and D) Collapsing of earthen oven for baking process Image credit Deborah Andrews 2015

74

There are a variety of uses for the different parts of the quinoa plants In addition

to the traditional and ongoing Andean uses of quinoa as well as expanded use by other

consumers there are also industrial applications of quinoa Figure 2-9 displays an array

of quinoa uses including applications that were not observed as part of this study but

which shows the production potential of quinoa for a variety of uses both traditional and

non-traditional

Source httpwwwfaoorgquinoa-2013faqsen Accessed March 13 2017

Figure 2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa

Negative Local Health Effects

One of the issues that has arisen in relation to the popularity of quinoa is the

indirect effects it may have on the health of the local communities The reason for the

concern is due to the increase in the price for quinoa and the effect the price increase

copy 2017 Deborah J Andrews

This dissertation is dedicated to my father Robert S Andrews Jr who sadly passed away in December 2015 shortly after my return from the last round of field work for this

research He taught me the value of education and encouraged me throughout my schooling from kindergarten to PhD and sacrificed the opportunity to obtain a PhD

himself to support his growing family Gone but not forgotten

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank my parents for instilling the importance of education in me Marianne

Schmink has been a true inspiration for me and her wise advice and appreciation for my

sense of humor made this process enjoyable I would also like to thank the members of

my committee Drs Chris McCarty Ken Sassaman and Frances Putz for their wise

advice

I want to especially thank Dr Juan Marko Aro Aro of the Universidad Nacional

del Altiplano who helped me get the contacts needed to conduct this research in Puno

He spent an inordinate amount of time assisting me and often accompanying me on

field excursions His knowledge of quinoa also helped me double check my facts to

ensure accuracy I also want to thank Dr Ritva Repo-Carrasco who kindly met with me

and suggested that I contact Dr Aro her former student

Dr Aacutengel Mujica Sanchez also of the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano was

also of great inspiration and assistance to me His depth of knowledge of quinoa and

quinoa farmers from an agronomic aspect helped me to understand the details of what it

takes to study quinoa I also want to thank the students at the Universidad Nacional del

Altiplano who participated in this study and also assisted in my understanding of quinoa

farming I especially want to thank Edwin Pandia for his assistance in visiting quinoa

farms I want to thank the leadership and members of COOPAIN who participated in

this study and graciously provided access to their operations and membership Most

importantly I want to thank the quinoa farmers who took their time to participate in this

study and teach me more than they could ever learn from me

To my friends at the University of Florida who made graduate school so much

more interesting and fun A special thanks goes out to Dr Steacutephanie Borios whose

5

example I followed as we progressed through graduate school The inspiration for this

dissertation arose from our casual conversations and the ldquoQuinoa kidsrdquo name we

adopted in the horseshoe tournament at the Armadillo Roast fundraiser for the

University of Florida Department of Anthropology I also want to thank Marlon Carranza

for listening to my woes and providing humor and perspective throughout this process

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

LIST OF TABLES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 11

ABSTRACT 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 14

Research Question 14

Historic Overview 21 Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices 24 Agrodiversity and Globalization 29

2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET 36

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People 36

The Fox and the Condor 38

What is Quinoa 39

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species 41 History of Quinoa in the Andes 45

Resurgence of Quinoa 55 Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa 60 How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa 62

Food 64 Grain Products 64 Processed Quinoa 66

Medicine 68 Ritual Uses 70 Consumer Products 71 Animal Forage 72

Fuel 73 Negative Local Health Effects 74

3 ANDEAN FARMERS AND THE GLOBAL MARKET WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS REMAINED THE SAME 80

Diversification and the Environment 80 What are the Current Farming Practices 82

7

Harvesting 88

Quinoa Processing 93

What are the Strategies for Local Farmers to Access the Market 95 Farmersrsquo Markets 95 Farmersrsquo Cooperatives 96 Future Market Expansion 102 Agricultural Fairs 104

Pricing 107

4 HOW ARE ANDEAN FARMERS PRESERVING QUINOA AGRODIVERSITY DURING A TIME OF GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET 118

What is the Extent of Quinoa Variety Diversity and How is it Classified 123 Farmersrsquo Knowledge 126

Experiment in Comparative Variety Yield 144 How do Andean Farmers Select the Quinoa Variety to Plant 148

Do Andean Farmers Maintain Agrodiversity through their Seed Selection Practices 160

How do Andean Farmers Select Seeds and How do these Processes affect Agrodiversity 166

Womenrsquos Role in Seed Selection 172

A Female Semillista Example 174 What are Menrsquos Roles in Seed Selection 180

5 CONCLUSION 188

APPENDIX

A QUINOA VARIETY NAMES 199

B RAZAS DE QUINUAS RACES OF QUINOA 205

LIST OF REFERENCES 206

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 219

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa 61

4-1 INIA Commercial Varieties of Quinoa in Peru 132

4-2 Altiplano Varieties by Color 138

4-3 Races of Quinoa 139

4-4 Results of Variety Yield Experiment 145

4-5 Frequency of Planting of Quinoa Varieties 149

4-6 Average Number of Quinoa Varieties Grown 153

4-7 Collective Number of Quinoa Varieties 154

4-8 Reasons for Variety Selection 156

4-9 Sources of Quinoa Seeds 161

4-10 Reasons for Seed Selection 167

4-11 Quinoa Uses 179

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches 47

2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013 58

2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa 59

2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products 63

2-5 Peske 65

2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools 67

2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products 68

2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven 73

2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa 74

3-1 Drying quinoa at UNAP research station 89

3-2 Student farmers learning to use the trilladora to thresh quinoa fruits from the plant 90

3-3 Student farmer removing the grain from the panicle 91

3-4 Further sifting of quinoa grains 92

3-5 Wind winnowing at INIA 92

3-6 Puno Farmersrsquo Market 95

3-7 Powdered cantildeihua at Puno Farmersrsquo Market 96

3-8 Quinoa drying in the sun at COOPAIN 99

3-9 Quinoa-battered fried whole fish eyeballs included 107

3-10 Quinoa Production Volumes 2001-2014 108

3-11 Peru Quinoa Producer Prices 1991-2003 109

3-12 Puno Producer Prices 1990-2012 109

3-13 Quinoa Price Drop 110

10

4-1 Quinoa samples at the INIA office 132

4-2 Quinoa Variety Frequency University Student Farmers N=24 152

4-3 Quinoa Variety Frequency Co-op Farmers N=35 152

4-4 Mamarsquos quinoa 174

4-5 Expert Arsquos map of quinoa field 175

4-6 Expert Arsquos Seed Display 176

4-7 Rosada Taraco quinoa after harvest 182

4-8 Rosada taraco quinoa grains 183

4-9 Expert Brsquos seed selection display 183

11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANAPQUI Asociacioacuten National de Productores de Quinoa

COOPAIN Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash Cabana

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

INIA Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten Agraria

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non-governmental organization

UN United Nations

UNAP Universidad Nacional del Altiplano

US United States

12

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS

AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

Deborah J Andrews

August 2017

Chair Marianne Schmink Co-chair Christopher McCarty Major Anthropology

This research seeks to seeks to understand the inter-relationship between small-

scale Andean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa

crop and how they are maintaining same-species agrodiversity during a time of

globalization of the market Despite Spanish suppression of the crop as well as post-

colonial discriminatory practices against quinoa and the indigenous populations who ate

it this crop survived due to the inter-species relationship with Andean farmers who

relied on quinoa as an important food source The popularization of quinoa however

has changed the quinoa market with potential effects on quinoa agrodiversity

maintenance and increased risk to farmers

The study was carried out in Puno Peru using participant observation surveys

and interviews with both Quechua and Aymara farmers as well as other experts This

study investigated the quinoa variety agrodiversity practices of small-scale farmers

including the number of varieties grown during the past season the reasons farmers

selected quinoa varieties for production how seeds were selected and who influenced

variety and seed choice The literature review and field research revealed over 200

13

quinoa names including 63 varieties grown by the participant farmers during the period

of this study The farmers selected these varieties by analyzing and balancing a number

of factors including market demand environmental adaptation yield culinary

properties cultural practices and experimentation The farmers who participated in this

study grew an average of 257 quinoa varieties during the past season with a range of

between one to thirty-two varieties being grown by an individual farmer The results of

this study demonstrate that there are various influences on agrodiversity maintenance

including the availability of seed the promotion of varieties by organizations including

the government NGOs and cooperatives as well as farm-saved seed reliant upon

existing local germplasm Ongoing and future investigation of quinoa at the variety level

including nutritional and health benefit distinctions as well as culinary and other

consumer uses can maintain agrodiversity while serving the goals of both continued

crop resilience as well as competitiveness in the market through diverse unique and

marketable options Knowledge and agrodiversity maintenance by Andean farmers

especially the local experts can play a valuable role in future investigations into the

beneficial interspecies relationship between people and plants and their joint

contributions to global food security

14

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Research Question

This research addresses the inter-relationship between small-scale Andean

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa crop and how the

farmers maintain agrodiversity during a time of globalization of the quinoa market

Humans have been breeding plants for thousands of years leading to the rise of

agriculture This breeding of plants has altered biodiversity based on human selection

Unfortunately only a small number of crops now dominate global agricultural production

and human diets which is detrimental to long-term food security Murphy et al (2016)

consider maintenance of quinoa diversity to be an imperative Many cultures including

Andean farmers have maintained lesser-known traditional crops and have a wealth of

agricultural heritage and knowledge The study of quinoa and the people who have

grown it for thousands of years offers an example of ldquohumannonhuman minglingrdquo that is

the hallmark of multispecies ethnography which focuses on how other organisms as

well as humans are shaped by cultural political and economic forces (Kirksey and

Helmreich 2010546)

In light of the long-term historical suppression of quinoa starting with Spanish

colonialists and continuing with post-colonial practices this research addresses the

question of whether intra-species quinoa diversity is being maintained during a time of

market globalization In the context of a traditionally-maintained crop that has gained

global attention the working hypothesis is that the global attention on quinoa will lead to

losses in sub-species agrodiversity due to external market demands and trends towards

monocultural practices The expectation of diversity loss is further justified by the

15

dominance of the white-colored Bolivian real variety in the market which was the initial

market entry for quinoa While aggregation of quinoa of the same variety or at least

color allows for small-scale farmers to pool their crops and contribute to the global

market this market benefit could be at the expense of agrodiversity

Traditional Andean grains grown by Peruvian farmers increasingly are served on

dinner plates across the Western world With the discovery of the excellent nutritional

benefits the quinoa boom has exploded on the market as a trendy healthy new food

source in the modern world In contrast Andeans have been farming quinoa for

thousands of years While most Andean farmers still produce quinoa using traditional

small-scale farming techniques the global demands for quinoa may be affecting within-

species diversity Thus the timing of the expansion of the quinoa market especially in

light of its multi-millennial usage is an important factor in this study

This research arises from questions that have been raised by the media about

the effects of the global demand for quinoa on local farmers such as whether their diets

have suffered due to a decrease in quinoa consumption or whether other agricultural

practices have been affected such as llama or alpaca grazing areas being converted to

quinoa fields (Eg Aubrey 2013 Romero and Shahriari 2011) More recently the

popular press has also questioned the effects that the global popularity of quinoa

specifically has had on agrodiversity with claims that ldquoExport demand has focused on

very few of the 3000 or so different varieties of quinoa prompting farmers to abandon

many of those varietiesrdquo (Cherfas 2016) While this statement about the number of

varieties of quinoa is often repeated it derives from a misunderstanding of the

difference between varieties and accessioned samples in seed banks which is explored

16

below Nevertheless it clearly raised concern for continued quinoa agrodiversity This

study focuses on the current extent of quinoa agrodiversity and how it has been

maintained and conserved by small-scale Andean farmers in the Peruvian altiplano

While this study focuses on how Andean quinoa farmers are maintaining agrodiversity

this does not imply that these farmers are solely responsible for agrodiversity

maintenance or loss but rather they are an important part of the discussion and need

to be included in discourse about future efforts to maintain or improve diversity

practices In addition their knowledge can contribute to an overall understanding of the

biodiversity of quinoa

The anthropological discourse on globalization describes various processes that

affect local communities and their culture due to the pressures of global demands for

resources originating in these communities ldquoGlobalization is a long-term uneven and

paradoxical process in which widening social cooperation and deepening inequality go

togetherrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20043-4) This study investigated the practices of small-

scale Andean farmers as well as their folk knowledge related to quinoa varieties and

how they changed in response to market globalization

Since food is very much linked to cultural identity (Weismantel 1988) quinoa

provides an excellent exemplar for studying the effects of globalization on local cultures

especially since quinoa is considered to be one of the most important food crops in the

Andes having both economic and cultural importance (Christensen et al 2007 Castillo

et al 2007) Quinoa is used as a diverse food product and is also used during ritual

festivals for consumption and to make symbolic figurines out of quinoa dough (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) In this regard quinoa is like other plants that are valued for

17

symbolic ritual and sociocultural practice rather than just for direct economic benefits

(Kawa 2012) and provides evidence that money is not always the principal factor in

decision-making With this in mind this study analyzes the cultural factors in

agrodiversity decision-making during a time of globalization of this traditional product In

acknowledging the link between traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found

that those who eat more traditional foods including quinoa maintain more farm

diversity including more crop diversity and more varieties Thus there is an association

with biodiversity and food products that have a strong cultural link to the farmer and

quinoa is a prime crop to investigate this phenomenon

Prior studies of Andean crops including the aptly titled book ldquoLost Crops of the

Incardquo (1989) described quinoa and other important crops in direct connection with the

Andean people who had a deep history with the plant

Today in the high Andes the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants who are largely pure-blooded Indian and continue to grow the crops of their forbears During the centuries they have maintained the Incarsquos food crops in the face of neglect and even scorn by much of the society around them In local markets women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than 500 years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains baskets of beans of every color and bowls containing luscious fruits At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers ndash red yellow purple even candy striped some as round and bright as billiard balls others long and thin and wrinkled These are the ldquolost crops of the Incasrdquo (NRC 19893)

The National Research Councilrsquos (NRC) comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-

blooded Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including

quinoarsquos ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and

people through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food

18

Similarly in 1990 Wilson observed the relationship between the race of people

and the status of quinoa he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed complexesrdquo

where the wild ancestral plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the domesticated

varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial areasrdquo

associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including the

Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo provided a place for both indigenous

Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes from the outside world

Wilson (1990) observed as other scientists before him that there was a strong

association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and culture and

the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and plant diversity

thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live side-by-side

Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both survived

colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency

The United Nations (ldquoUNrdquo) determined that quinoa is a product that can

contribute to food security for the worldrsquos growing population (UN 2011a) Over a

decade earlier the National Research Council commented that ldquoBecause it is now

primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing its production is a good

way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo (NRC 1989150) In

contrast the process of globalization may put local farmers and the biodiversity of the

crop at risk Given the fact that the Andean altiplano is a harsh growing environment

coupled with climate change and attendant crop risk agrodiversity effects are an

important issue in understanding local effects of globalization that could lead to long

term negative consequences

19

For this dissertation the relationship between Andean quinoa farmers and this

traditional subsistence crop was studied during a time of rapid globalization and growing

popularity of quinoa As Mintz observed ldquothe social history of the use of new foods in a

western nation can contribute to an anthropology of modern liferdquo (Mintz 1985xxviii)

Quinoa provides a classic example since it is a traditional crop with a long history

culminating in recent global popularity and demand that has affected small-scale

farmers whose product climbed onto the world stage When peripheral economies such

as that of the Andean farmers are integrated into a larger capitalist system it is usually

on unequal terms (Lewis 2005) This raises the question of the effect on the local

quinoa farmers due to the increased popularity of their crop This scenario is a classic

example of the idea that ldquoglobalization involves more intensive interaction across wider

space and in shorter time than before in other words the experience of a shrinking

worldrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20048)

The product of Andean farmers vaulted to global attention in a relatively rapid

fashion after a multi-millennial relationship with the people of the Andes What was a

long-term relationship between Andeans and quinoa was altered by outside attention

and demand Since the world has noticed quinoa what has happened to the quinoa

farmers and their relationship to quinoa To understand local farmers we need to

understand the contextual components of their relationships to external markets (Dove

2011247) especially given the strong Andean cultural identity that includes quinoa The

farmersrsquo connections to the market can include a number of points of access some of

which lead directly to the global market

20

Due to the globalization of the quinoa market the popular press has raised

concerns about changes to local diets and loss of grazing areas (Aubrey 2013 Romero

and Shafiari 2011) Much like accedilaiacute (Euterpe oleraceae Mart) from the Amazon studied

by Brondizio (2008) quinoa has rocketed onto the global market yet as Brondizio

found local farmers pejoratively called caboclos in Brazil can be disenfranchised

despite the high acclaim of their plant partner on the world stage In addition to the

farmers the global attention on quinoa can also have adverse effects on the species as

noted in the popular press with regard to the maintenance of agrodiversity of quinoa

(Cherfas 2016) Thus both farmers and their partner crop can be affected by

globalization and this study investigates some of these changes including the

relationship between the two

While globalized agriculture is often associated with large factory farms in the

Andes quinoa is primarily produced on small family farms with most of the tasks done

by hand with little mechanization through the harvesting stage (Ton and Bijman 2006)

Despite the small size of the farms they are not isolated from what Dove (2011) calls

larger networks of economic exchange Indeed the farmers in this study who live in the

remote Andes are participants in the global quinoa market Farmers are not just a

collection of individuals but rather are part of a complex system (Escobar 1991) The

social organization in rural communities can substantially influence crop biodiversity

(Leclerc and Copperns drsquoEeckenbrugge 2012) While many studies of crop agrodiversity

focus on seed selection factors related to the environment culture is also an important

factor in diversity and ultimately food security Indeed at the outset agricultural crops

were selected by humans for cultivation and ultimately domestication which

21

emphasizes the human element in agrodiversity This process is not static especially in

the context of globalization when external socially driven market demands factor into

the equation

Ecological anthropology seeks to understand the relationship between social

organizations population dynamics human culture and the environment (Orlove 1980)

Coupling ecological anthropology with biodiversity discourse further focuses the

question of human factors in biodiversity maintenance Biodiversity is important and

there is concern about the loss of plant biodiversity (FAO 1999) There has been a call

for increased emphasis for biodiversity in the agricultural landscape (Brush 1995 2005)

Past agricultural research demonstrates that commercial markets often seek out

consistent standardized products which allows for the pooling and consolidation of

crops from different farms to be aggregated and sold in bulk volumes on larger markets

The drive for a singular similar-looking product however can have agrodiversity

consequences especially if the external market seeks one look But quinoa is a

polyploid plant that produces grain with highly diverse morphological characteristics and

various colors White quinoa was the initial product popularized on the global market

through the early market entry of the Bolivian real variety The emphasis on a singular

color potentially might deleteriously affect the agrodiversity of the crop which can lead

to higher production risks for local farmers due to the harsh environment in the Andes

Thus reduced agrodiversity can have immense consequences for both local farmers

and crop agrodiversity

Historic Overview

The history of quinoa and how it reached the global market and the utilization of

quinoa in the Andes are described in Chapter 2 Quinoa provides an especially

22

interesting example because it was not adopted into European agriculture for centuries

whereas the adoption of other food crops from the Andes such as potatoes was rapid

(Maughan et al 2007) From the colonial period through the first half of the twentieth

century quinoa production was in great decline Due to its association with indigenous

rituals and its ceremonial importance quinoa was suppressed by the Spanish

colonizers although cultivation continued in remote areas with mostly indigenous

populations (Sauer 1950 Simmonds 1965 Wilson 1990) What was once derogatorily

classified as an indigenous food suppressed by European colonizers under racist

practices has transformed into a global commodity

Notions of discrimination permeate the historical treatment of quinoa and the

Andeans with an interesting joint-species racialized experience As noted by Hartigan

past discourse by cultural anthropologists in the US focused on ldquomaintaining the

bulwark between culture and biologyrdquo (2013373) especially when discussing racial

classification but this research seeks to breach that bulwark using multispecies

ethnography in an attempt to understand the relationship between Andeans and

quinoa and how this relationship which has successfully maintained quinoa diversity

for thousands of years is being affected by globalization In this study I use a

multispecies approach to this analysis which means that I investigate both the plant as

well as human culture which is especially fitting here considering the history of

discrimination that both Andeans and quinoa have jointly experienced across time due

to cultural beliefs

The second chapter addresses the biological nature of quinoa and its

complicated taxonomic history Other species of Chenopodium grow throughout the

23

world with closely related species in the US and Mexico that may provide insights into

the migrations of both the plants and their associated people (Heiser 1990)

The second chapter also describes the more recent history of quinoa and the

events that led to its international resurgence as an important food crop Plants have a

history of interactions with humans and how we think about the importance or

relevance of different plant species varies Quinoa has a unique history of suppression

by Spaniards during the Conquest to the post-colonial attitudes of quinoa as an ldquoIndian

foodrdquo to the present cultural belief in quinoa as a ldquosuper-foodrdquo Scientific investigations

of quinoa led to its current status as a food for astronauts and its increasing popularity

as a health food in the West

Quinoa has high nutritional value with more protein essential amino acids and

minerals than other cereal crops (Medina et al 2010 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) A

recent UN publication states ldquoIn countries (such as Peru and Bolivia) where malnutrition

levels are high it is essential to boost quinoa consumption in order to benefit from its

exceptional nutritional propertiesrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa has tremendous

implications for human health and food security even in countries that traditionally grow

quinoa such as Peru and Bolivia yet still have malnutrition Stunting is a problem in the

Peruvian Andes which has been linked to poor diet (Mayer 2002) providing additional

reasons to investigate this highly nutritious product

Research on quinoa has been conducted by agronomists geneticists and other

agricultural scientists with more limited anthropological research on the topic which

has been growing recently While the history of quinoa and timeliness of its global

popularity is well suited to this study it is the people and the human cultural association

24

with an important food crop that are the focus here This is a prime opportunity to

investigate debate and perhaps prevent the problems that globalized agriculture has

caused in the past

Food security is a worldwide issue and this study of the cultural aspects of

quinoa production in a globalized market can provide anthropological perspectives in

agricultural contexts The FAO Rome Declaration on World Food Security (1996)

defines global food security as follows

Food security exists when all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

This study seeks to provide information that can be used to improve food security

through the maintenance of diversity of an important food crop This research can also

inform debates about globalization of the quinoa market The intent of this study is to

reflect upon and suggest ways to mitigate the unintended consequences to local

farmers as well as to mitigate agrodiversity loss

Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices

Chapter 3 describes the present farming practices of Andean farmers based on

participant observation and interviews with quinoa farmers and experts This study

describes the continuation of traditional farming practices as well as analyzing modern

changes to these practices and how they may affect agrodiversity maintenance

The research for this dissertation was based in Puno Peru on the shores of

Lake Titicaca since that is the place of greatest genetic diversity (Medina et al 2010)

as well as where there have been archaeological discoveries of ancient quinoa (Langlie

et al 2011) Presently the main producers and exporters of quinoa are Bolivia and Peru

(Medina et al 2010) The Puno region is the main quinoa agricultural growing area in

25

the altiplano Andes of Peru is a major production area in Peru is a market exchange

location for both Peru and Bolivia and is believed to have the highest range of quinoa

agrodiversity The Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (UNAP) is located in Puno and I

obtained an official affiliation with that institution and worked with professors who had a

long history of working with quinoa farmers This study was conducted during several

extensive trips to Puno from 2012 to 2015 The initial field investigation took place

during May and June 2012 I returned to Puno from May to June in 2014 and 2015 with

the fieldwork concluding in December 2015 While I was based in the City of Puno I

traveled to the nearby farms and villages in the Puno region including Cabana

Cabanillas Juli Juliaca Ilave Kilca Chucuito and Desaguadero

I primarily gathered information from farmers (N=66) student farmers (N=24)

and professors at the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (N=10) In addition to these

100 participants I conducted numerous informal interviews with quinoa wholesale

vendors government officials farmers at farmers markets fair participants three field

researchers and relatives of two of the university professors

Since I obtained an affiliation with the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano I was

introduced to numerous professors who were linked to quinoa research in various ways

The expertise of the professors was varied and included anthropology agronomy food

safety entomology and animal science I worked extensively with two professors ndash Dr

Marco Aro and Dr Aacutengel Mujicamdashthroughout this process Two additional professors

took me to their family farms where I observed their practices and informally interviewed

their relatives although they did not participate in the formal agrodiversity surveys since

it was early in the research process For the professor group I conducted interviews

26

with each of the 10 professors to gain insight and information on various aspects of

quinoa and culture This information ranged from cultural traditions to pest problems

with the crop I also sought to find an existing list of quinoa varieties upon which I could

base my agrodiversity inventory and research but was unable to locate one as further

described in my research findings

Working with Dr Mujica I participated in the agricultural field school in

Camacani where students were taught to harvest quinoa at the university research

station Twenty-three of the student farmers participated in formal surveys during this

field school and one additional student participated in the survey who did not attend this

field session In addition to the student surveys I participated in the harvest where I

took many photographs and extensively interviewed Dr Mujica In 2015 I also went on

a three-day field trip with a group of agricultural students to Arequipa Majes and

surrounding communities I obtained the additional student survey from one of these

participants who also assisted in providing farmer contacts

The first group of non-student farmers that I worked with were a convenience

sample of 31 farmers who attended a meeting conducted by Dr Mujica in the city of

Puno Since this was a convenience sample it had some bias and is not necessarily a

representative sample of all farmers in the region because they were associated with an

outreach program affiliated with the University and had the means to travel to the city

for the meeting Due to travel constraints I was not able to individually interview this set

of farmers

Towards the end of the meeting I explained my research project by going

through the Institutional Review Board-approved disclosures and request for consent

27

After answering a few questions including one question about compensation and why

they should help me for free I conducted a formal agrodiversity survey of 31 of the

farmers present who were primarily of Aymara ethnicity Several farmers declined to

participate for unknown reasons although I suspect one reason was that they could not

write another bias in this sample selection All but one of these farmers were men

Thus it was not a random sample and was skewed in both gender roles as well as in

individual motivation availability education or opportunity to travel to Puno for a

meeting

The second group of farmers that I worked with were affiliated with COOPAIN

the local cooperative located in the town of Cabana which is a small town north of the

city of Puno COOPAIN stands for Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash

Cabana COOPAIN is a democratically run organization with elections each year It is

organized into two committees the ManagementAdministration Committee and the

Oversight Committee Each committee has four members three permanent and one

substitute member Under the ManagementAdministration Committee are four

subcommittees Production Education Womenrsquos and Election each with the same

membership size and structure

The education committee focused on promotion of growing quinoa and joining

COOPAIN The education committee was primarily concerned with young people

getting involved in farming to replace the aging farmer population This concern with the

future of farming and the need to attract or keep young people in farming is an important

issue for the continuation of quinoa farming in the altiplano At the education meetings

they answer questions from the audience and also discuss climate change

28

At this cooperative farmers bring their harvested quinoa to the small factory for

processing and refinement The farmers process the quinoa in the field which includes

threshing sifting and winnowing prior to bringing their production to the cooperative in

large bags The cooperative further processes the quinoa by washing the quinoa and

removing the saponins and sorting the quinoa by color These processes will be further

described in the following chapters The cooperative distributes to the national and

global market although sales direct to consumers are also available at the remote

factory COOPAIN provides access to the globalized market due to marketing efforts

that connects the small farmers to the larger market COOPAIN maintains a market

presence through its connections with non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

international and local researchers the press its own outreach programs as well as a

website Since the farmer-members of COOPAIN were selling their crops on the global

market it offered a unique opportunity to see the effects of globalization on the local

farmers and quinoa agrodiversity While the COOPAIN facility is located in Cabana the

members live in the small communities in the surrounding region and they bring their

harvests to Cabana The meetings regarding the operation of COOPAIN occur in

Cabana and this tiny town was a central location for finding participants for this study

A total of 35 farmers affiliated with COOPAIN participated in this study I

personally met with 21 of the 35 farmers conducting a formal survey and semi-

structured interviews The additional 14 farmer participants were surveyed by student

volunteers that both Dr Aro and I trained to interview the participants gather and

record consistent data and demographics using a written interview guide In addition to

the surveys and interviews I observed the manufacturing practices at COOPAIN and

29

met with the management and leadership on several occasions conducting formal

informational and background interviews

As noted above across the period of this study I gathered information from a

variety of more informal sources I visited farmersrsquo markets and also investigated the

local food stores to gather pricing and marketing data on quinoa I attended two

agricultural fairs and observed the display of quinoa products and the competition

regarding quinoa food recipes I met with two governmental officials in Puno to gather

data on regional quinoa production I also visited the Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten

Agraria (INIA) to observe their quinoa research station and interviewed a government

official running the program The information I gathered from INIA related to quinoa

agrodiversity and they had many samples on display in the office I asked for a list of

the quinoa varieties and was told that the information was in their recent publication

which I purchased It turned out that the publication was not quite as helpful or

comprehensive as I had hoped as further discussed in Chapter 4

Agrodiversity and Globalization

Chapter 4 describes the investigation into agrodiversity conservation practices

during globalization of the quinoa market There are several components to this study

to evaluate the agrodiversity of quinoa the first component of this research was to

develop a list of quinoa varieties especially since my research discovered that a

published comprehensive list did not already exist While the popular press reported

thousands of quinoa varieties (eg Cherfas 2016) I discovered that the term ldquovarietyrdquo

was mistakenly used for ldquoaccessionsrdquo associated with seed bank collections which are

not necessarily separate varieties for each accession Thus the number of purported

quinoa varieties was both undocumented and inflated Without the collection of accurate

30

or existing data to use as a starting point I re-tooled my research to establish a set of

data from which I could evaluate the present state of agrodiversity of quinoa and its

relationship to Andean farming culture

To establish a starting point for quinoa agrodiversity I conducted a study of local

quinoa farmers and asked them to list the quinoa varieties that they had grown over the

past two years I also reviewed published research to create a comprehensive list of

quinoa names As research progressed additional varieties were added to the list after

consulting with quinoa experts to determine if the new names were indeed a different

type or just another name for a previously-listed variety Thus this component of the

study created the comprehensive quinoa variety domain

While this research started with an investigation into quinoa variety diversity it

became apparent that the nomenclature for categories within species at least for

quinoa is an area that needs further refinement and consensus which is evaluated in

Chapter 4 While I started this research using the term ldquovarietyrdquo it became readily

apparent that the use of that term was less than clear In Chapter 4 I discuss the race-

based classification systems that have been proposed by Peruvian researchers which

provides an intermediate level of taxonomic classification between species and variety

sometimes referred to as landrace which is a loosely defined term associated with

varieties developed by farmers rather than commercial organizations

The next component of the study was to interview and survey farmers about their

quinoa farming practices including quinoa variety selection This component of the

research investigated the number of different quinoa varieties grown during the recent

season the variety selection and the reasons for both seed selection and variety

31

selection by the farmers This chapter describes the factors involved in variety selection

such as yield environmental conditions culinary qualities as well as seed availability

and the importance of those reasons The sources for seeds are also analyzed as well

as the maintenance of quinoa agrodiversity on the farms To determine a comparative

and current evaluation of the variety yields during the 2014-2015 growing season I also

describe an experiment conducted by Dr Mujica at UNAP and compare it to the

dominant quinoa varieties that were in production during the time of this study

In addition to the compilation of the list I also researched the reasons for

selection of both the varieties as well as how seeds themselves are selected Since

Andean farmers have had to address a high-risk environment for thousands of years

this study investigated the cultural adaptations in seeking to benefit from the global

demand of a local product while still reducing economic risk under current climatic

conditions Producing a crop that can survive the growing season and producing a crop

that is commercially desired may not necessarily be congruent so the selection factors

were investigated to understand the trade-offs and analysis that could affect

agrodiversity maintenance

External market factors may be the reason for lack of crop agrodiversity

maintenance External consumer-driven preferences can influence the market as well

as agrodiversity which Kawa et al (2013) found in their study of social networks of

Amazonian manioc farmers They found that two crop characteristics were desired for

the manioc market high biomass and yellow color As a result varieties that produced

large manioc tubers of a yellow color were selected by farmers for production to the

external market explaining a lower agrodiversity than found in non-market contexts

32

Thus external market demands such as varieties with preferred colors can affect

agrodiversity through human selection In the Andes due to the higher prices for

quinoa other researchers found that farmers were selling their quinoa crops rather than

using them solely for their familiesrsquo consumption (Hellin and Higman 2005) Thus

quinoa is also being grown for the market and therefore the characteristics of the end

product are subject to market pressures and consumer preferences such as preferred

color as well as yield or biomass The dominance of the white sweet flavored large-

grained Bolivian real variety in the international market exemplifies external market

pressures related to color and biomass as well as flavor Color and biomass are but a

few examples of the diverse characteristics of quinoa and a range of other

characteristics are desired for other traditional Andean uses which are described in

Chapter 2

Seed selection is of great importance in agricultural and survival strategies (Tuxill

et al 2010) Andean farms tend to be highly diversified (Zimmerer 2003) The farm

diversity is implemented by using various ecological zones across the terrain (Jacoby

1992) The reason for such high diversity is due to the extreme climate and high risk of

potential crop failure By planting varieties that thrive under various climatic conditions

a harvest is more likely to succeed since at least some of the seeds will thrive in any

given range of climatic conditions (Tuxill et al 2010 Rivera 1998) Thus farmers often

select seeds based on different criteria including color as well as other factors such as

early ripening and yield (Rosero et al 2010 Tuxill et al 2010) Thus while agrodiversity

maintenance is a traditional risk-averting strategy findings also imply that other market-

based or aesthetic factors such as color influence seed selection This research tested

33

these previous findings regarding agrodiversity conservation practices among small-

scale farmers

Due to globalization the concern is the early market entry established limited

characteristics related to color and perhaps sweet taste that could influence Andean

farmersrsquo conservation practices In the global quinoa market the white colored quinoa

Bolivian real is the dominant variety (Castillo et al 2007) and is widely available in US

supermarkets Due to the consumer and market driven desire for a consistent product

the harvests from multiple farms can be collected and managed in a large scale

benefiting larger organizations and distributors Thus commercialized large scale

distribution practices can have the effect of inhibit biodiversity while at the same time

allowing for market entry and competition If farmers grow sweet white quinoa since it is

in demand by the market and discontinue growing the other varieties then there would

be consequences for in situ agrodiversity maintenance

In the past but not that long after quinoa gained global recognition it was

reported that local Andean peasants preserved their biodiversity practices (Apffel-

Marglin 1998) These varieties were often used for subsistence personal and

community purposes with the certain varieties including commercially produced

varieties grown for the external commercial market (Apffel-Marglin 1998) However

due to the more recent global market pressures the observations of Apffel-Marglin

(1998) need to be tested to see if they continue to hold true Quite recently Skarbo

(2015) documented a loss of quinoa diversity in Ecuador in association with

development projects linked to commercialized quinoa varieties raising an alarm for the

preservation of quinoa diversity during what she calls a ldquoquinoa Renaissancerdquo A goal of

34

this study is to analyze these notions of food security and agrobiodiversity in the context

of quinoa variety selection during a time of dramatic price increase In Chapter 4 I also

analyze to a very limited degree the differing roles of men and women in quinoa

agrodiversity conservation and the importance of local experts

In summary this research investigated the historical and current farming

practices that affect agrodiversity maintenance of quinoa during a time of globalization

in the context of culturally-laden meaning due to the long-term beneficial mutual

relationship between quinoa and Andean farmers The dissertation tells the unique

history of this co-evolving relationship between Andeans and quinoa from

domestication thousands of years ago through Spanish suppression of both humans

and quinoa through lingering post-colonial attitudes against ldquodirty Indiansrdquo and ldquoIndian

foodrdquo through the present worldwide acclaim and attention focused on quinoa but not

necessarily its human partners in survival This story involves the success of Andean

people who have not only survived in a harsh climate but have survived through harsh

aspects of human history The mutually-beneficial relationship between Andeans and

quinoa is a survival story that has not concluded Andean farmers cultivated and

nurtured quinoa through thousands of years of harvests resulting in human selection

playing a substantial role in the evolution of the crop alongside other genetic influences

such as natural selection gene flow mutation and genetic drift The result is a highly

diverse species that survived despite competition with introduced crops and animal

husbandry as well as intentional Spanish suppression In return quinoa provided

Andean farmers with a highly nutritious crop that can both thrive in the harsh

environment and also be stored for many years This research looks at the

35

agrodiversity methods farmers use in selecting the types of quinoa to grow during a time

of global pressure to increase production of the crop which can decrease agrodiversity

maintenance through the use of monoculture-type practices adopted from Western

agricultural practices This research has resulted in a compilation of names of different

quinoa varieties to establish a varietal domain to facilitate further investigation into

agrodiversity of the crop I discuss the agrodiversity practices including reasons for

variety selection as well as seed selection I present a survey of current quinoa variety

selection and discuss it in the context of the larger domain of quinoa types and the

future implications for agrodiversity maintenance Thus while monoculture-type

practices have clearly influenced Andean farming practices as demonstrated by the

dominance of the white Bolivian real variety there are ways to prevent further

agrodiversity loss which would be a loss not only to the species but to their millennial-

long partners ndash Andean farmers

36

CHAPTER 2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People

This chapter traces the history of agrodiversity and quinoa in Peru to place the

present status of the globalized quinoa market in historical perspective Quinoa has a

long-term connection among Andean people and a review of the history of the human-

plant relationship explains why and how an agricultural product which was once little

known outside of the Andes attained great global acclaim and associated market

expansion This chapter addresses the questions of what is quinoa and how is it

associated with human culture This chapter describes the botanical nature of quinoa

its taxonomic place and the problems with the classification of varieties as well as the

nutritional benefits and uses it provides to people This chapter also describes the

natural biodiversity and plasticity of the species as well as the effects that history has

had on the survival and success of this plant and what this information may indicate

about the present and future conservation practices

In the Andes there is a diversity of geography and ecology as well as cultures

Peru has a large variety of plants amounting to about 10 of the total plants in the

world Perursquos diverse floral regime includes about 25000 species 128 domesticated

plants and 4400 native species with known uses ranging from food to medicinal to

cosmetic (Powell and Chavarro 2008) The presence of a variety of climates and

ecozones in the Andes favors the generation and maintenance of genetic diversity

(Rivera 1998) This fact alone however does not account for the high rate of diversity

The presence of Andean culture that supports the observation and nurturance of plants

is a key factor in the development of a wide variety of domesticated plants (Rivera

37

1998) Thus humans are an important factor in the generation and maintenance of

biodiversity and Andean cosmology has a role in the successful maintenance of plant

diversity

Plant domestication signified by changes that rely upon human intervention for

continued survival is considered a key factor in the understanding of past human

behavior related to the rise of agriculture Domestication can result in the alteration of

plant life cycles such as reduction in dormancy enhancement of seedling vigor or

enhancement of stored food reserves in seeds and loss of dispersal mechanisms

(Gremillion 1993) A notable difference between domestic and wild plants is that the

latter lack seed dormancy (DeWet and Harlan 1975) Selective pressures linked to

reduced seed dormancy can encourage quick sprouting after planting and increase

survival (Smith 1995) The outer epidermis or testa has an important role in seed

development since it controls imbibition of water and hence seed germination (Smith

1995) The testa thus prevents premature germination in nature and a reduced outer

seed coat testa allow early germination (Gremillion 1993) Domesticated quinoa has a

thin seed coat and is one of the key ways that archaeologists can determine if an

archaeological sample is from a wild or domesticated plant The thin seed coat versions

cannot survive without human intervention even in the Andes (Wilson 1981) and thus

seed coat thickness is an important indicator of domestication The thin seed coat in

domesticated chenopods is the key factor in distinguishing wild from domesticated

versions and hence human intervention

The development of agriculture demonstrates the importance and contribution of

traditional ecological knowledge by farmers in Peru Agriculture developed

38

independently in several disparate locations across the globe One of the most

important locations is the Andes The Andes are one of Vavilovrsquos ldquocenters of

domesticationrdquo (Murphy 2007) including the domestication of 45 species of plants

which is more than all of the domesticated plants in Europe at the time of contact with

the Americas (Rivera 1998)

Many agricultural products were first domesticated in the Andes including

potatoes and quinoa There are 3500 different varieties of potatoes grown in the Andes

(Apffel-Marglin 1998) One province in the Peruvian Andes has more potato diversity

than the entire North American continent (Brush 2005) While potatoes are a well-known

agricultural product of the Andes there are other plants that have gained recent

notoriety Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) kaniwa or canihua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L) also known as amaranth or

love-lies-bleeding were domesticated in Peru thousands of years ago (Langlie et al

2011) More recently however the global community became more informed about the

excellent nutritional value of these products (Repo-Carrasco 2003 Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Massawe et al 2016 Gordillo-Bastidas et al 2016) and demand is at an all-time

high (Jacobsen 2011) Quinoa has become a household word in the US and can be

found at local grocery stores This chapter will review the co-evolving history of humans

and quinoa agrodiversity in Peru along with the cultural significance and scientific

discoveries about this plant

The Fox and the Condor

The Andean people have a unique relationship with quinoa and it is involved in

ritual uses and ceremonies and is a part of Andean cosmology I was told an origin

story by an Aymara participant in this study According to ancient lore in a story called

39

The Fox and the Condor quinoa was responsible for saving the Andean people from

starving recounted below

The fox meets with the condor and wants to go to Pati which is the sky The

condor tells the fox that he must be respectful when he is there and not take or touch

anything The fox agrees and he rides on the condor to Pati When they arrive the fox

sees food and violates the agreement by eating all the food The food was there for a

ceremony but when the others arrive the food was all gone because the fox ate it The

others decide to send the fox back to earth so they prepare a rope to lower the fox back

to earth While the fox was being lowered back to earth about half way down the fox

says some bad things The others then decide to cut the cord and the fox falls to the

earth with his body exploding upon impact Since the foxrsquos stomach was full all of the

food spread across the land including the Andean grains of quinoa kantildeiwa kiwicha

and all the other Andean foods That is why these grains are called the food of the gods

ndash since they fell from the sky If any of these grains are found growing out of fox feces it

is considered good Today traditional Andean people say ldquoquinoa is our liferdquo as

described by a participant since quinoa provides sustenance for their survival

This story which is one of many about quinoa demonstrates the importance of

the native Andean foods in their cosmology as well as survival Andeans understand

the life-sustaining role quinoa and other Andean grains have in their ability to continue

living in the otherwise harsh environment

What is Quinoa

Quinoa or quinua the Spanish spelling of the word (C quinoa Willd) is a

domesticated plant that grows in both the Andes and at lower elevations in South

America and is now being grown in many countries around the world Quinoa is a

40

pseudo-cereal that has been used by South Americans for thousands of years While a

primary use is similar to grains since it is often used to make flour among other things

it is not a grass but rather is a weedy species and inhabits disturbed soil environments

(Wilson 1990) Thus quinoa is an opportunistic species which may account for its wide

variation and adaption to various climates and micro-climates

Depending on growing conditions quinoa plant height can vary from 20 cm to 2

m tall (Simmonds 1965) One gram of grains can have between 250 and 520 fruits

(Simmonds 1965) and thus the yields can be quite different Along with weight quinoa

grains also vary in size with the grain area varying from 256 to 51 mmsup2 (Medina et al

2010) again a factor that can affect yield a factor that is used by farmers for selection

discussed in later chapters Another characteristic of quinoa is that in the domesticated

varieties seed dormancy is absent and germination is rapid (Simmonds 1965) as

previously noted in the context of archaeological samples Thus the quinoa grain

exhibits a wide range of morphology which diversity is not just limited to the grains

Quinoa flowers in a variety of colors and shades of those colors The most widely

known colors are white red and black In 1960 JL Lescano described 42 color tones

and 7 basic colors of quinoa white red purple yellow gray brown and black (Ayala

Olazaacutebal 2015) Additional colors include pink orange and green Thus quinoa has a

wide range of color variation which reflects the diversity of the species at an easily

detectible morphological level Thus for human selection the color of the flower or the

grain can be used to distinguish varieties and to use as a marker for identifying co-

related characteristics beyond color

41

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species

The purpose of taxonomic classification is to facilitate comprehension and

communicate ideas about the relationship of organisms to each other (Stevens 2002)

ldquoHierarchical naming systems pervade our whole language and thought and from this

point of view the Linnaean hierarchy is simply one such systemrdquo (Stevens 200212)

Taxonomies are not just simple descriptions but contain embedded theories about

natural order based on human perceptions of nature (Gould 2000) Thus human beliefs

and perceptions influence taxonomic categorization in attempts to organize and

understand species diversity This concept holds especially true as it relates to the on-

going categorization of varieties in the efforts to understand a diverse species such as

quinoa and its variety of usefulness to humans

Taxonomically quinoa is a member of the Amaranthaceae family The

Amaranthaceae family has dicotyledonous plants that are often halophytic herbs which

are salt-tolerant (Bhargava et al 2009) The chenopods used to be classified in the

Chenopodiaceae family but are now classified in the Amaranthaceae family with

Chenopodiaceae being a sub-family Thus there is a history of confusion and change

regarding the scientific classification of quinoa

Especially in older accounts quinoa and other chenopods have sometimes been

misidentified in the literature as being in the genus Amaranthus (Ford 1981) For

example quinoa has also been mis-identified as Amaranthus caudatus (Simmonds

1965) locally known as kiwicha and indeed this same error occurred during my field

work as further described in Chapter 4 This misidentification makes it difficult to

establish the early history of quinoa based on travelersrsquo accounts and colonial reports

In addition and more recently paleobotanical analysis of pollen often identifies the

42

pollen to the family level as Amaranthaceae rather than to genus thus limiting the

usefulness of such studies to the extent the precise species and variety is needed for

analysis

Finally another reason for the great difficulty in classifying some chenopods is

due to their polyploidy ldquoThe reasons for the taxonomic difficulties are the usual ones

encountered in polyploid complexes involving annual weedy groups viz marked

phenotypic plasticity parallel evolution and putative hybridizationrdquo (Rahiminejad and

Gornal 2004) Thus while polyploidy can lead to great diversity classification systems

attempt to be static and the classification history of quinoa demonstrates the foibles of

attempting to categorize dynamic plants Hartigan (2013) talks about the plasticity of

genomes of which quinoa is a good example The plasticity of quinoa has led to great

agrodiversity of the crop which will be discussed infra yet makes it difficult to classify in

a hierarchical system Considering the problems with classifying quinoa at a genus and

species level attempts to organize quinoa at the variety level for purposes of studying

and evaluating variety diversity are similarly problematic as further discussed in

Chapter 4

Quinoa is a tetraploid (Pickersgill 2007) which means that it is a polyploid plant

that has four times the number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus rather than a single

pair of chromosomes like humans have As a polyploid plant quinoa has genetic

complexity that can contribute to great intra-species diversity

Quinoa is a member of the Chenopodium genus which contains at least 250

species (Rana et al 2010) Other chenopods are present in other parts of the old and

new worlds In Europe lambsquarter or fat hen (C album L) was grown but apparently

43

was not a substantial crop in early history likely due to the availability of other grass

crops that can thrive at the lower elevations (Simmonds 1965) In China C giganticum

is grown for many uses (Maughan et al 2006) and thus the Chenopodium genus is

spread across the globe

Quinoa was assigned to the Chenopodium taxa as its place in the Linnaean

classification system in 1797 and two hundred years later was described as having

ldquoarchaic relictual and rather mysterious elements of the world of ethnoflorardquo (Wilson

199093) Quinoa was initially was thought to be a unique New World domesticated

Chenopodium species but in 1917 it was determined that a second domesticated

Chenopodium species C nuttalliae existed in domesticated form in Mexico (Wilson

and Heiser 1979) and thus quinoa has relatives in other parts of the New World

Alongside quinoa canihua (or kaniwa) (C pallidacuale Aellen) also grows in the Andes

Canihua can grow at higher altitudes and withstands cold better than quinoa (Repo-

Carrasco-Valencia et al 2009)

In Mexico C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae Moq is present in both domesticated and

wild forms This species has three well-known varieties known as huauzontle quelite

and chia roja (Wilson 1981 Glore 2006) In North America goosefoot (C berlandieri

ssp jonesium Moq) was also domesticated but the domesticated variety is now extinct

Wild goosefoot species including C berlandieri ssp zschackei C bushianum C

boscianum and C macrocalycium are present in North America (Maughan et al 2006

Ford 1981) The two most discussed North American species are C berlandieri ssp

zschackei and C bushianum Chenopodium berlandieri ssp zschackei extends across

the US west of the Mississippi as well as the Gulf coast and east of the Mississippi into

44

Wisconsin Illinois Michigan and part of Indiana and is infrequently in Mississippi

Alabama Georgia Florida and the Carolinas (Smith 1992) Chenopodium bushianum

has larger fruits (often called grains) and its geographical range includes much of the

Northeast and Midwest and has been found in Tennessee Alabama and South

Carolina (Smith 1992) The Chenopodium genus has a great number of species that

grow all over the world demonstrating its plasticity

It appears that quinoa was domesticated independently from goosefoot (C

berlandieri) and huauzontle (C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae) (Rana et al 2010 Pickersgill

2007) however it is not yet conclusive whether goosefoot and huauzontle were

domesticated independently (Pickersgill 2007 cf Ford 1981) Past genetic analysis

indicated that another North American species C berlandieri ssp zschackei may be

more closely related to quinoa and may perhaps be an intermediate subspecies

between quinoa and huauzontle (Rana et al 2010) especially since hybrids of quinoa

and C berlandieri ssp zschackei can produce fertile offspring (Maughan et al 2006)

Notably the three New World species discussed above quinoa goosefoot and

huauzontle are all tetraploids (Rahiminejad and Gornall 2009) which can account for

great genetic diversity It has been suggested that quinoa and C berlandieri ssp

zschackei as allotetraploids may share a common ancestor (Rana et al 2010)

Recently the quinoa genome was sequenced and compared to other species

including C berlandieri (goosefoot) C hircinum and C pallidicuale (kaniwa) The

quinoa genome has 44776 genes and the genomic analysis revealed that original

ancestry included the hybridization of two diploids labelled A of likely North American

origin and B of likely Eurasian origin (Jarvis et al 2016) This tetraploidization split

45

occurred 33 to 63 million years ago although Jarvis et al (2016) noted that there has

been some recombination between the A and B sub-genomes across time Now that the

quinoa genome has been sequenced additional genetic analysis can lead to further

hybridization of the species which may lead to more involvement by global agro-

industrial corporations which thus far have had limited success in tapping into the

quinoa market from a production standpoint While there are many smaller companies

involved in quinoa production including growing and marketing quinoa products the

large multi-national corporations that dominate many agricultural systems do not

presently dominate the quinoa market and do not grow significant yields or otherwise

dominate the quinoa market at the sales or distribution level The genetic manipulation

of quinoa can lead to the creation of new varieties that are qualified to receive a patent

and will surely bring significant changes to the global quinoa market in the future

History of Quinoa in the Andes

Humans have had a direct relationship with quinoa for thousands of years

Quinoa is a domesticated species with human selection occurring perhaps as early as

15000 years ago (Wilson 1990) although that date is not confirmed by the

archaeological record While the precise time when human manipulation of quinoa

plants began is unknown archaeological evidence indicates that quinoa was an

important agricultural product by the Formative Period 2000 BC in Peru (Bruno 2008)

Quinoa use pre-dates the Inca and Wari ceremonial vases have figures of quinoa on

them (Tapia et al 201413) Archaeologists continue to investigate Bolivian and

Peruvian archaeological sites with regard to the archaeobotany of the Lake Titicaca

Basin (Langlie et al 2011 Rumold 2010 Whitehead 2007) providing additional depth

of history and knowledge of the inception of agriculture and domestication of quinoa

46

Quinoa is often marketed in the US as the food of the Inca gods due to its

current cachet and popularity in Western diets thus associating it with its deep historical

association with a famous civilization Over the past several decades quinoa has

vaulted from a crop threatened with extinction to a popular food product readily

available in grocery stores across the US and elsewhere in the world The reputation of

quinoa has gone from low status ldquoIndian foodrdquo to high status health food The

relationship between humans and quinoa has evolved across time and is a dynamic

fluid relationship As Medin and Atran state ldquoMuch of human history has been spent

(and is being spent) in intimate contact with plants and animals and it is difficult to

imagine that human cognition would not be molded by that factrdquo (Medin and Atran

19991) The human-quinoa interspecies relationship can provide insight into the

concepts of biodiversity through understanding the knowledge of the people who have

been connected in time and space with the plant

Historically the three major agricultural foods in the Andes were maize potatoes

and quinoa (Wilson 1990) However there are limitations on growing food at elevations

over 10000 feet where quinoa is harvested (Simmonds 1965) While quinoa and

potatoes are grown in the altiplano corn is rarely grown with any success due to the

harsh climate Of these three products both corn and potato were adopted into

European diets during the colonial period but not so for quinoa and today corn and

potatoes rank among the most widely grown food products across the world

Quinoa was an important food crop in the Andes at the time of European contact

(Simmonds 1965) Quinoa was sacred to the Incas who called it chisiya mama or

mother grain (NRC 1989149) Quinoa was considered to have significance to the Inca

47

above other crops (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Quinoa was used by the Inca to produce

fermentation of chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of

harvest and sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and

so ensure prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Figure 2-1 is a depiction of Pachamama

holding quinoa based on an undated bronze artifact from an archaeological context in

Argentina

Figure 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches -Image credit Mintzer 193360

Thus quinoa was closely linked to spiritual beliefs and ritual practices at the time of

European contact The production of chicha using quinoa continues today as does the

reverence for Pachamama

48

Perhaps due to its ritual role Europeans did not adopt quinoa into their

agriculture (Maughan et al 2007) Plants can be perceived as having magic (Kawa

2012) In articulating several reasons for the decline in quinoa production Mujica et al

(2013) specifically listed magic

The conquistadores fear the lsquomagic quinoarsquo They believed that consuming quinoa and the religious ceremonies with quinoa were the same and they might attribute extraordinary forces to the Indians and endanger the conquest (Mujica et al 201311) This colonial concern that a plant could have the ability to empower people thus

threatening colonial conquest and domination caused the Spaniards to engage in

discrimination and suppression against quinoa to suppress this perceived powerful

alliance between quinoa and Andeans Ceremonial and ritually significant indigenous

foods such as quinoa were ldquotargeted for extinctionrdquo during the Spanish colonial period

(Wilson 1990108) European colonization dramatically affected quinoa production

relegating it to a low status food associated with the indigenous population with its

production shrinking in range through much of the 20th century (Wilson 1990)

Instead of being adopted into European cuisine quinoa remained an indigenous

local food In a report by the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG Kew) in 1909 it was

noted that quinoa was a food of the ldquoIndians or the laboring classesrdquo (RBG Kew 1909)

providing an example of the discrimination against people eating quinoa and it was

considered ldquoIndian foodrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 201526 Bazile et al 2014) a derogatory

reference based on continuing neocolonial mind-sets that considered Indians to be

inferior to either the white or the mestizo population Based on recent ethnographic

research at least in Puno quinoa sometimes is still perceived as food for poor people

with rich people eating rice noodles and chicken (Aguumlero Garcia 2014) although

49

quinoa is marketed to tourists today and there is a strong native Peruvian food

revitalization movement Thus while the production of quinoa was suppressed by the

Spaniards due to its ritual use along with neo-colonial perceptions of low social status

associated with Indians that lingered until recent globalization and coupled with

competition from other newly introduced crops as well as animals quinoa production

declined except in Andean regions where its cultural significance survived European

contact and neo-colonial discrimination against indigenous Andeans and quinoa

Besides the history of suppression and racism associated with ldquoIndian foodrdquo

another reason postulated for the reduction in quinoa production was the introduction of

sheep and cattle as alternative sources of protein (Mujica et al 2013) The increased

competition with broad beans oats and barley is yet another reason for the past decline

in quinoa production (Wilson 1990) In 1990 Wilson remarked that ldquothis leafy grain

apparently failed in direct global competition with the true cerealsrdquo (Wilson 199096)

although at the time of Wilsonrsquos publication the trend was changing and he was

apparently referring to the earlier decline across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This fact however has changed since then While Europeans failed to recognize the

value of quinoa for hundreds of years South American indigenous communities

continued to cultivate quinoa Thus much of the traditional indigenous knowledge is still

present in these farming communities and can be key to the conservation of the

biodiversity Cultural traditions therefore are very important in the understanding of

Andean agriculture and ecosystems

Perhaps quinoarsquos symbolic representation of Inca or indigenous culture coupled

with the time-consuming processing required to remove the toxic saponins (Safford

50

1968 [1915]) dissuaded Europeans from adopting quinoa into their diets Consuming

quinoa without first removing the saponins which requires vigorous abrasion of the

seeds and washing with water can have unpleasant effects on the digestive tract as

well as having an unpleasant bitter taste Either reason or perhaps both may have

contributed to the European rejection of quinoa starting with colonial times

While Europeans failed to recognize the value of quinoa for hundreds of years

South American indigenous communities managed to maintain quinoa as a

domesticated plant for personal and local consumption Indigenous Andean women are

responsible for approximately 70 of agricultural work (Tapia and De La Torre 1997)

so it is likely that women were the conservators of quinoa knowledge and diversity

through silent resistance to colonial domination Thus despite the rejection of quinoa by

European colonizers quinoa survived in remote indigenous populations that

maintained traditional knowledge and practices

While quinoa was not adopted into European cuisine it has been described

across time in various reports emanating from the Andes by European and American

explorers and scientists In 1551 Spaniard Pedro Valdivia described fields of Chilean

quinoa which he called quingua (Wilson 1990) Other early explorers including

Garcilaso de la Vega also described quinoa and stated that it resembled millet or short-

grained rice (Mujica et al 2013) Such descriptions continued into the 19th and 20th

centuries (eg Ledesma and Bollaert 1856 Jameson 1861 Forbes 1870 Milstead

1928) Ledesman and Bollaert (1856) noted that quinoa was grown on the island of

Lake Titicaca Forbes (1870) noted the different varieties of quinoa that were yellow

red and white and called it Inca rice a hint at the diversity of the crop while

51

acknowledging that it was a Chenopodium species In 1891 Safford observed the time-

consuming processing of quinoa grains in Bolivia and found it to have good flavor

(Safford 1968 [1915]) In 1931 Standley noted that quinoa was a common crop in the

Andes due to its edible seeds Thus across time explorers and researchers took note of

quinoa although it was not adopted into European cuisine and therefore not widely

known

While indigenous Andeans maintained local quinoa production botanists

continued to explore species across the globe including lesser-known plants In the

1800s Alexander von Humboldt observed that quinoa was like ldquolsquowine was to the

Greeks wheat to the Romans cotton to the Arabsrsquordquo (NRC 1989151) Quinoa was a

plant that was observed by scientists known and classified yet was not otherwise well-

known to global consumers maintaining an air of mystery to it What was this plant that

the Spaniards rejected yet that still managed to survive

In 1909 the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens issued a short report on quinoa and

noted an interest by Americans for potential import into the US (RBG Kew 1909) In

1928 quinoa was described in a published survey of Peruvian agricultural crops

(Milstead 1928) At that time it was reported to be grown in small patches but spread

out across the landscape of farms Milstead noted that quinoa provides ldquoa palatable and

nutritious article of food for the highland Indiansrdquo (Milstead 1928101) although he does

not otherwise describe how he came to the conclusion that it was a nutritious food In a

Spanish language publication Mintzer (1933) published an extensive article on the

botanical cultural and agronomic characteristics of quinoa including study in the

Peruvian altiplano and included nutritional data Mintzer (1933) also noted the presence

52

of different varieties that could be distinguished by pigmentation and ecological zone

growing conditions a noteworthy acknowledgement of the agrodiversity based on both

color and environment in which he used the terms ldquovarietiesrdquo and ldquoracesrdquo somewhat

interchangeably

While there were prior hints at the nutritional value of quinoa (eg Milstead

1928) over the past fifty years or more there have been ongoing studies of the

nutritional values of quinoa (Eg Repo-Carrasco 1991 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003

Repo de Carrasco 2014 Villa et al 2014) Much of this scholarship is based in South

America often presented at conferences but not often published in scholarly journals

and rarely in English language journals Between 1970 and 1986 there were at least 43

published papers about quinoa over half of which were in Spanish and most of which

were published in gray literature (Rafats 1986) While there was much information about

quinoa in the South American scholarly articles and gray literature not all of it is widely

distributed or easily accessible which may have also delayed its explosion onto the

world market until the scientific analysis was more widely-accessible More widespread

publications of the nutritional benefits of quinoa in English language articles along with

the growing popularity of health foods in the US and Europe led to the rise in global

consumption

The rejection of quinoa continued well past Spanish colonial domination and in

1950 Sauer reported that quinoa has now retreated from the extremities of its earlier

range but is still a characteristic food plant of the Inca-dominated Highlands (Sauer

1950) In the mid-1960s it was also reported that quinoa was in decline in Ecuador

Chile and Argentina and absent in Columbia (Simmonds 1965) In 1965 Simmonds

53

reported that quinoa had excellent protein content especially as compared to other

cereals and noted that ldquothe uses to which this plant are put are intimately bound up with

the lore and customs of the people that grow themrdquo (232) Again the nutritional value of

quinoa was noted in the scientific literature without much acclaim Simmonds (1965)

however acknowledged the meaningful interspecies relationship between quinoa and

Andeans by including the intimate connection between quinoa people and customs

In 1968 an international convention on quinoa and kantildeiwa was held in Puno

Peru organized by prominent South American scientists to demonstrate and

consolidate their efforts to emphasize the importance of Andean grains to modern

science (NRC 1989) Over a decade later some of those same South American

scientists published what the National Research Council has called a ldquomajor

collaborative work on quinoa and kaniwardquo (NRC 198913) referring to Tapia et al

1979 Notwithstanding the scholarship and efforts of Andean researchers who

extensively studied quinoa the National Research Council acknowledged that they

ldquostruggled for decades to promote them in the face of deeply ingrained prejudices in

favor of European foodrdquo (NRC 1989v) Thus not only were quinoa and other Andean

products disparaged as inferior ldquoIndian foodrdquo the efforts by Andean scholars were also

affected by this bias

Events occurred in the 1970s and 1980s that would lead quinoa to the global

market The scientific community continued to study quinoa including its nutritional

value and in 1975 scientists reported that quinoa was ldquoa little known plant hellip with a

high protein contentrdquo that could contribute to food security if problems associated with

processing were resolved (Brown and Pariser 1975) referring to the saponin removal

54

process Scientific interest in quinoa started to increase and in 1980 in Peru the

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria established the Programa de Cultivos

Andinos which included investigations into quinoa (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Across the

border international marketing of Bolivian quinoa began in 1983 when the national

quinoa growers association was established (ANAPQUI) (Jacobsen 2011) The main

producers and exporters of quinoa currently are in Bolivia and Peru Quinoa is also

cultivated in Colombia Ecuador Argentina and Chile (Medina et al 2010) Quinoa is

also grown in lesser amounts in various countries around the world

In 1986 the FAO defined quinoa as a strategic food crop for the Andes and later

acknowledged its high nutritional value Based on this acclaim by a world-renowned

organization quinoa was no longer a ldquosecond-rate productrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015 26)

The National Research Council collaborated with over 600 scientists to produce a book

in 1989 called ldquoLost Crops of the Incasrdquo led by Dr Hugh Popenoe of the University of

Florida and included quinoa as one of the so-called lost crops These crops including

the ldquoglowing grainsrdquo of quinoa were aptly described in connection with the Andean

people (NRC 19893) The NRCrsquos comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-blooded

Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including the

ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and people

through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food The NRC commented

that ldquoBecause it is now primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing

its production is a good way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo

(NRC 1989150) Thus even in 1989 quinoa was still considered food for the poor with

both viewed together through a socio-economic lens

55

The relationship between quinoa and Andeans was also noted by Wilson (1990)

who similarly observed the relationship between the race of people and the status of

quinoa in a paper published in 1990 he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed

complexesrdquo where the wild parent plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the

domesticated varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial

areasrdquo associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including

the Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo (Wilson 1990108) provided a

place for both indigenous Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes

from the outside world Wilson observed as other scientists before him that there was

a strong association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and

culture and the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and

plant diversity thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live

side-by-side Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both

survived colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency Thus while

Wilson could observe as recently as 1990 that quinoa was in a downward spiral from a

production standpoint struggling to survive much as their human Andean counterparts

prior literature regarding the nutritional value hinted at things to come Over time the

world re-discovered what the Andeans already knew quinoa is a high-value nutritional

food source worthy of consumer attention and acclaim as demonstrated by its

noteworthy rise on the world market and place on grocery shelves across the Western

world

Resurgence of Quinoa

Quinoa gained international attention in 1993 from a report by NASA in which it

was identified as suitable for astronauts on long-term space missions (Bubenheim and

56

Schlick 1993) Due to its high protein value and unique combination of amino acids

including lysine NASA concluded that it is a food that can provide life-sustaining

nutrients from one species Interestingly NASA noted the varying colors of quinoa and

speculated that the colors are associated with ldquoeco-typesrdquo hinting at diversity of the

species but not further explaining the significance of these factors or what they mean by

ldquoeco-typerdquo The results of this NASA report had a significant effect on the worldwide

market If quinoa was a premium food for astronauts it was a commodity that health

food stores certainly wanted in stock Gradually the quinoa market in the US

expanded from health food stores to mainstream grocers

Twenty years after the NASA report the United Nations (UN) named 2013 to be

the Year of Quinoa (UN Resolution 66221 22 December 2011) (UN 2011b) This

proclamation elevated quinoa to an exclusive club alongside other UN designated

years including lofty goals such as education human rights peace literacy biodiversity

and sustainable energy to name a few The reason that quinoa achieved such

accolades by the UN was due to its high nutritional status The resolution seeking this

status stated the importance of quinoa and of the indigenous people who grow it (UN

2011b)

Recognizing that Andean indigenous peoples through their traditional knowledge and practices of living well in harmony with mother earth and nature have maintained controlled protected and preserved quinoa in its natural state including its many varieties and landraces as food for present and future generations Affirming the need to focus world attention on the role that quinoa biodiversity plays owing to the nutritional value of quinoa in providing food security and nutrition the eradication of poverty in support of the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals including the Millennium Development Goals and the outcome document of the High-Level Plenary Meeting on the Millennium Development Goals

57

Recalling the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (13-17 November 1996) the Declaration of the World Food Summit five years later (10-13 June 2002) and the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (16-18 November 2009) Affirming the need to heighten public awareness of the nutritional economic environmental and cultural properties of quinoa The recognition given to this traditional food crop by the UN is linked to important

issues including global food security and eradication of poverty Notably the UN

acknowledged that traditional Andean practices and relationship with nature have

conserved quinoa varieties for future generations This UN declaration acknowledged

the scientific contributions of the traditional Andean farmers and also emphasized the

environmentally-sensitive sustainable traditional farming practices they need Notably

the UN declaration points out that the Andean people preserved the biodiversity of the

quinoa agricultural complex including its ldquonatural state including its many varieties and

landracesrdquo (UN 2011b) This statement harkens to Wilsonrsquos (1990) observation about

the importance of the intact ldquocropweedrdquo complex associated with the indigenous people

who maintained this agricultural strategy Thus the selection of quinoa as the focus of a

UN ldquoyear ofrdquo sends multiple messages about the relationship of quinoa to the Andean

people and their harmonious farming practices and traditions and their joint

contributions to the world including the biodiversity maintenance of varieties drawing

an interesting parallel between plants and humans where diversity maintenance can

lead to worldwide contributions to humanity including global-scale food security and

support of UN Millennium Goals

What is interesting about quinoa is that it is a relative newcomer to the world

market Since 1959 the UN has elevated three crops to the ldquoYear ofrdquo status rice

58

(2004) potato (2008) quinoa (2013) (UN nd) and more recently pulses (legumes

including beans peas lentils and chickpeas) (UN 2016) While both potato and quinoa

originated in the Andes and were domesticated there of the two only the potato was

taken to Europe during early colonization by Spain and adopted into foodways across

the globe While quinoa was part of the Andean diet when the Spaniards arrived it was

not adopted into European diets and was relegated the status of ldquoIndian foodrdquo Thus

for quinoa to achieve UN recognition a mere five years after the potato is a remarkable

shift in status While both have been lauded by the UN a distinction between potatoes

and quinoa is the relative nutritional value of these products with quinoa being highly

nutritional compared to potato as has been revealed by recent scientific investigation

While quinoa is a crop that is endemic to the Andes it is presently being grown in

various countries across the globe (Figure 2-2) According to FAO databases however

the only countries that export quinoa in quantity are Bolivia Peru and Ecuador

although it is grown in all the Andean countries as well as scattered locations across

the world including the US and Canada

Source Bazile et al 2014

Figure 2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013

59

The expansion of quinoa production beyond the Andean countries is fairly recent

although there were some noteworthy earlier efforts including in Kenya and the US

Figure 2-3 shows plots the growth in the number of UN countries that grow quinoa from

1900 to 2014

Source Bazile et al 2016

Figure 2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa

The interest in quinoa as a global food product sharply increased in conjunction with

increased scientific and development efforts as well as the recognition due to the UN

Year of Quinoa Thus quinoa now has widespread global acceptance and other

countries are growing or attempting to grown quinoa This chart tracks the history of

quinoa outlined above and shows that an increase in global production was associated

with significant historical events including the formation of the quinoa producers

association in Bolivia in the early 1980s to the expanded scientific investigation from

the 1980s to the present

60

Peru Bolivia and Ecuador are the only significant sources of quinoa for export

more countries are involved in growing quinoa or conducting research on how to grow

quinoa under their climate conditions While the FAO does not list the US as a quinoa

exporter it is being grown in various locations including Colorado Washington

Oregon California and Utah There are different companies in the US that are involved

in quinoa sales including Ancient Harvests Quinoa Corporation Quinoa Foods

Company Keen One Quinoa Inca Organics Eden Foods Alter Eco Foods Quaker

Oats and Trader Joersquos The Ancient Harvests company claims to be the first company

to import quinoa into the US from Bolivia in 1983 Farms in the US that grow quinoa

include White Mountains Farm in Colorado and Lundberg Family Farms in California

Quinoa is also grown in Canada and Northern Quinoa Production Company both grows

and markets quinoa products While the global quinoa market is dominated by Peru and

Bolivia and Ecuador to a lesser extent production has expanded across the globe and

there is no doubt that there will be a larger global presence in the future including large

multi-national industrial agriculture corporations

Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa

Based on its unique history of being an important ritual food then suppressed by

the Spanish then once again returning to high acclaim by the scientific community

quinoa has left its mark on the global stage This section reviews scientific investigation

into the nutritional qualities and values of quinoa

Quinoa is high in protein especially as compared to other cereal crops (Table 2-

3 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) While Repo-Carrasco et al (2003) found that quinoa had

144 g100 g of protein the actual protein contents vary 12-17 depending on the

variety (Murphy et al 2016)

61

Table 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa

PRODUCT PROTEIN CONTENT g100g FAT CONTENT g100g

QUINOA 144 6 COMMON RYE 134 18 BARLEY 118 18 OATS 116 52 CORN 111 49 ENGLISH WHEAT 105 26 RICE 91 22

Source Data compiled from Repo-Carrasco et al 2003181

Quinoa contains amino acids that are similar to casein which is milk protein

(Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) ldquoThe amino acid content of the quinoa grainacutes protein

meets the amino acid requirements recommended for preschool children school

children and adultsrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa provides an important protein for human

growth and is likened to the importance of milk in a childrsquos modern diet Beyond its

protein content quinoa contains high calcium magnesium iron copper and zinc

content In addition to the grains quinoa leaves also contain protein as well as calcium

phosphorous and iron (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003)

Quinoa contains fatty acids that are about 82 unsaturated (Repo-Carrasco et

al 2003) Since it contains omega 3 and omega 6 it helps reduce LDL (or bad

cholesterol) and helps raise HDL (or good cholesterol) (UN 2011a) Quinoa also

contains tocopherols as Vitamin E which is an antioxidant This protects cell

membranes against free radical attack thus providing additional health benefits (Repo-

Carrasco et al 2003)

The carbohydrates in quinoa seeds contain between 58 and 68 starch and 5

sugar Quinoa is also a good energy source that is slowly released into the body due to

its high fiber content (UN 2011a)

62

In addition to the high nutritional value quinoa also has a high percentage of total

dietary fiber As such quinoa is a food that can be used to detoxify the body (UN

2011a) Quinoa also has the ability to absorb water and remain for a longer period of

time in the stomach (UN 2011a) The dietary fiber in quinoa promotes intestinal transit

and regulates cholesterol (UN 2011a)

Interestingly quinoa has two phytoestrogens deaidzein and cenisteina These

two phytoestrogens help prevent osteoporosis In addition they may alleviate disorders

caused by the lack of estrogen during menopause (UN 2011a) Due to these various

properties of quinoa it certainly deserves the title ldquosuperfoodrdquo

Quinoa is also gluten free and provides an excellent alternative to grains such as

wheat (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) Some studies indicate that the consumption of

quinoa by people with celiac disease improves their condition (UN 2011) Thus quinoa

is an alternative food source for populations with food sensitivities Quinoa is now being

touted as an alternative for a gluten-free diet has anti-oxidant characteristics linked to

cancer preventions (Villa et al 2014) and has anti-inflammatory effects (Yao et al

2014) all of which are prevalent health concerns today

Fueled by studies of quinoarsquos nutritional value which is now well-known the

global market has expanded and consumer choices across the world can affect the

farming practices of Andeans The next section discusses the Andean uses of quinoa

which is also a part of the deep history of this human-plant relationship

How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa

Prior to the globalization of quinoa the crop was primarily used for personal

consumption and was not historically a cash crop (Jacobsen 2011) While globalization

has changed quinoa into a cash crop Andeans still use quinoa and this section

63

describes the current uses of quinoa by Andeans Many commercial quinoa products

are currently available on the Peruvian consumer food market (Figure 2-4) All parts of

the plants can be used for various products and uses While Andean people primarily

consumed quinoa as food it also has a variety of other uses including medicinal ritual

cultural artistic industrial and for animal forage In acknowledging the link between

traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found that those who eat more

traditional foods maintain higher levels of farm diversity both between and within

species Thus having a strong tradition of quinoa use has a positive correlation with

agrodiversity and the variety of Andean uses for quinoa demonstrates this link

Various parts of the plant have different uses Quinoa grains are the primary

focus of production although other parts of the plant including the flower stems and

leaves also have economic value The leaves are similar to spinach and are also

consumed either as a salad or potherb (Simmonds 1965) Thus while quinoa is

commonly associated today as a nutritious grain the quinoa plant is very productive

and plays a diverse role in Andean culture and economy

Figure 2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products Image Credit Deborah Andrews

2012

64

Food

As previously noted quinoa is an important Andean food product Quinoa is

consumed as a part of any meal of the day including snacks Quinoa varieties can have

different flavors which can sometimes be distinguished based on the color although

there are also flavor distinctions within the same color but based on different varieties

In addition the texture varies based on variety with some varieties preferred for certain

recipes and uses Different quinoa varieties have culinary qualities that are used for

different cooking purposes For example chullpi is used for soups pasankalla is used

for toasting altiplano is used for flour and real is used for pissara or grains (Mujica et

al 2001) Black quinoa is harder to cook and harder to grind for flour Thus Andeans

have distinct culinary uses for the different types or varieties of quinoa which

underscores the relevance of agrodiversity The selection of quinoa varieties based on

culinary uses is further explored in Chapter 4 which focuses on agrodiversity and

farmer variety selection

Grain Products

The grain is the primary focus of quinoa production Andeans frequently

consume quinoa in the form of grain which is boiled with two parts water and one part

quinoa similar to rice The grains can be used in many recipes in the place of rice

although in the Andes rice appears to be more frequently consumed than quinoa The

grains are often used to make porridge and soups A common Andean dish is peske

which is boiled quinoa served with milk as depicted in Figure 2-5 The variety used for

the peske that I was served was kancolla which has a large grain so it can be prepared

like rice In addition to boiling the grain can be toasted or puffed

65

Figure 2-5 Peske Image Credit Deborah Andrews 2014

Since the time of the Inca quinoa has been used to produce fermentation of

chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of harvest and

sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and so ensure

prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) In Quechua culture Isbell (1978) observed that

quinoa was added to corn-based chicha to make a special ritual drink called machka

celebrating the first planting of the season Andeans also presently prepare a juice from

quinoa usually made with orange juice Indeed chicha is widely available in Peru

beyond the Andes and is a symbol of national pride and patrimony

A more trendy use of quinoa is the manufacture of protein bars containing

combinations of quinoa and other products such as peanuts kiwicha or cantildeihua which

are sold in modern grocery stores in Peru These bars are similar in style and

convenience to granola bars and appear to be a more recent modern consumer

product since I did not see these bars being either sold or consumed in small stores in

villages or by farmers

66

Processed Quinoa

While raw quinoa grain is the primary form of the product that is sold

commercially and for export there is also a market for products that are further

processed and used in forms other than as raw grain Processed quinoa products can

be found in Peruvian grocery stores and include items such as quinoa flour as well as

products made using quinoa flour such as pasta There are a variety of modern recipes

for quinoa using either the grains or milled flour The grains are milled into flour for

baking purposes for bread and other products Based on my use of quinoa flour it

makes a stiffer product than wheat flour so it is not necessarily an acceptable substitute

for bread wheat flour unless a firmer product is desired such as in crisp cookies

Quinoa is also milled to make flakes which can be used as a breakfast food or added

to yogurt smoothies purees soups and drinks (Montoya Restrepo et al 2005) Quinoa

smoothies can be purchased from roadside vendors in Puno as a quick portable

breakfast Other Peruvian retail products include a breakfast porridge that combines

quinoa flakes with oatmeal A limited variety of quinoa products are sold in retail stores

in the United States including pasta and baby food

In the Andes one of the local complaints about consuming quinoa relates to the

length of time it takes to prepare If the quinoa grain has not been processed past the

winnowing stage the grain needs to be further prepared before cooking This important

step is the removal of the saponins Due to the mild toxicity of the saponins they need

to be removed prior to cooking This is done by abrading the grain to remove the outer

layer as well as washing the grains and disposing of the waste-water For quinoa that is

exported on the global market the saponin removal process can occur at different

stages of the distribution chain including by the end-use consumer However most

67

quinoa on the US market today already has the saponin removed with no additional

rinsing needed by the consumer although this was not always the case

Another time-consuming tedious process is the grinding of quinoa into flour The

traditional method of milling quinoa is to actually grind the grains on a mill stone using

an oblong stone tool as depicted in Figure 2-6 One informant said that when he was a

child when he came home from school he would have to grind quinoa using the grind

stone before he could go out to play He said that he resents quinoa due to this

childhood chore While modern electric mills are now available the female informants

agreed that stone ground quinoa tastes better than the modern processing and that they

can tell the difference in flavor between the two milling practices A problem of

modernization however is that at least in the Juli region south of Puno the man who

makes the stone grinding tools is getting old and no one else in the area is known to

make the stone grinding tools COOPAIN has an industrial mill at their processing plant

in Cabana for the members to mill their quinoa into flour for personal consumption

Figure 2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools Image

credit Deborah Andrews 2014

68

Masamora is a dish made with quinoa flour with added calcium obtained from

rocks Figure 2-7 depicts masamora along with other quinoa food products Masamora

is cooked into a paste-like dish usually eaten for breakfast Krsquoispina is steamed quinoa

dough Many families have their own special krsquoispina recipe for lunch as well as for trips

Traditional Andeans also use krsquoispina formed into special shapes for ritual ceremonial

purposes

Figure 2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products Image credit Deborah Andrews

2014

Medicine

While scientists are studying medicinal values of quinoa (Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Yao et al 2014 Navruz-Varley and Sanlier 2016) various parts of the quinoa

plant are used in traditional Aymara medicine (UN 2011) as well as Quechua medicine

The seeds leaves and stems are used to cure many diseases (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015)

Traditional healing uses include as an antiseptic gargle heartburn relief constipation

relief nausea relief as a poultice as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory (UN

2011a) In addition quinoa is traditionally used to treat liver problems tonsillitis fever

69

urinary problems contusions hemorrhages bowel disorders wounds insect bites loss

of blood irritation loss of appetite loss of strength insomnia headache dizziness

anemia loss of focus and to prevent osteoporosis (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Thus in

addition to having an important role as a food product in Andean diets quinoa also is

traditionally used for a variety of medical ailments

Ajara or wild quinoa which is black colored is normally used for traditional

medicine usually by community members who specialize in healing Traditional

medicine can be purchased at the open-air farmersrsquo markets in Puno Ajara is not

normally used for consumption because it does not taste good since it is bitter

however it is used for medicinal purposes such as paste placed on the body next to

broken bones The black quinoa has more saponin than the other varieties and is used

for medicine against cancer and diabetes based on folk knowledge Recent research

on saponins in quinoa have linked it to anti-inflammatory properties (Yao et al 2014)

providing scientific support for traditional Andean medicine Based on this recent

scientific confirmation of medicinal values black quinoa is now fetching a higher price

since it is considered to have medicinal value which is being more widely-reported and

studied In other parts of the world C album has been used for medicinal purposes

(Bharagava et al 2009) Scientific analysis has revealed that Chenopodium has

antibacterial antifungal anti-parasitic anthelmintic antispasmodic antipruritic and

antinociceptive properties (Bharagava et al 2009) Thus properties of quinoa have

medicinal value and research into the variety distinctions from a medicinal or

therapeutic perspective can potentially contribute to efforts to conserve agrodiversity

70

Another medicinal use of quinoa is in relation to the practice of chewing coca In

the Andes coca is often used to alleviate symptoms of hypoxia related to the high

altitude and is also used as a stimulant which can also suppress hunger Alkaline from

the ash of burned quinoa stems (lliptu) is used for coca chewing (Simmonds 1965) The

stems of the quinoa plant are still considered to be the best for this purpose as

compared to other kinds of plants Thus quinoa has a variety of traditional and

scientifically confirmed medical benefits and the correlation of the beneficial properties

with certain varieties can provide impetus to conserve agrodiversity

Ritual Uses

Andean farmers have a close relationship with nature Many believe in

Pachamama or Earth Mother as well as the presence of spirits in the rivers springs

and tombs This cosmology also extends to sharing quinoa with other species such as

birds as exemplified by the lack of vigor to some degree in keeping birds away from

their crop because they do not want the birds to ldquocryrdquo This spiritual religion is a close

relationship between life and the actions of the farmer in the fields (Ayala Olazaacutebal

2015)

As noted above Andeans ferment quinoa to make chicha (Simmonds 1965)

Chicha is fermented with quinoa and is involved in religious and magical ancestral

ceremonies in giving to the Earth (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) This is likely one of the most

well-known ritual and culturally-laden uses of quinoa linked to Andean cosmology

Traditional Andeans make different shapes by hand from a quinoa flour

preparation called krsquoispina as noted above which are used for different festivals and

celebrations including the Carnival celebration and All Saints Day During the San Juan

Festival which is in June some people make animal shapes with this form of quinoa

71

The San Juan Festival is the day of the farmer Families have specific shapes that they

use for this product and community members recognize who made the product due to

their trademark-like shape Among the Aymara quinoa dough was used to make

figurines and shapes such as babies llamas and wreaths for use at funerals (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) Thus quinoa is not only symbolic it is used to make other

symbols

One quinoa variety has alternating white and red panicles on the same plant

Andeans usually do not eat this variety which is called miste misti misa quinua misa

jiura or mistiza but it is used in Pachamama rituals There is a ceremonycelebration

for Pachamama in which there are offerings of quinoa corn habas and guinea pig

blood The reason they use guinea pig blood is because guinea pigs reproduce quickly

and the farmers are asking Pachamama for a high yield agricultural production

Consumer Products

Quinoa can also be processed for products such as oils starch saponin and

coloring (UN 2011a) These extractions are used to produce a variety of consumer

products such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (UN 2011a) Saponins are a mixture

of triterpene glycosides and over 100 different saponins have been identified in quinoa

(Jarvis et al 2017) Saponins are mildly toxic so they are extracted before

consumption and can then be used for other items making it an efficient use of the

plant Quinoa is also used to make industrial alcohol cartons paper starch flour oil

shampoo creams detergent and industrial colorants (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Red

quinoa is used to redden lips as well as for dye

72

Animal Forage

The quinoa plant is also used for livestock forage Waste leaves and stems are

used for livestock feed for their high protein content (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Animals

however cannot consume the dried stalks One study suggests that quinoa be grown in

Colombia as sustainable forage for livestock (Rosero et al 2010) Thus quinoa can be

marketed as livestock forage which may be appealing in locations where grass does

not grow well

During this study a local professor suggested that there should be development

projects introducing more chickens to Andean farms since there is a lot of quinoa grain

waste during harvesting The chickens could feed upon the quinoa that falls to the

ground during the harvest thereby providing a nutritious animal feed Indeed chickens

were ready to eat quinoa during threshing and provided a source of humor for me while

I observed farming demonstrations

One problem with introducing more chickens to the Andes is that they need to

become acclimated to the lower-oxygen environment much like humans so the

introduction of chickens from lower elevations can be problematic The alternative would

be to breed the chickens acclimated to the highlands Chickens can thrive at the high

elevations but while I observed chickens on many farms there often were less than 10

chickens and therefore appeared to be for household egg production rather than

commercial production Large scale egg production occurs in Bolivia with eggs shipped

into Peru and the Bolivian chickens have apparently adapted to the environmental

conditions

73

Fuel

The dried stalks left over from quinoa processing can be used for fuel When it is

available it is used for fuel in earthen ovens that are constructed to bake potatoes and

oca The quinoa stalks are used to start the fire and get the embers going The root

foods are poured in the oven then the oven is then collapsed during cooking (Figures 2-

8)

A B

C D Figure 2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven A) Lighting fire with quinoa

stems B) Pouring potatoes and oca into oven C) View of potatoes and oca in oven and D) Collapsing of earthen oven for baking process Image credit Deborah Andrews 2015

74

There are a variety of uses for the different parts of the quinoa plants In addition

to the traditional and ongoing Andean uses of quinoa as well as expanded use by other

consumers there are also industrial applications of quinoa Figure 2-9 displays an array

of quinoa uses including applications that were not observed as part of this study but

which shows the production potential of quinoa for a variety of uses both traditional and

non-traditional

Source httpwwwfaoorgquinoa-2013faqsen Accessed March 13 2017

Figure 2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa

Negative Local Health Effects

One of the issues that has arisen in relation to the popularity of quinoa is the

indirect effects it may have on the health of the local communities The reason for the

concern is due to the increase in the price for quinoa and the effect the price increase

This dissertation is dedicated to my father Robert S Andrews Jr who sadly passed away in December 2015 shortly after my return from the last round of field work for this

research He taught me the value of education and encouraged me throughout my schooling from kindergarten to PhD and sacrificed the opportunity to obtain a PhD

himself to support his growing family Gone but not forgotten

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank my parents for instilling the importance of education in me Marianne

Schmink has been a true inspiration for me and her wise advice and appreciation for my

sense of humor made this process enjoyable I would also like to thank the members of

my committee Drs Chris McCarty Ken Sassaman and Frances Putz for their wise

advice

I want to especially thank Dr Juan Marko Aro Aro of the Universidad Nacional

del Altiplano who helped me get the contacts needed to conduct this research in Puno

He spent an inordinate amount of time assisting me and often accompanying me on

field excursions His knowledge of quinoa also helped me double check my facts to

ensure accuracy I also want to thank Dr Ritva Repo-Carrasco who kindly met with me

and suggested that I contact Dr Aro her former student

Dr Aacutengel Mujica Sanchez also of the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano was

also of great inspiration and assistance to me His depth of knowledge of quinoa and

quinoa farmers from an agronomic aspect helped me to understand the details of what it

takes to study quinoa I also want to thank the students at the Universidad Nacional del

Altiplano who participated in this study and also assisted in my understanding of quinoa

farming I especially want to thank Edwin Pandia for his assistance in visiting quinoa

farms I want to thank the leadership and members of COOPAIN who participated in

this study and graciously provided access to their operations and membership Most

importantly I want to thank the quinoa farmers who took their time to participate in this

study and teach me more than they could ever learn from me

To my friends at the University of Florida who made graduate school so much

more interesting and fun A special thanks goes out to Dr Steacutephanie Borios whose

5

example I followed as we progressed through graduate school The inspiration for this

dissertation arose from our casual conversations and the ldquoQuinoa kidsrdquo name we

adopted in the horseshoe tournament at the Armadillo Roast fundraiser for the

University of Florida Department of Anthropology I also want to thank Marlon Carranza

for listening to my woes and providing humor and perspective throughout this process

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

LIST OF TABLES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 11

ABSTRACT 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 14

Research Question 14

Historic Overview 21 Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices 24 Agrodiversity and Globalization 29

2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET 36

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People 36

The Fox and the Condor 38

What is Quinoa 39

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species 41 History of Quinoa in the Andes 45

Resurgence of Quinoa 55 Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa 60 How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa 62

Food 64 Grain Products 64 Processed Quinoa 66

Medicine 68 Ritual Uses 70 Consumer Products 71 Animal Forage 72

Fuel 73 Negative Local Health Effects 74

3 ANDEAN FARMERS AND THE GLOBAL MARKET WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS REMAINED THE SAME 80

Diversification and the Environment 80 What are the Current Farming Practices 82

7

Harvesting 88

Quinoa Processing 93

What are the Strategies for Local Farmers to Access the Market 95 Farmersrsquo Markets 95 Farmersrsquo Cooperatives 96 Future Market Expansion 102 Agricultural Fairs 104

Pricing 107

4 HOW ARE ANDEAN FARMERS PRESERVING QUINOA AGRODIVERSITY DURING A TIME OF GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET 118

What is the Extent of Quinoa Variety Diversity and How is it Classified 123 Farmersrsquo Knowledge 126

Experiment in Comparative Variety Yield 144 How do Andean Farmers Select the Quinoa Variety to Plant 148

Do Andean Farmers Maintain Agrodiversity through their Seed Selection Practices 160

How do Andean Farmers Select Seeds and How do these Processes affect Agrodiversity 166

Womenrsquos Role in Seed Selection 172

A Female Semillista Example 174 What are Menrsquos Roles in Seed Selection 180

5 CONCLUSION 188

APPENDIX

A QUINOA VARIETY NAMES 199

B RAZAS DE QUINUAS RACES OF QUINOA 205

LIST OF REFERENCES 206

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 219

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa 61

4-1 INIA Commercial Varieties of Quinoa in Peru 132

4-2 Altiplano Varieties by Color 138

4-3 Races of Quinoa 139

4-4 Results of Variety Yield Experiment 145

4-5 Frequency of Planting of Quinoa Varieties 149

4-6 Average Number of Quinoa Varieties Grown 153

4-7 Collective Number of Quinoa Varieties 154

4-8 Reasons for Variety Selection 156

4-9 Sources of Quinoa Seeds 161

4-10 Reasons for Seed Selection 167

4-11 Quinoa Uses 179

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches 47

2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013 58

2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa 59

2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products 63

2-5 Peske 65

2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools 67

2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products 68

2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven 73

2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa 74

3-1 Drying quinoa at UNAP research station 89

3-2 Student farmers learning to use the trilladora to thresh quinoa fruits from the plant 90

3-3 Student farmer removing the grain from the panicle 91

3-4 Further sifting of quinoa grains 92

3-5 Wind winnowing at INIA 92

3-6 Puno Farmersrsquo Market 95

3-7 Powdered cantildeihua at Puno Farmersrsquo Market 96

3-8 Quinoa drying in the sun at COOPAIN 99

3-9 Quinoa-battered fried whole fish eyeballs included 107

3-10 Quinoa Production Volumes 2001-2014 108

3-11 Peru Quinoa Producer Prices 1991-2003 109

3-12 Puno Producer Prices 1990-2012 109

3-13 Quinoa Price Drop 110

10

4-1 Quinoa samples at the INIA office 132

4-2 Quinoa Variety Frequency University Student Farmers N=24 152

4-3 Quinoa Variety Frequency Co-op Farmers N=35 152

4-4 Mamarsquos quinoa 174

4-5 Expert Arsquos map of quinoa field 175

4-6 Expert Arsquos Seed Display 176

4-7 Rosada Taraco quinoa after harvest 182

4-8 Rosada taraco quinoa grains 183

4-9 Expert Brsquos seed selection display 183

11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANAPQUI Asociacioacuten National de Productores de Quinoa

COOPAIN Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash Cabana

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

INIA Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten Agraria

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non-governmental organization

UN United Nations

UNAP Universidad Nacional del Altiplano

US United States

12

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS

AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

Deborah J Andrews

August 2017

Chair Marianne Schmink Co-chair Christopher McCarty Major Anthropology

This research seeks to seeks to understand the inter-relationship between small-

scale Andean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa

crop and how they are maintaining same-species agrodiversity during a time of

globalization of the market Despite Spanish suppression of the crop as well as post-

colonial discriminatory practices against quinoa and the indigenous populations who ate

it this crop survived due to the inter-species relationship with Andean farmers who

relied on quinoa as an important food source The popularization of quinoa however

has changed the quinoa market with potential effects on quinoa agrodiversity

maintenance and increased risk to farmers

The study was carried out in Puno Peru using participant observation surveys

and interviews with both Quechua and Aymara farmers as well as other experts This

study investigated the quinoa variety agrodiversity practices of small-scale farmers

including the number of varieties grown during the past season the reasons farmers

selected quinoa varieties for production how seeds were selected and who influenced

variety and seed choice The literature review and field research revealed over 200

13

quinoa names including 63 varieties grown by the participant farmers during the period

of this study The farmers selected these varieties by analyzing and balancing a number

of factors including market demand environmental adaptation yield culinary

properties cultural practices and experimentation The farmers who participated in this

study grew an average of 257 quinoa varieties during the past season with a range of

between one to thirty-two varieties being grown by an individual farmer The results of

this study demonstrate that there are various influences on agrodiversity maintenance

including the availability of seed the promotion of varieties by organizations including

the government NGOs and cooperatives as well as farm-saved seed reliant upon

existing local germplasm Ongoing and future investigation of quinoa at the variety level

including nutritional and health benefit distinctions as well as culinary and other

consumer uses can maintain agrodiversity while serving the goals of both continued

crop resilience as well as competitiveness in the market through diverse unique and

marketable options Knowledge and agrodiversity maintenance by Andean farmers

especially the local experts can play a valuable role in future investigations into the

beneficial interspecies relationship between people and plants and their joint

contributions to global food security

14

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Research Question

This research addresses the inter-relationship between small-scale Andean

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa crop and how the

farmers maintain agrodiversity during a time of globalization of the quinoa market

Humans have been breeding plants for thousands of years leading to the rise of

agriculture This breeding of plants has altered biodiversity based on human selection

Unfortunately only a small number of crops now dominate global agricultural production

and human diets which is detrimental to long-term food security Murphy et al (2016)

consider maintenance of quinoa diversity to be an imperative Many cultures including

Andean farmers have maintained lesser-known traditional crops and have a wealth of

agricultural heritage and knowledge The study of quinoa and the people who have

grown it for thousands of years offers an example of ldquohumannonhuman minglingrdquo that is

the hallmark of multispecies ethnography which focuses on how other organisms as

well as humans are shaped by cultural political and economic forces (Kirksey and

Helmreich 2010546)

In light of the long-term historical suppression of quinoa starting with Spanish

colonialists and continuing with post-colonial practices this research addresses the

question of whether intra-species quinoa diversity is being maintained during a time of

market globalization In the context of a traditionally-maintained crop that has gained

global attention the working hypothesis is that the global attention on quinoa will lead to

losses in sub-species agrodiversity due to external market demands and trends towards

monocultural practices The expectation of diversity loss is further justified by the

15

dominance of the white-colored Bolivian real variety in the market which was the initial

market entry for quinoa While aggregation of quinoa of the same variety or at least

color allows for small-scale farmers to pool their crops and contribute to the global

market this market benefit could be at the expense of agrodiversity

Traditional Andean grains grown by Peruvian farmers increasingly are served on

dinner plates across the Western world With the discovery of the excellent nutritional

benefits the quinoa boom has exploded on the market as a trendy healthy new food

source in the modern world In contrast Andeans have been farming quinoa for

thousands of years While most Andean farmers still produce quinoa using traditional

small-scale farming techniques the global demands for quinoa may be affecting within-

species diversity Thus the timing of the expansion of the quinoa market especially in

light of its multi-millennial usage is an important factor in this study

This research arises from questions that have been raised by the media about

the effects of the global demand for quinoa on local farmers such as whether their diets

have suffered due to a decrease in quinoa consumption or whether other agricultural

practices have been affected such as llama or alpaca grazing areas being converted to

quinoa fields (Eg Aubrey 2013 Romero and Shahriari 2011) More recently the

popular press has also questioned the effects that the global popularity of quinoa

specifically has had on agrodiversity with claims that ldquoExport demand has focused on

very few of the 3000 or so different varieties of quinoa prompting farmers to abandon

many of those varietiesrdquo (Cherfas 2016) While this statement about the number of

varieties of quinoa is often repeated it derives from a misunderstanding of the

difference between varieties and accessioned samples in seed banks which is explored

16

below Nevertheless it clearly raised concern for continued quinoa agrodiversity This

study focuses on the current extent of quinoa agrodiversity and how it has been

maintained and conserved by small-scale Andean farmers in the Peruvian altiplano

While this study focuses on how Andean quinoa farmers are maintaining agrodiversity

this does not imply that these farmers are solely responsible for agrodiversity

maintenance or loss but rather they are an important part of the discussion and need

to be included in discourse about future efforts to maintain or improve diversity

practices In addition their knowledge can contribute to an overall understanding of the

biodiversity of quinoa

The anthropological discourse on globalization describes various processes that

affect local communities and their culture due to the pressures of global demands for

resources originating in these communities ldquoGlobalization is a long-term uneven and

paradoxical process in which widening social cooperation and deepening inequality go

togetherrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20043-4) This study investigated the practices of small-

scale Andean farmers as well as their folk knowledge related to quinoa varieties and

how they changed in response to market globalization

Since food is very much linked to cultural identity (Weismantel 1988) quinoa

provides an excellent exemplar for studying the effects of globalization on local cultures

especially since quinoa is considered to be one of the most important food crops in the

Andes having both economic and cultural importance (Christensen et al 2007 Castillo

et al 2007) Quinoa is used as a diverse food product and is also used during ritual

festivals for consumption and to make symbolic figurines out of quinoa dough (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) In this regard quinoa is like other plants that are valued for

17

symbolic ritual and sociocultural practice rather than just for direct economic benefits

(Kawa 2012) and provides evidence that money is not always the principal factor in

decision-making With this in mind this study analyzes the cultural factors in

agrodiversity decision-making during a time of globalization of this traditional product In

acknowledging the link between traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found

that those who eat more traditional foods including quinoa maintain more farm

diversity including more crop diversity and more varieties Thus there is an association

with biodiversity and food products that have a strong cultural link to the farmer and

quinoa is a prime crop to investigate this phenomenon

Prior studies of Andean crops including the aptly titled book ldquoLost Crops of the

Incardquo (1989) described quinoa and other important crops in direct connection with the

Andean people who had a deep history with the plant

Today in the high Andes the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants who are largely pure-blooded Indian and continue to grow the crops of their forbears During the centuries they have maintained the Incarsquos food crops in the face of neglect and even scorn by much of the society around them In local markets women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than 500 years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains baskets of beans of every color and bowls containing luscious fruits At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers ndash red yellow purple even candy striped some as round and bright as billiard balls others long and thin and wrinkled These are the ldquolost crops of the Incasrdquo (NRC 19893)

The National Research Councilrsquos (NRC) comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-

blooded Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including

quinoarsquos ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and

people through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food

18

Similarly in 1990 Wilson observed the relationship between the race of people

and the status of quinoa he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed complexesrdquo

where the wild ancestral plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the domesticated

varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial areasrdquo

associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including the

Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo provided a place for both indigenous

Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes from the outside world

Wilson (1990) observed as other scientists before him that there was a strong

association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and culture and

the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and plant diversity

thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live side-by-side

Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both survived

colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency

The United Nations (ldquoUNrdquo) determined that quinoa is a product that can

contribute to food security for the worldrsquos growing population (UN 2011a) Over a

decade earlier the National Research Council commented that ldquoBecause it is now

primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing its production is a good

way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo (NRC 1989150) In

contrast the process of globalization may put local farmers and the biodiversity of the

crop at risk Given the fact that the Andean altiplano is a harsh growing environment

coupled with climate change and attendant crop risk agrodiversity effects are an

important issue in understanding local effects of globalization that could lead to long

term negative consequences

19

For this dissertation the relationship between Andean quinoa farmers and this

traditional subsistence crop was studied during a time of rapid globalization and growing

popularity of quinoa As Mintz observed ldquothe social history of the use of new foods in a

western nation can contribute to an anthropology of modern liferdquo (Mintz 1985xxviii)

Quinoa provides a classic example since it is a traditional crop with a long history

culminating in recent global popularity and demand that has affected small-scale

farmers whose product climbed onto the world stage When peripheral economies such

as that of the Andean farmers are integrated into a larger capitalist system it is usually

on unequal terms (Lewis 2005) This raises the question of the effect on the local

quinoa farmers due to the increased popularity of their crop This scenario is a classic

example of the idea that ldquoglobalization involves more intensive interaction across wider

space and in shorter time than before in other words the experience of a shrinking

worldrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20048)

The product of Andean farmers vaulted to global attention in a relatively rapid

fashion after a multi-millennial relationship with the people of the Andes What was a

long-term relationship between Andeans and quinoa was altered by outside attention

and demand Since the world has noticed quinoa what has happened to the quinoa

farmers and their relationship to quinoa To understand local farmers we need to

understand the contextual components of their relationships to external markets (Dove

2011247) especially given the strong Andean cultural identity that includes quinoa The

farmersrsquo connections to the market can include a number of points of access some of

which lead directly to the global market

20

Due to the globalization of the quinoa market the popular press has raised

concerns about changes to local diets and loss of grazing areas (Aubrey 2013 Romero

and Shafiari 2011) Much like accedilaiacute (Euterpe oleraceae Mart) from the Amazon studied

by Brondizio (2008) quinoa has rocketed onto the global market yet as Brondizio

found local farmers pejoratively called caboclos in Brazil can be disenfranchised

despite the high acclaim of their plant partner on the world stage In addition to the

farmers the global attention on quinoa can also have adverse effects on the species as

noted in the popular press with regard to the maintenance of agrodiversity of quinoa

(Cherfas 2016) Thus both farmers and their partner crop can be affected by

globalization and this study investigates some of these changes including the

relationship between the two

While globalized agriculture is often associated with large factory farms in the

Andes quinoa is primarily produced on small family farms with most of the tasks done

by hand with little mechanization through the harvesting stage (Ton and Bijman 2006)

Despite the small size of the farms they are not isolated from what Dove (2011) calls

larger networks of economic exchange Indeed the farmers in this study who live in the

remote Andes are participants in the global quinoa market Farmers are not just a

collection of individuals but rather are part of a complex system (Escobar 1991) The

social organization in rural communities can substantially influence crop biodiversity

(Leclerc and Copperns drsquoEeckenbrugge 2012) While many studies of crop agrodiversity

focus on seed selection factors related to the environment culture is also an important

factor in diversity and ultimately food security Indeed at the outset agricultural crops

were selected by humans for cultivation and ultimately domestication which

21

emphasizes the human element in agrodiversity This process is not static especially in

the context of globalization when external socially driven market demands factor into

the equation

Ecological anthropology seeks to understand the relationship between social

organizations population dynamics human culture and the environment (Orlove 1980)

Coupling ecological anthropology with biodiversity discourse further focuses the

question of human factors in biodiversity maintenance Biodiversity is important and

there is concern about the loss of plant biodiversity (FAO 1999) There has been a call

for increased emphasis for biodiversity in the agricultural landscape (Brush 1995 2005)

Past agricultural research demonstrates that commercial markets often seek out

consistent standardized products which allows for the pooling and consolidation of

crops from different farms to be aggregated and sold in bulk volumes on larger markets

The drive for a singular similar-looking product however can have agrodiversity

consequences especially if the external market seeks one look But quinoa is a

polyploid plant that produces grain with highly diverse morphological characteristics and

various colors White quinoa was the initial product popularized on the global market

through the early market entry of the Bolivian real variety The emphasis on a singular

color potentially might deleteriously affect the agrodiversity of the crop which can lead

to higher production risks for local farmers due to the harsh environment in the Andes

Thus reduced agrodiversity can have immense consequences for both local farmers

and crop agrodiversity

Historic Overview

The history of quinoa and how it reached the global market and the utilization of

quinoa in the Andes are described in Chapter 2 Quinoa provides an especially

22

interesting example because it was not adopted into European agriculture for centuries

whereas the adoption of other food crops from the Andes such as potatoes was rapid

(Maughan et al 2007) From the colonial period through the first half of the twentieth

century quinoa production was in great decline Due to its association with indigenous

rituals and its ceremonial importance quinoa was suppressed by the Spanish

colonizers although cultivation continued in remote areas with mostly indigenous

populations (Sauer 1950 Simmonds 1965 Wilson 1990) What was once derogatorily

classified as an indigenous food suppressed by European colonizers under racist

practices has transformed into a global commodity

Notions of discrimination permeate the historical treatment of quinoa and the

Andeans with an interesting joint-species racialized experience As noted by Hartigan

past discourse by cultural anthropologists in the US focused on ldquomaintaining the

bulwark between culture and biologyrdquo (2013373) especially when discussing racial

classification but this research seeks to breach that bulwark using multispecies

ethnography in an attempt to understand the relationship between Andeans and

quinoa and how this relationship which has successfully maintained quinoa diversity

for thousands of years is being affected by globalization In this study I use a

multispecies approach to this analysis which means that I investigate both the plant as

well as human culture which is especially fitting here considering the history of

discrimination that both Andeans and quinoa have jointly experienced across time due

to cultural beliefs

The second chapter addresses the biological nature of quinoa and its

complicated taxonomic history Other species of Chenopodium grow throughout the

23

world with closely related species in the US and Mexico that may provide insights into

the migrations of both the plants and their associated people (Heiser 1990)

The second chapter also describes the more recent history of quinoa and the

events that led to its international resurgence as an important food crop Plants have a

history of interactions with humans and how we think about the importance or

relevance of different plant species varies Quinoa has a unique history of suppression

by Spaniards during the Conquest to the post-colonial attitudes of quinoa as an ldquoIndian

foodrdquo to the present cultural belief in quinoa as a ldquosuper-foodrdquo Scientific investigations

of quinoa led to its current status as a food for astronauts and its increasing popularity

as a health food in the West

Quinoa has high nutritional value with more protein essential amino acids and

minerals than other cereal crops (Medina et al 2010 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) A

recent UN publication states ldquoIn countries (such as Peru and Bolivia) where malnutrition

levels are high it is essential to boost quinoa consumption in order to benefit from its

exceptional nutritional propertiesrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa has tremendous

implications for human health and food security even in countries that traditionally grow

quinoa such as Peru and Bolivia yet still have malnutrition Stunting is a problem in the

Peruvian Andes which has been linked to poor diet (Mayer 2002) providing additional

reasons to investigate this highly nutritious product

Research on quinoa has been conducted by agronomists geneticists and other

agricultural scientists with more limited anthropological research on the topic which

has been growing recently While the history of quinoa and timeliness of its global

popularity is well suited to this study it is the people and the human cultural association

24

with an important food crop that are the focus here This is a prime opportunity to

investigate debate and perhaps prevent the problems that globalized agriculture has

caused in the past

Food security is a worldwide issue and this study of the cultural aspects of

quinoa production in a globalized market can provide anthropological perspectives in

agricultural contexts The FAO Rome Declaration on World Food Security (1996)

defines global food security as follows

Food security exists when all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

This study seeks to provide information that can be used to improve food security

through the maintenance of diversity of an important food crop This research can also

inform debates about globalization of the quinoa market The intent of this study is to

reflect upon and suggest ways to mitigate the unintended consequences to local

farmers as well as to mitigate agrodiversity loss

Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices

Chapter 3 describes the present farming practices of Andean farmers based on

participant observation and interviews with quinoa farmers and experts This study

describes the continuation of traditional farming practices as well as analyzing modern

changes to these practices and how they may affect agrodiversity maintenance

The research for this dissertation was based in Puno Peru on the shores of

Lake Titicaca since that is the place of greatest genetic diversity (Medina et al 2010)

as well as where there have been archaeological discoveries of ancient quinoa (Langlie

et al 2011) Presently the main producers and exporters of quinoa are Bolivia and Peru

(Medina et al 2010) The Puno region is the main quinoa agricultural growing area in

25

the altiplano Andes of Peru is a major production area in Peru is a market exchange

location for both Peru and Bolivia and is believed to have the highest range of quinoa

agrodiversity The Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (UNAP) is located in Puno and I

obtained an official affiliation with that institution and worked with professors who had a

long history of working with quinoa farmers This study was conducted during several

extensive trips to Puno from 2012 to 2015 The initial field investigation took place

during May and June 2012 I returned to Puno from May to June in 2014 and 2015 with

the fieldwork concluding in December 2015 While I was based in the City of Puno I

traveled to the nearby farms and villages in the Puno region including Cabana

Cabanillas Juli Juliaca Ilave Kilca Chucuito and Desaguadero

I primarily gathered information from farmers (N=66) student farmers (N=24)

and professors at the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (N=10) In addition to these

100 participants I conducted numerous informal interviews with quinoa wholesale

vendors government officials farmers at farmers markets fair participants three field

researchers and relatives of two of the university professors

Since I obtained an affiliation with the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano I was

introduced to numerous professors who were linked to quinoa research in various ways

The expertise of the professors was varied and included anthropology agronomy food

safety entomology and animal science I worked extensively with two professors ndash Dr

Marco Aro and Dr Aacutengel Mujicamdashthroughout this process Two additional professors

took me to their family farms where I observed their practices and informally interviewed

their relatives although they did not participate in the formal agrodiversity surveys since

it was early in the research process For the professor group I conducted interviews

26

with each of the 10 professors to gain insight and information on various aspects of

quinoa and culture This information ranged from cultural traditions to pest problems

with the crop I also sought to find an existing list of quinoa varieties upon which I could

base my agrodiversity inventory and research but was unable to locate one as further

described in my research findings

Working with Dr Mujica I participated in the agricultural field school in

Camacani where students were taught to harvest quinoa at the university research

station Twenty-three of the student farmers participated in formal surveys during this

field school and one additional student participated in the survey who did not attend this

field session In addition to the student surveys I participated in the harvest where I

took many photographs and extensively interviewed Dr Mujica In 2015 I also went on

a three-day field trip with a group of agricultural students to Arequipa Majes and

surrounding communities I obtained the additional student survey from one of these

participants who also assisted in providing farmer contacts

The first group of non-student farmers that I worked with were a convenience

sample of 31 farmers who attended a meeting conducted by Dr Mujica in the city of

Puno Since this was a convenience sample it had some bias and is not necessarily a

representative sample of all farmers in the region because they were associated with an

outreach program affiliated with the University and had the means to travel to the city

for the meeting Due to travel constraints I was not able to individually interview this set

of farmers

Towards the end of the meeting I explained my research project by going

through the Institutional Review Board-approved disclosures and request for consent

27

After answering a few questions including one question about compensation and why

they should help me for free I conducted a formal agrodiversity survey of 31 of the

farmers present who were primarily of Aymara ethnicity Several farmers declined to

participate for unknown reasons although I suspect one reason was that they could not

write another bias in this sample selection All but one of these farmers were men

Thus it was not a random sample and was skewed in both gender roles as well as in

individual motivation availability education or opportunity to travel to Puno for a

meeting

The second group of farmers that I worked with were affiliated with COOPAIN

the local cooperative located in the town of Cabana which is a small town north of the

city of Puno COOPAIN stands for Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash

Cabana COOPAIN is a democratically run organization with elections each year It is

organized into two committees the ManagementAdministration Committee and the

Oversight Committee Each committee has four members three permanent and one

substitute member Under the ManagementAdministration Committee are four

subcommittees Production Education Womenrsquos and Election each with the same

membership size and structure

The education committee focused on promotion of growing quinoa and joining

COOPAIN The education committee was primarily concerned with young people

getting involved in farming to replace the aging farmer population This concern with the

future of farming and the need to attract or keep young people in farming is an important

issue for the continuation of quinoa farming in the altiplano At the education meetings

they answer questions from the audience and also discuss climate change

28

At this cooperative farmers bring their harvested quinoa to the small factory for

processing and refinement The farmers process the quinoa in the field which includes

threshing sifting and winnowing prior to bringing their production to the cooperative in

large bags The cooperative further processes the quinoa by washing the quinoa and

removing the saponins and sorting the quinoa by color These processes will be further

described in the following chapters The cooperative distributes to the national and

global market although sales direct to consumers are also available at the remote

factory COOPAIN provides access to the globalized market due to marketing efforts

that connects the small farmers to the larger market COOPAIN maintains a market

presence through its connections with non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

international and local researchers the press its own outreach programs as well as a

website Since the farmer-members of COOPAIN were selling their crops on the global

market it offered a unique opportunity to see the effects of globalization on the local

farmers and quinoa agrodiversity While the COOPAIN facility is located in Cabana the

members live in the small communities in the surrounding region and they bring their

harvests to Cabana The meetings regarding the operation of COOPAIN occur in

Cabana and this tiny town was a central location for finding participants for this study

A total of 35 farmers affiliated with COOPAIN participated in this study I

personally met with 21 of the 35 farmers conducting a formal survey and semi-

structured interviews The additional 14 farmer participants were surveyed by student

volunteers that both Dr Aro and I trained to interview the participants gather and

record consistent data and demographics using a written interview guide In addition to

the surveys and interviews I observed the manufacturing practices at COOPAIN and

29

met with the management and leadership on several occasions conducting formal

informational and background interviews

As noted above across the period of this study I gathered information from a

variety of more informal sources I visited farmersrsquo markets and also investigated the

local food stores to gather pricing and marketing data on quinoa I attended two

agricultural fairs and observed the display of quinoa products and the competition

regarding quinoa food recipes I met with two governmental officials in Puno to gather

data on regional quinoa production I also visited the Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten

Agraria (INIA) to observe their quinoa research station and interviewed a government

official running the program The information I gathered from INIA related to quinoa

agrodiversity and they had many samples on display in the office I asked for a list of

the quinoa varieties and was told that the information was in their recent publication

which I purchased It turned out that the publication was not quite as helpful or

comprehensive as I had hoped as further discussed in Chapter 4

Agrodiversity and Globalization

Chapter 4 describes the investigation into agrodiversity conservation practices

during globalization of the quinoa market There are several components to this study

to evaluate the agrodiversity of quinoa the first component of this research was to

develop a list of quinoa varieties especially since my research discovered that a

published comprehensive list did not already exist While the popular press reported

thousands of quinoa varieties (eg Cherfas 2016) I discovered that the term ldquovarietyrdquo

was mistakenly used for ldquoaccessionsrdquo associated with seed bank collections which are

not necessarily separate varieties for each accession Thus the number of purported

quinoa varieties was both undocumented and inflated Without the collection of accurate

30

or existing data to use as a starting point I re-tooled my research to establish a set of

data from which I could evaluate the present state of agrodiversity of quinoa and its

relationship to Andean farming culture

To establish a starting point for quinoa agrodiversity I conducted a study of local

quinoa farmers and asked them to list the quinoa varieties that they had grown over the

past two years I also reviewed published research to create a comprehensive list of

quinoa names As research progressed additional varieties were added to the list after

consulting with quinoa experts to determine if the new names were indeed a different

type or just another name for a previously-listed variety Thus this component of the

study created the comprehensive quinoa variety domain

While this research started with an investigation into quinoa variety diversity it

became apparent that the nomenclature for categories within species at least for

quinoa is an area that needs further refinement and consensus which is evaluated in

Chapter 4 While I started this research using the term ldquovarietyrdquo it became readily

apparent that the use of that term was less than clear In Chapter 4 I discuss the race-

based classification systems that have been proposed by Peruvian researchers which

provides an intermediate level of taxonomic classification between species and variety

sometimes referred to as landrace which is a loosely defined term associated with

varieties developed by farmers rather than commercial organizations

The next component of the study was to interview and survey farmers about their

quinoa farming practices including quinoa variety selection This component of the

research investigated the number of different quinoa varieties grown during the recent

season the variety selection and the reasons for both seed selection and variety

31

selection by the farmers This chapter describes the factors involved in variety selection

such as yield environmental conditions culinary qualities as well as seed availability

and the importance of those reasons The sources for seeds are also analyzed as well

as the maintenance of quinoa agrodiversity on the farms To determine a comparative

and current evaluation of the variety yields during the 2014-2015 growing season I also

describe an experiment conducted by Dr Mujica at UNAP and compare it to the

dominant quinoa varieties that were in production during the time of this study

In addition to the compilation of the list I also researched the reasons for

selection of both the varieties as well as how seeds themselves are selected Since

Andean farmers have had to address a high-risk environment for thousands of years

this study investigated the cultural adaptations in seeking to benefit from the global

demand of a local product while still reducing economic risk under current climatic

conditions Producing a crop that can survive the growing season and producing a crop

that is commercially desired may not necessarily be congruent so the selection factors

were investigated to understand the trade-offs and analysis that could affect

agrodiversity maintenance

External market factors may be the reason for lack of crop agrodiversity

maintenance External consumer-driven preferences can influence the market as well

as agrodiversity which Kawa et al (2013) found in their study of social networks of

Amazonian manioc farmers They found that two crop characteristics were desired for

the manioc market high biomass and yellow color As a result varieties that produced

large manioc tubers of a yellow color were selected by farmers for production to the

external market explaining a lower agrodiversity than found in non-market contexts

32

Thus external market demands such as varieties with preferred colors can affect

agrodiversity through human selection In the Andes due to the higher prices for

quinoa other researchers found that farmers were selling their quinoa crops rather than

using them solely for their familiesrsquo consumption (Hellin and Higman 2005) Thus

quinoa is also being grown for the market and therefore the characteristics of the end

product are subject to market pressures and consumer preferences such as preferred

color as well as yield or biomass The dominance of the white sweet flavored large-

grained Bolivian real variety in the international market exemplifies external market

pressures related to color and biomass as well as flavor Color and biomass are but a

few examples of the diverse characteristics of quinoa and a range of other

characteristics are desired for other traditional Andean uses which are described in

Chapter 2

Seed selection is of great importance in agricultural and survival strategies (Tuxill

et al 2010) Andean farms tend to be highly diversified (Zimmerer 2003) The farm

diversity is implemented by using various ecological zones across the terrain (Jacoby

1992) The reason for such high diversity is due to the extreme climate and high risk of

potential crop failure By planting varieties that thrive under various climatic conditions

a harvest is more likely to succeed since at least some of the seeds will thrive in any

given range of climatic conditions (Tuxill et al 2010 Rivera 1998) Thus farmers often

select seeds based on different criteria including color as well as other factors such as

early ripening and yield (Rosero et al 2010 Tuxill et al 2010) Thus while agrodiversity

maintenance is a traditional risk-averting strategy findings also imply that other market-

based or aesthetic factors such as color influence seed selection This research tested

33

these previous findings regarding agrodiversity conservation practices among small-

scale farmers

Due to globalization the concern is the early market entry established limited

characteristics related to color and perhaps sweet taste that could influence Andean

farmersrsquo conservation practices In the global quinoa market the white colored quinoa

Bolivian real is the dominant variety (Castillo et al 2007) and is widely available in US

supermarkets Due to the consumer and market driven desire for a consistent product

the harvests from multiple farms can be collected and managed in a large scale

benefiting larger organizations and distributors Thus commercialized large scale

distribution practices can have the effect of inhibit biodiversity while at the same time

allowing for market entry and competition If farmers grow sweet white quinoa since it is

in demand by the market and discontinue growing the other varieties then there would

be consequences for in situ agrodiversity maintenance

In the past but not that long after quinoa gained global recognition it was

reported that local Andean peasants preserved their biodiversity practices (Apffel-

Marglin 1998) These varieties were often used for subsistence personal and

community purposes with the certain varieties including commercially produced

varieties grown for the external commercial market (Apffel-Marglin 1998) However

due to the more recent global market pressures the observations of Apffel-Marglin

(1998) need to be tested to see if they continue to hold true Quite recently Skarbo

(2015) documented a loss of quinoa diversity in Ecuador in association with

development projects linked to commercialized quinoa varieties raising an alarm for the

preservation of quinoa diversity during what she calls a ldquoquinoa Renaissancerdquo A goal of

34

this study is to analyze these notions of food security and agrobiodiversity in the context

of quinoa variety selection during a time of dramatic price increase In Chapter 4 I also

analyze to a very limited degree the differing roles of men and women in quinoa

agrodiversity conservation and the importance of local experts

In summary this research investigated the historical and current farming

practices that affect agrodiversity maintenance of quinoa during a time of globalization

in the context of culturally-laden meaning due to the long-term beneficial mutual

relationship between quinoa and Andean farmers The dissertation tells the unique

history of this co-evolving relationship between Andeans and quinoa from

domestication thousands of years ago through Spanish suppression of both humans

and quinoa through lingering post-colonial attitudes against ldquodirty Indiansrdquo and ldquoIndian

foodrdquo through the present worldwide acclaim and attention focused on quinoa but not

necessarily its human partners in survival This story involves the success of Andean

people who have not only survived in a harsh climate but have survived through harsh

aspects of human history The mutually-beneficial relationship between Andeans and

quinoa is a survival story that has not concluded Andean farmers cultivated and

nurtured quinoa through thousands of years of harvests resulting in human selection

playing a substantial role in the evolution of the crop alongside other genetic influences

such as natural selection gene flow mutation and genetic drift The result is a highly

diverse species that survived despite competition with introduced crops and animal

husbandry as well as intentional Spanish suppression In return quinoa provided

Andean farmers with a highly nutritious crop that can both thrive in the harsh

environment and also be stored for many years This research looks at the

35

agrodiversity methods farmers use in selecting the types of quinoa to grow during a time

of global pressure to increase production of the crop which can decrease agrodiversity

maintenance through the use of monoculture-type practices adopted from Western

agricultural practices This research has resulted in a compilation of names of different

quinoa varieties to establish a varietal domain to facilitate further investigation into

agrodiversity of the crop I discuss the agrodiversity practices including reasons for

variety selection as well as seed selection I present a survey of current quinoa variety

selection and discuss it in the context of the larger domain of quinoa types and the

future implications for agrodiversity maintenance Thus while monoculture-type

practices have clearly influenced Andean farming practices as demonstrated by the

dominance of the white Bolivian real variety there are ways to prevent further

agrodiversity loss which would be a loss not only to the species but to their millennial-

long partners ndash Andean farmers

36

CHAPTER 2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People

This chapter traces the history of agrodiversity and quinoa in Peru to place the

present status of the globalized quinoa market in historical perspective Quinoa has a

long-term connection among Andean people and a review of the history of the human-

plant relationship explains why and how an agricultural product which was once little

known outside of the Andes attained great global acclaim and associated market

expansion This chapter addresses the questions of what is quinoa and how is it

associated with human culture This chapter describes the botanical nature of quinoa

its taxonomic place and the problems with the classification of varieties as well as the

nutritional benefits and uses it provides to people This chapter also describes the

natural biodiversity and plasticity of the species as well as the effects that history has

had on the survival and success of this plant and what this information may indicate

about the present and future conservation practices

In the Andes there is a diversity of geography and ecology as well as cultures

Peru has a large variety of plants amounting to about 10 of the total plants in the

world Perursquos diverse floral regime includes about 25000 species 128 domesticated

plants and 4400 native species with known uses ranging from food to medicinal to

cosmetic (Powell and Chavarro 2008) The presence of a variety of climates and

ecozones in the Andes favors the generation and maintenance of genetic diversity

(Rivera 1998) This fact alone however does not account for the high rate of diversity

The presence of Andean culture that supports the observation and nurturance of plants

is a key factor in the development of a wide variety of domesticated plants (Rivera

37

1998) Thus humans are an important factor in the generation and maintenance of

biodiversity and Andean cosmology has a role in the successful maintenance of plant

diversity

Plant domestication signified by changes that rely upon human intervention for

continued survival is considered a key factor in the understanding of past human

behavior related to the rise of agriculture Domestication can result in the alteration of

plant life cycles such as reduction in dormancy enhancement of seedling vigor or

enhancement of stored food reserves in seeds and loss of dispersal mechanisms

(Gremillion 1993) A notable difference between domestic and wild plants is that the

latter lack seed dormancy (DeWet and Harlan 1975) Selective pressures linked to

reduced seed dormancy can encourage quick sprouting after planting and increase

survival (Smith 1995) The outer epidermis or testa has an important role in seed

development since it controls imbibition of water and hence seed germination (Smith

1995) The testa thus prevents premature germination in nature and a reduced outer

seed coat testa allow early germination (Gremillion 1993) Domesticated quinoa has a

thin seed coat and is one of the key ways that archaeologists can determine if an

archaeological sample is from a wild or domesticated plant The thin seed coat versions

cannot survive without human intervention even in the Andes (Wilson 1981) and thus

seed coat thickness is an important indicator of domestication The thin seed coat in

domesticated chenopods is the key factor in distinguishing wild from domesticated

versions and hence human intervention

The development of agriculture demonstrates the importance and contribution of

traditional ecological knowledge by farmers in Peru Agriculture developed

38

independently in several disparate locations across the globe One of the most

important locations is the Andes The Andes are one of Vavilovrsquos ldquocenters of

domesticationrdquo (Murphy 2007) including the domestication of 45 species of plants

which is more than all of the domesticated plants in Europe at the time of contact with

the Americas (Rivera 1998)

Many agricultural products were first domesticated in the Andes including

potatoes and quinoa There are 3500 different varieties of potatoes grown in the Andes

(Apffel-Marglin 1998) One province in the Peruvian Andes has more potato diversity

than the entire North American continent (Brush 2005) While potatoes are a well-known

agricultural product of the Andes there are other plants that have gained recent

notoriety Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) kaniwa or canihua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L) also known as amaranth or

love-lies-bleeding were domesticated in Peru thousands of years ago (Langlie et al

2011) More recently however the global community became more informed about the

excellent nutritional value of these products (Repo-Carrasco 2003 Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Massawe et al 2016 Gordillo-Bastidas et al 2016) and demand is at an all-time

high (Jacobsen 2011) Quinoa has become a household word in the US and can be

found at local grocery stores This chapter will review the co-evolving history of humans

and quinoa agrodiversity in Peru along with the cultural significance and scientific

discoveries about this plant

The Fox and the Condor

The Andean people have a unique relationship with quinoa and it is involved in

ritual uses and ceremonies and is a part of Andean cosmology I was told an origin

story by an Aymara participant in this study According to ancient lore in a story called

39

The Fox and the Condor quinoa was responsible for saving the Andean people from

starving recounted below

The fox meets with the condor and wants to go to Pati which is the sky The

condor tells the fox that he must be respectful when he is there and not take or touch

anything The fox agrees and he rides on the condor to Pati When they arrive the fox

sees food and violates the agreement by eating all the food The food was there for a

ceremony but when the others arrive the food was all gone because the fox ate it The

others decide to send the fox back to earth so they prepare a rope to lower the fox back

to earth While the fox was being lowered back to earth about half way down the fox

says some bad things The others then decide to cut the cord and the fox falls to the

earth with his body exploding upon impact Since the foxrsquos stomach was full all of the

food spread across the land including the Andean grains of quinoa kantildeiwa kiwicha

and all the other Andean foods That is why these grains are called the food of the gods

ndash since they fell from the sky If any of these grains are found growing out of fox feces it

is considered good Today traditional Andean people say ldquoquinoa is our liferdquo as

described by a participant since quinoa provides sustenance for their survival

This story which is one of many about quinoa demonstrates the importance of

the native Andean foods in their cosmology as well as survival Andeans understand

the life-sustaining role quinoa and other Andean grains have in their ability to continue

living in the otherwise harsh environment

What is Quinoa

Quinoa or quinua the Spanish spelling of the word (C quinoa Willd) is a

domesticated plant that grows in both the Andes and at lower elevations in South

America and is now being grown in many countries around the world Quinoa is a

40

pseudo-cereal that has been used by South Americans for thousands of years While a

primary use is similar to grains since it is often used to make flour among other things

it is not a grass but rather is a weedy species and inhabits disturbed soil environments

(Wilson 1990) Thus quinoa is an opportunistic species which may account for its wide

variation and adaption to various climates and micro-climates

Depending on growing conditions quinoa plant height can vary from 20 cm to 2

m tall (Simmonds 1965) One gram of grains can have between 250 and 520 fruits

(Simmonds 1965) and thus the yields can be quite different Along with weight quinoa

grains also vary in size with the grain area varying from 256 to 51 mmsup2 (Medina et al

2010) again a factor that can affect yield a factor that is used by farmers for selection

discussed in later chapters Another characteristic of quinoa is that in the domesticated

varieties seed dormancy is absent and germination is rapid (Simmonds 1965) as

previously noted in the context of archaeological samples Thus the quinoa grain

exhibits a wide range of morphology which diversity is not just limited to the grains

Quinoa flowers in a variety of colors and shades of those colors The most widely

known colors are white red and black In 1960 JL Lescano described 42 color tones

and 7 basic colors of quinoa white red purple yellow gray brown and black (Ayala

Olazaacutebal 2015) Additional colors include pink orange and green Thus quinoa has a

wide range of color variation which reflects the diversity of the species at an easily

detectible morphological level Thus for human selection the color of the flower or the

grain can be used to distinguish varieties and to use as a marker for identifying co-

related characteristics beyond color

41

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species

The purpose of taxonomic classification is to facilitate comprehension and

communicate ideas about the relationship of organisms to each other (Stevens 2002)

ldquoHierarchical naming systems pervade our whole language and thought and from this

point of view the Linnaean hierarchy is simply one such systemrdquo (Stevens 200212)

Taxonomies are not just simple descriptions but contain embedded theories about

natural order based on human perceptions of nature (Gould 2000) Thus human beliefs

and perceptions influence taxonomic categorization in attempts to organize and

understand species diversity This concept holds especially true as it relates to the on-

going categorization of varieties in the efforts to understand a diverse species such as

quinoa and its variety of usefulness to humans

Taxonomically quinoa is a member of the Amaranthaceae family The

Amaranthaceae family has dicotyledonous plants that are often halophytic herbs which

are salt-tolerant (Bhargava et al 2009) The chenopods used to be classified in the

Chenopodiaceae family but are now classified in the Amaranthaceae family with

Chenopodiaceae being a sub-family Thus there is a history of confusion and change

regarding the scientific classification of quinoa

Especially in older accounts quinoa and other chenopods have sometimes been

misidentified in the literature as being in the genus Amaranthus (Ford 1981) For

example quinoa has also been mis-identified as Amaranthus caudatus (Simmonds

1965) locally known as kiwicha and indeed this same error occurred during my field

work as further described in Chapter 4 This misidentification makes it difficult to

establish the early history of quinoa based on travelersrsquo accounts and colonial reports

In addition and more recently paleobotanical analysis of pollen often identifies the

42

pollen to the family level as Amaranthaceae rather than to genus thus limiting the

usefulness of such studies to the extent the precise species and variety is needed for

analysis

Finally another reason for the great difficulty in classifying some chenopods is

due to their polyploidy ldquoThe reasons for the taxonomic difficulties are the usual ones

encountered in polyploid complexes involving annual weedy groups viz marked

phenotypic plasticity parallel evolution and putative hybridizationrdquo (Rahiminejad and

Gornal 2004) Thus while polyploidy can lead to great diversity classification systems

attempt to be static and the classification history of quinoa demonstrates the foibles of

attempting to categorize dynamic plants Hartigan (2013) talks about the plasticity of

genomes of which quinoa is a good example The plasticity of quinoa has led to great

agrodiversity of the crop which will be discussed infra yet makes it difficult to classify in

a hierarchical system Considering the problems with classifying quinoa at a genus and

species level attempts to organize quinoa at the variety level for purposes of studying

and evaluating variety diversity are similarly problematic as further discussed in

Chapter 4

Quinoa is a tetraploid (Pickersgill 2007) which means that it is a polyploid plant

that has four times the number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus rather than a single

pair of chromosomes like humans have As a polyploid plant quinoa has genetic

complexity that can contribute to great intra-species diversity

Quinoa is a member of the Chenopodium genus which contains at least 250

species (Rana et al 2010) Other chenopods are present in other parts of the old and

new worlds In Europe lambsquarter or fat hen (C album L) was grown but apparently

43

was not a substantial crop in early history likely due to the availability of other grass

crops that can thrive at the lower elevations (Simmonds 1965) In China C giganticum

is grown for many uses (Maughan et al 2006) and thus the Chenopodium genus is

spread across the globe

Quinoa was assigned to the Chenopodium taxa as its place in the Linnaean

classification system in 1797 and two hundred years later was described as having

ldquoarchaic relictual and rather mysterious elements of the world of ethnoflorardquo (Wilson

199093) Quinoa was initially was thought to be a unique New World domesticated

Chenopodium species but in 1917 it was determined that a second domesticated

Chenopodium species C nuttalliae existed in domesticated form in Mexico (Wilson

and Heiser 1979) and thus quinoa has relatives in other parts of the New World

Alongside quinoa canihua (or kaniwa) (C pallidacuale Aellen) also grows in the Andes

Canihua can grow at higher altitudes and withstands cold better than quinoa (Repo-

Carrasco-Valencia et al 2009)

In Mexico C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae Moq is present in both domesticated and

wild forms This species has three well-known varieties known as huauzontle quelite

and chia roja (Wilson 1981 Glore 2006) In North America goosefoot (C berlandieri

ssp jonesium Moq) was also domesticated but the domesticated variety is now extinct

Wild goosefoot species including C berlandieri ssp zschackei C bushianum C

boscianum and C macrocalycium are present in North America (Maughan et al 2006

Ford 1981) The two most discussed North American species are C berlandieri ssp

zschackei and C bushianum Chenopodium berlandieri ssp zschackei extends across

the US west of the Mississippi as well as the Gulf coast and east of the Mississippi into

44

Wisconsin Illinois Michigan and part of Indiana and is infrequently in Mississippi

Alabama Georgia Florida and the Carolinas (Smith 1992) Chenopodium bushianum

has larger fruits (often called grains) and its geographical range includes much of the

Northeast and Midwest and has been found in Tennessee Alabama and South

Carolina (Smith 1992) The Chenopodium genus has a great number of species that

grow all over the world demonstrating its plasticity

It appears that quinoa was domesticated independently from goosefoot (C

berlandieri) and huauzontle (C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae) (Rana et al 2010 Pickersgill

2007) however it is not yet conclusive whether goosefoot and huauzontle were

domesticated independently (Pickersgill 2007 cf Ford 1981) Past genetic analysis

indicated that another North American species C berlandieri ssp zschackei may be

more closely related to quinoa and may perhaps be an intermediate subspecies

between quinoa and huauzontle (Rana et al 2010) especially since hybrids of quinoa

and C berlandieri ssp zschackei can produce fertile offspring (Maughan et al 2006)

Notably the three New World species discussed above quinoa goosefoot and

huauzontle are all tetraploids (Rahiminejad and Gornall 2009) which can account for

great genetic diversity It has been suggested that quinoa and C berlandieri ssp

zschackei as allotetraploids may share a common ancestor (Rana et al 2010)

Recently the quinoa genome was sequenced and compared to other species

including C berlandieri (goosefoot) C hircinum and C pallidicuale (kaniwa) The

quinoa genome has 44776 genes and the genomic analysis revealed that original

ancestry included the hybridization of two diploids labelled A of likely North American

origin and B of likely Eurasian origin (Jarvis et al 2016) This tetraploidization split

45

occurred 33 to 63 million years ago although Jarvis et al (2016) noted that there has

been some recombination between the A and B sub-genomes across time Now that the

quinoa genome has been sequenced additional genetic analysis can lead to further

hybridization of the species which may lead to more involvement by global agro-

industrial corporations which thus far have had limited success in tapping into the

quinoa market from a production standpoint While there are many smaller companies

involved in quinoa production including growing and marketing quinoa products the

large multi-national corporations that dominate many agricultural systems do not

presently dominate the quinoa market and do not grow significant yields or otherwise

dominate the quinoa market at the sales or distribution level The genetic manipulation

of quinoa can lead to the creation of new varieties that are qualified to receive a patent

and will surely bring significant changes to the global quinoa market in the future

History of Quinoa in the Andes

Humans have had a direct relationship with quinoa for thousands of years

Quinoa is a domesticated species with human selection occurring perhaps as early as

15000 years ago (Wilson 1990) although that date is not confirmed by the

archaeological record While the precise time when human manipulation of quinoa

plants began is unknown archaeological evidence indicates that quinoa was an

important agricultural product by the Formative Period 2000 BC in Peru (Bruno 2008)

Quinoa use pre-dates the Inca and Wari ceremonial vases have figures of quinoa on

them (Tapia et al 201413) Archaeologists continue to investigate Bolivian and

Peruvian archaeological sites with regard to the archaeobotany of the Lake Titicaca

Basin (Langlie et al 2011 Rumold 2010 Whitehead 2007) providing additional depth

of history and knowledge of the inception of agriculture and domestication of quinoa

46

Quinoa is often marketed in the US as the food of the Inca gods due to its

current cachet and popularity in Western diets thus associating it with its deep historical

association with a famous civilization Over the past several decades quinoa has

vaulted from a crop threatened with extinction to a popular food product readily

available in grocery stores across the US and elsewhere in the world The reputation of

quinoa has gone from low status ldquoIndian foodrdquo to high status health food The

relationship between humans and quinoa has evolved across time and is a dynamic

fluid relationship As Medin and Atran state ldquoMuch of human history has been spent

(and is being spent) in intimate contact with plants and animals and it is difficult to

imagine that human cognition would not be molded by that factrdquo (Medin and Atran

19991) The human-quinoa interspecies relationship can provide insight into the

concepts of biodiversity through understanding the knowledge of the people who have

been connected in time and space with the plant

Historically the three major agricultural foods in the Andes were maize potatoes

and quinoa (Wilson 1990) However there are limitations on growing food at elevations

over 10000 feet where quinoa is harvested (Simmonds 1965) While quinoa and

potatoes are grown in the altiplano corn is rarely grown with any success due to the

harsh climate Of these three products both corn and potato were adopted into

European diets during the colonial period but not so for quinoa and today corn and

potatoes rank among the most widely grown food products across the world

Quinoa was an important food crop in the Andes at the time of European contact

(Simmonds 1965) Quinoa was sacred to the Incas who called it chisiya mama or

mother grain (NRC 1989149) Quinoa was considered to have significance to the Inca

47

above other crops (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Quinoa was used by the Inca to produce

fermentation of chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of

harvest and sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and

so ensure prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Figure 2-1 is a depiction of Pachamama

holding quinoa based on an undated bronze artifact from an archaeological context in

Argentina

Figure 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches -Image credit Mintzer 193360

Thus quinoa was closely linked to spiritual beliefs and ritual practices at the time of

European contact The production of chicha using quinoa continues today as does the

reverence for Pachamama

48

Perhaps due to its ritual role Europeans did not adopt quinoa into their

agriculture (Maughan et al 2007) Plants can be perceived as having magic (Kawa

2012) In articulating several reasons for the decline in quinoa production Mujica et al

(2013) specifically listed magic

The conquistadores fear the lsquomagic quinoarsquo They believed that consuming quinoa and the religious ceremonies with quinoa were the same and they might attribute extraordinary forces to the Indians and endanger the conquest (Mujica et al 201311) This colonial concern that a plant could have the ability to empower people thus

threatening colonial conquest and domination caused the Spaniards to engage in

discrimination and suppression against quinoa to suppress this perceived powerful

alliance between quinoa and Andeans Ceremonial and ritually significant indigenous

foods such as quinoa were ldquotargeted for extinctionrdquo during the Spanish colonial period

(Wilson 1990108) European colonization dramatically affected quinoa production

relegating it to a low status food associated with the indigenous population with its

production shrinking in range through much of the 20th century (Wilson 1990)

Instead of being adopted into European cuisine quinoa remained an indigenous

local food In a report by the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG Kew) in 1909 it was

noted that quinoa was a food of the ldquoIndians or the laboring classesrdquo (RBG Kew 1909)

providing an example of the discrimination against people eating quinoa and it was

considered ldquoIndian foodrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 201526 Bazile et al 2014) a derogatory

reference based on continuing neocolonial mind-sets that considered Indians to be

inferior to either the white or the mestizo population Based on recent ethnographic

research at least in Puno quinoa sometimes is still perceived as food for poor people

with rich people eating rice noodles and chicken (Aguumlero Garcia 2014) although

49

quinoa is marketed to tourists today and there is a strong native Peruvian food

revitalization movement Thus while the production of quinoa was suppressed by the

Spaniards due to its ritual use along with neo-colonial perceptions of low social status

associated with Indians that lingered until recent globalization and coupled with

competition from other newly introduced crops as well as animals quinoa production

declined except in Andean regions where its cultural significance survived European

contact and neo-colonial discrimination against indigenous Andeans and quinoa

Besides the history of suppression and racism associated with ldquoIndian foodrdquo

another reason postulated for the reduction in quinoa production was the introduction of

sheep and cattle as alternative sources of protein (Mujica et al 2013) The increased

competition with broad beans oats and barley is yet another reason for the past decline

in quinoa production (Wilson 1990) In 1990 Wilson remarked that ldquothis leafy grain

apparently failed in direct global competition with the true cerealsrdquo (Wilson 199096)

although at the time of Wilsonrsquos publication the trend was changing and he was

apparently referring to the earlier decline across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This fact however has changed since then While Europeans failed to recognize the

value of quinoa for hundreds of years South American indigenous communities

continued to cultivate quinoa Thus much of the traditional indigenous knowledge is still

present in these farming communities and can be key to the conservation of the

biodiversity Cultural traditions therefore are very important in the understanding of

Andean agriculture and ecosystems

Perhaps quinoarsquos symbolic representation of Inca or indigenous culture coupled

with the time-consuming processing required to remove the toxic saponins (Safford

50

1968 [1915]) dissuaded Europeans from adopting quinoa into their diets Consuming

quinoa without first removing the saponins which requires vigorous abrasion of the

seeds and washing with water can have unpleasant effects on the digestive tract as

well as having an unpleasant bitter taste Either reason or perhaps both may have

contributed to the European rejection of quinoa starting with colonial times

While Europeans failed to recognize the value of quinoa for hundreds of years

South American indigenous communities managed to maintain quinoa as a

domesticated plant for personal and local consumption Indigenous Andean women are

responsible for approximately 70 of agricultural work (Tapia and De La Torre 1997)

so it is likely that women were the conservators of quinoa knowledge and diversity

through silent resistance to colonial domination Thus despite the rejection of quinoa by

European colonizers quinoa survived in remote indigenous populations that

maintained traditional knowledge and practices

While quinoa was not adopted into European cuisine it has been described

across time in various reports emanating from the Andes by European and American

explorers and scientists In 1551 Spaniard Pedro Valdivia described fields of Chilean

quinoa which he called quingua (Wilson 1990) Other early explorers including

Garcilaso de la Vega also described quinoa and stated that it resembled millet or short-

grained rice (Mujica et al 2013) Such descriptions continued into the 19th and 20th

centuries (eg Ledesma and Bollaert 1856 Jameson 1861 Forbes 1870 Milstead

1928) Ledesman and Bollaert (1856) noted that quinoa was grown on the island of

Lake Titicaca Forbes (1870) noted the different varieties of quinoa that were yellow

red and white and called it Inca rice a hint at the diversity of the crop while

51

acknowledging that it was a Chenopodium species In 1891 Safford observed the time-

consuming processing of quinoa grains in Bolivia and found it to have good flavor

(Safford 1968 [1915]) In 1931 Standley noted that quinoa was a common crop in the

Andes due to its edible seeds Thus across time explorers and researchers took note of

quinoa although it was not adopted into European cuisine and therefore not widely

known

While indigenous Andeans maintained local quinoa production botanists

continued to explore species across the globe including lesser-known plants In the

1800s Alexander von Humboldt observed that quinoa was like ldquolsquowine was to the

Greeks wheat to the Romans cotton to the Arabsrsquordquo (NRC 1989151) Quinoa was a

plant that was observed by scientists known and classified yet was not otherwise well-

known to global consumers maintaining an air of mystery to it What was this plant that

the Spaniards rejected yet that still managed to survive

In 1909 the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens issued a short report on quinoa and

noted an interest by Americans for potential import into the US (RBG Kew 1909) In

1928 quinoa was described in a published survey of Peruvian agricultural crops

(Milstead 1928) At that time it was reported to be grown in small patches but spread

out across the landscape of farms Milstead noted that quinoa provides ldquoa palatable and

nutritious article of food for the highland Indiansrdquo (Milstead 1928101) although he does

not otherwise describe how he came to the conclusion that it was a nutritious food In a

Spanish language publication Mintzer (1933) published an extensive article on the

botanical cultural and agronomic characteristics of quinoa including study in the

Peruvian altiplano and included nutritional data Mintzer (1933) also noted the presence

52

of different varieties that could be distinguished by pigmentation and ecological zone

growing conditions a noteworthy acknowledgement of the agrodiversity based on both

color and environment in which he used the terms ldquovarietiesrdquo and ldquoracesrdquo somewhat

interchangeably

While there were prior hints at the nutritional value of quinoa (eg Milstead

1928) over the past fifty years or more there have been ongoing studies of the

nutritional values of quinoa (Eg Repo-Carrasco 1991 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003

Repo de Carrasco 2014 Villa et al 2014) Much of this scholarship is based in South

America often presented at conferences but not often published in scholarly journals

and rarely in English language journals Between 1970 and 1986 there were at least 43

published papers about quinoa over half of which were in Spanish and most of which

were published in gray literature (Rafats 1986) While there was much information about

quinoa in the South American scholarly articles and gray literature not all of it is widely

distributed or easily accessible which may have also delayed its explosion onto the

world market until the scientific analysis was more widely-accessible More widespread

publications of the nutritional benefits of quinoa in English language articles along with

the growing popularity of health foods in the US and Europe led to the rise in global

consumption

The rejection of quinoa continued well past Spanish colonial domination and in

1950 Sauer reported that quinoa has now retreated from the extremities of its earlier

range but is still a characteristic food plant of the Inca-dominated Highlands (Sauer

1950) In the mid-1960s it was also reported that quinoa was in decline in Ecuador

Chile and Argentina and absent in Columbia (Simmonds 1965) In 1965 Simmonds

53

reported that quinoa had excellent protein content especially as compared to other

cereals and noted that ldquothe uses to which this plant are put are intimately bound up with

the lore and customs of the people that grow themrdquo (232) Again the nutritional value of

quinoa was noted in the scientific literature without much acclaim Simmonds (1965)

however acknowledged the meaningful interspecies relationship between quinoa and

Andeans by including the intimate connection between quinoa people and customs

In 1968 an international convention on quinoa and kantildeiwa was held in Puno

Peru organized by prominent South American scientists to demonstrate and

consolidate their efforts to emphasize the importance of Andean grains to modern

science (NRC 1989) Over a decade later some of those same South American

scientists published what the National Research Council has called a ldquomajor

collaborative work on quinoa and kaniwardquo (NRC 198913) referring to Tapia et al

1979 Notwithstanding the scholarship and efforts of Andean researchers who

extensively studied quinoa the National Research Council acknowledged that they

ldquostruggled for decades to promote them in the face of deeply ingrained prejudices in

favor of European foodrdquo (NRC 1989v) Thus not only were quinoa and other Andean

products disparaged as inferior ldquoIndian foodrdquo the efforts by Andean scholars were also

affected by this bias

Events occurred in the 1970s and 1980s that would lead quinoa to the global

market The scientific community continued to study quinoa including its nutritional

value and in 1975 scientists reported that quinoa was ldquoa little known plant hellip with a

high protein contentrdquo that could contribute to food security if problems associated with

processing were resolved (Brown and Pariser 1975) referring to the saponin removal

54

process Scientific interest in quinoa started to increase and in 1980 in Peru the

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria established the Programa de Cultivos

Andinos which included investigations into quinoa (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Across the

border international marketing of Bolivian quinoa began in 1983 when the national

quinoa growers association was established (ANAPQUI) (Jacobsen 2011) The main

producers and exporters of quinoa currently are in Bolivia and Peru Quinoa is also

cultivated in Colombia Ecuador Argentina and Chile (Medina et al 2010) Quinoa is

also grown in lesser amounts in various countries around the world

In 1986 the FAO defined quinoa as a strategic food crop for the Andes and later

acknowledged its high nutritional value Based on this acclaim by a world-renowned

organization quinoa was no longer a ldquosecond-rate productrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015 26)

The National Research Council collaborated with over 600 scientists to produce a book

in 1989 called ldquoLost Crops of the Incasrdquo led by Dr Hugh Popenoe of the University of

Florida and included quinoa as one of the so-called lost crops These crops including

the ldquoglowing grainsrdquo of quinoa were aptly described in connection with the Andean

people (NRC 19893) The NRCrsquos comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-blooded

Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including the

ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and people

through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food The NRC commented

that ldquoBecause it is now primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing

its production is a good way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo

(NRC 1989150) Thus even in 1989 quinoa was still considered food for the poor with

both viewed together through a socio-economic lens

55

The relationship between quinoa and Andeans was also noted by Wilson (1990)

who similarly observed the relationship between the race of people and the status of

quinoa in a paper published in 1990 he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed

complexesrdquo where the wild parent plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the

domesticated varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial

areasrdquo associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including

the Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo (Wilson 1990108) provided a

place for both indigenous Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes

from the outside world Wilson observed as other scientists before him that there was

a strong association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and

culture and the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and

plant diversity thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live

side-by-side Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both

survived colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency Thus while

Wilson could observe as recently as 1990 that quinoa was in a downward spiral from a

production standpoint struggling to survive much as their human Andean counterparts

prior literature regarding the nutritional value hinted at things to come Over time the

world re-discovered what the Andeans already knew quinoa is a high-value nutritional

food source worthy of consumer attention and acclaim as demonstrated by its

noteworthy rise on the world market and place on grocery shelves across the Western

world

Resurgence of Quinoa

Quinoa gained international attention in 1993 from a report by NASA in which it

was identified as suitable for astronauts on long-term space missions (Bubenheim and

56

Schlick 1993) Due to its high protein value and unique combination of amino acids

including lysine NASA concluded that it is a food that can provide life-sustaining

nutrients from one species Interestingly NASA noted the varying colors of quinoa and

speculated that the colors are associated with ldquoeco-typesrdquo hinting at diversity of the

species but not further explaining the significance of these factors or what they mean by

ldquoeco-typerdquo The results of this NASA report had a significant effect on the worldwide

market If quinoa was a premium food for astronauts it was a commodity that health

food stores certainly wanted in stock Gradually the quinoa market in the US

expanded from health food stores to mainstream grocers

Twenty years after the NASA report the United Nations (UN) named 2013 to be

the Year of Quinoa (UN Resolution 66221 22 December 2011) (UN 2011b) This

proclamation elevated quinoa to an exclusive club alongside other UN designated

years including lofty goals such as education human rights peace literacy biodiversity

and sustainable energy to name a few The reason that quinoa achieved such

accolades by the UN was due to its high nutritional status The resolution seeking this

status stated the importance of quinoa and of the indigenous people who grow it (UN

2011b)

Recognizing that Andean indigenous peoples through their traditional knowledge and practices of living well in harmony with mother earth and nature have maintained controlled protected and preserved quinoa in its natural state including its many varieties and landraces as food for present and future generations Affirming the need to focus world attention on the role that quinoa biodiversity plays owing to the nutritional value of quinoa in providing food security and nutrition the eradication of poverty in support of the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals including the Millennium Development Goals and the outcome document of the High-Level Plenary Meeting on the Millennium Development Goals

57

Recalling the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (13-17 November 1996) the Declaration of the World Food Summit five years later (10-13 June 2002) and the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (16-18 November 2009) Affirming the need to heighten public awareness of the nutritional economic environmental and cultural properties of quinoa The recognition given to this traditional food crop by the UN is linked to important

issues including global food security and eradication of poverty Notably the UN

acknowledged that traditional Andean practices and relationship with nature have

conserved quinoa varieties for future generations This UN declaration acknowledged

the scientific contributions of the traditional Andean farmers and also emphasized the

environmentally-sensitive sustainable traditional farming practices they need Notably

the UN declaration points out that the Andean people preserved the biodiversity of the

quinoa agricultural complex including its ldquonatural state including its many varieties and

landracesrdquo (UN 2011b) This statement harkens to Wilsonrsquos (1990) observation about

the importance of the intact ldquocropweedrdquo complex associated with the indigenous people

who maintained this agricultural strategy Thus the selection of quinoa as the focus of a

UN ldquoyear ofrdquo sends multiple messages about the relationship of quinoa to the Andean

people and their harmonious farming practices and traditions and their joint

contributions to the world including the biodiversity maintenance of varieties drawing

an interesting parallel between plants and humans where diversity maintenance can

lead to worldwide contributions to humanity including global-scale food security and

support of UN Millennium Goals

What is interesting about quinoa is that it is a relative newcomer to the world

market Since 1959 the UN has elevated three crops to the ldquoYear ofrdquo status rice

58

(2004) potato (2008) quinoa (2013) (UN nd) and more recently pulses (legumes

including beans peas lentils and chickpeas) (UN 2016) While both potato and quinoa

originated in the Andes and were domesticated there of the two only the potato was

taken to Europe during early colonization by Spain and adopted into foodways across

the globe While quinoa was part of the Andean diet when the Spaniards arrived it was

not adopted into European diets and was relegated the status of ldquoIndian foodrdquo Thus

for quinoa to achieve UN recognition a mere five years after the potato is a remarkable

shift in status While both have been lauded by the UN a distinction between potatoes

and quinoa is the relative nutritional value of these products with quinoa being highly

nutritional compared to potato as has been revealed by recent scientific investigation

While quinoa is a crop that is endemic to the Andes it is presently being grown in

various countries across the globe (Figure 2-2) According to FAO databases however

the only countries that export quinoa in quantity are Bolivia Peru and Ecuador

although it is grown in all the Andean countries as well as scattered locations across

the world including the US and Canada

Source Bazile et al 2014

Figure 2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013

59

The expansion of quinoa production beyond the Andean countries is fairly recent

although there were some noteworthy earlier efforts including in Kenya and the US

Figure 2-3 shows plots the growth in the number of UN countries that grow quinoa from

1900 to 2014

Source Bazile et al 2016

Figure 2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa

The interest in quinoa as a global food product sharply increased in conjunction with

increased scientific and development efforts as well as the recognition due to the UN

Year of Quinoa Thus quinoa now has widespread global acceptance and other

countries are growing or attempting to grown quinoa This chart tracks the history of

quinoa outlined above and shows that an increase in global production was associated

with significant historical events including the formation of the quinoa producers

association in Bolivia in the early 1980s to the expanded scientific investigation from

the 1980s to the present

60

Peru Bolivia and Ecuador are the only significant sources of quinoa for export

more countries are involved in growing quinoa or conducting research on how to grow

quinoa under their climate conditions While the FAO does not list the US as a quinoa

exporter it is being grown in various locations including Colorado Washington

Oregon California and Utah There are different companies in the US that are involved

in quinoa sales including Ancient Harvests Quinoa Corporation Quinoa Foods

Company Keen One Quinoa Inca Organics Eden Foods Alter Eco Foods Quaker

Oats and Trader Joersquos The Ancient Harvests company claims to be the first company

to import quinoa into the US from Bolivia in 1983 Farms in the US that grow quinoa

include White Mountains Farm in Colorado and Lundberg Family Farms in California

Quinoa is also grown in Canada and Northern Quinoa Production Company both grows

and markets quinoa products While the global quinoa market is dominated by Peru and

Bolivia and Ecuador to a lesser extent production has expanded across the globe and

there is no doubt that there will be a larger global presence in the future including large

multi-national industrial agriculture corporations

Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa

Based on its unique history of being an important ritual food then suppressed by

the Spanish then once again returning to high acclaim by the scientific community

quinoa has left its mark on the global stage This section reviews scientific investigation

into the nutritional qualities and values of quinoa

Quinoa is high in protein especially as compared to other cereal crops (Table 2-

3 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) While Repo-Carrasco et al (2003) found that quinoa had

144 g100 g of protein the actual protein contents vary 12-17 depending on the

variety (Murphy et al 2016)

61

Table 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa

PRODUCT PROTEIN CONTENT g100g FAT CONTENT g100g

QUINOA 144 6 COMMON RYE 134 18 BARLEY 118 18 OATS 116 52 CORN 111 49 ENGLISH WHEAT 105 26 RICE 91 22

Source Data compiled from Repo-Carrasco et al 2003181

Quinoa contains amino acids that are similar to casein which is milk protein

(Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) ldquoThe amino acid content of the quinoa grainacutes protein

meets the amino acid requirements recommended for preschool children school

children and adultsrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa provides an important protein for human

growth and is likened to the importance of milk in a childrsquos modern diet Beyond its

protein content quinoa contains high calcium magnesium iron copper and zinc

content In addition to the grains quinoa leaves also contain protein as well as calcium

phosphorous and iron (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003)

Quinoa contains fatty acids that are about 82 unsaturated (Repo-Carrasco et

al 2003) Since it contains omega 3 and omega 6 it helps reduce LDL (or bad

cholesterol) and helps raise HDL (or good cholesterol) (UN 2011a) Quinoa also

contains tocopherols as Vitamin E which is an antioxidant This protects cell

membranes against free radical attack thus providing additional health benefits (Repo-

Carrasco et al 2003)

The carbohydrates in quinoa seeds contain between 58 and 68 starch and 5

sugar Quinoa is also a good energy source that is slowly released into the body due to

its high fiber content (UN 2011a)

62

In addition to the high nutritional value quinoa also has a high percentage of total

dietary fiber As such quinoa is a food that can be used to detoxify the body (UN

2011a) Quinoa also has the ability to absorb water and remain for a longer period of

time in the stomach (UN 2011a) The dietary fiber in quinoa promotes intestinal transit

and regulates cholesterol (UN 2011a)

Interestingly quinoa has two phytoestrogens deaidzein and cenisteina These

two phytoestrogens help prevent osteoporosis In addition they may alleviate disorders

caused by the lack of estrogen during menopause (UN 2011a) Due to these various

properties of quinoa it certainly deserves the title ldquosuperfoodrdquo

Quinoa is also gluten free and provides an excellent alternative to grains such as

wheat (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) Some studies indicate that the consumption of

quinoa by people with celiac disease improves their condition (UN 2011) Thus quinoa

is an alternative food source for populations with food sensitivities Quinoa is now being

touted as an alternative for a gluten-free diet has anti-oxidant characteristics linked to

cancer preventions (Villa et al 2014) and has anti-inflammatory effects (Yao et al

2014) all of which are prevalent health concerns today

Fueled by studies of quinoarsquos nutritional value which is now well-known the

global market has expanded and consumer choices across the world can affect the

farming practices of Andeans The next section discusses the Andean uses of quinoa

which is also a part of the deep history of this human-plant relationship

How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa

Prior to the globalization of quinoa the crop was primarily used for personal

consumption and was not historically a cash crop (Jacobsen 2011) While globalization

has changed quinoa into a cash crop Andeans still use quinoa and this section

63

describes the current uses of quinoa by Andeans Many commercial quinoa products

are currently available on the Peruvian consumer food market (Figure 2-4) All parts of

the plants can be used for various products and uses While Andean people primarily

consumed quinoa as food it also has a variety of other uses including medicinal ritual

cultural artistic industrial and for animal forage In acknowledging the link between

traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found that those who eat more

traditional foods maintain higher levels of farm diversity both between and within

species Thus having a strong tradition of quinoa use has a positive correlation with

agrodiversity and the variety of Andean uses for quinoa demonstrates this link

Various parts of the plant have different uses Quinoa grains are the primary

focus of production although other parts of the plant including the flower stems and

leaves also have economic value The leaves are similar to spinach and are also

consumed either as a salad or potherb (Simmonds 1965) Thus while quinoa is

commonly associated today as a nutritious grain the quinoa plant is very productive

and plays a diverse role in Andean culture and economy

Figure 2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products Image Credit Deborah Andrews

2012

64

Food

As previously noted quinoa is an important Andean food product Quinoa is

consumed as a part of any meal of the day including snacks Quinoa varieties can have

different flavors which can sometimes be distinguished based on the color although

there are also flavor distinctions within the same color but based on different varieties

In addition the texture varies based on variety with some varieties preferred for certain

recipes and uses Different quinoa varieties have culinary qualities that are used for

different cooking purposes For example chullpi is used for soups pasankalla is used

for toasting altiplano is used for flour and real is used for pissara or grains (Mujica et

al 2001) Black quinoa is harder to cook and harder to grind for flour Thus Andeans

have distinct culinary uses for the different types or varieties of quinoa which

underscores the relevance of agrodiversity The selection of quinoa varieties based on

culinary uses is further explored in Chapter 4 which focuses on agrodiversity and

farmer variety selection

Grain Products

The grain is the primary focus of quinoa production Andeans frequently

consume quinoa in the form of grain which is boiled with two parts water and one part

quinoa similar to rice The grains can be used in many recipes in the place of rice

although in the Andes rice appears to be more frequently consumed than quinoa The

grains are often used to make porridge and soups A common Andean dish is peske

which is boiled quinoa served with milk as depicted in Figure 2-5 The variety used for

the peske that I was served was kancolla which has a large grain so it can be prepared

like rice In addition to boiling the grain can be toasted or puffed

65

Figure 2-5 Peske Image Credit Deborah Andrews 2014

Since the time of the Inca quinoa has been used to produce fermentation of

chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of harvest and

sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and so ensure

prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) In Quechua culture Isbell (1978) observed that

quinoa was added to corn-based chicha to make a special ritual drink called machka

celebrating the first planting of the season Andeans also presently prepare a juice from

quinoa usually made with orange juice Indeed chicha is widely available in Peru

beyond the Andes and is a symbol of national pride and patrimony

A more trendy use of quinoa is the manufacture of protein bars containing

combinations of quinoa and other products such as peanuts kiwicha or cantildeihua which

are sold in modern grocery stores in Peru These bars are similar in style and

convenience to granola bars and appear to be a more recent modern consumer

product since I did not see these bars being either sold or consumed in small stores in

villages or by farmers

66

Processed Quinoa

While raw quinoa grain is the primary form of the product that is sold

commercially and for export there is also a market for products that are further

processed and used in forms other than as raw grain Processed quinoa products can

be found in Peruvian grocery stores and include items such as quinoa flour as well as

products made using quinoa flour such as pasta There are a variety of modern recipes

for quinoa using either the grains or milled flour The grains are milled into flour for

baking purposes for bread and other products Based on my use of quinoa flour it

makes a stiffer product than wheat flour so it is not necessarily an acceptable substitute

for bread wheat flour unless a firmer product is desired such as in crisp cookies

Quinoa is also milled to make flakes which can be used as a breakfast food or added

to yogurt smoothies purees soups and drinks (Montoya Restrepo et al 2005) Quinoa

smoothies can be purchased from roadside vendors in Puno as a quick portable

breakfast Other Peruvian retail products include a breakfast porridge that combines

quinoa flakes with oatmeal A limited variety of quinoa products are sold in retail stores

in the United States including pasta and baby food

In the Andes one of the local complaints about consuming quinoa relates to the

length of time it takes to prepare If the quinoa grain has not been processed past the

winnowing stage the grain needs to be further prepared before cooking This important

step is the removal of the saponins Due to the mild toxicity of the saponins they need

to be removed prior to cooking This is done by abrading the grain to remove the outer

layer as well as washing the grains and disposing of the waste-water For quinoa that is

exported on the global market the saponin removal process can occur at different

stages of the distribution chain including by the end-use consumer However most

67

quinoa on the US market today already has the saponin removed with no additional

rinsing needed by the consumer although this was not always the case

Another time-consuming tedious process is the grinding of quinoa into flour The

traditional method of milling quinoa is to actually grind the grains on a mill stone using

an oblong stone tool as depicted in Figure 2-6 One informant said that when he was a

child when he came home from school he would have to grind quinoa using the grind

stone before he could go out to play He said that he resents quinoa due to this

childhood chore While modern electric mills are now available the female informants

agreed that stone ground quinoa tastes better than the modern processing and that they

can tell the difference in flavor between the two milling practices A problem of

modernization however is that at least in the Juli region south of Puno the man who

makes the stone grinding tools is getting old and no one else in the area is known to

make the stone grinding tools COOPAIN has an industrial mill at their processing plant

in Cabana for the members to mill their quinoa into flour for personal consumption

Figure 2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools Image

credit Deborah Andrews 2014

68

Masamora is a dish made with quinoa flour with added calcium obtained from

rocks Figure 2-7 depicts masamora along with other quinoa food products Masamora

is cooked into a paste-like dish usually eaten for breakfast Krsquoispina is steamed quinoa

dough Many families have their own special krsquoispina recipe for lunch as well as for trips

Traditional Andeans also use krsquoispina formed into special shapes for ritual ceremonial

purposes

Figure 2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products Image credit Deborah Andrews

2014

Medicine

While scientists are studying medicinal values of quinoa (Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Yao et al 2014 Navruz-Varley and Sanlier 2016) various parts of the quinoa

plant are used in traditional Aymara medicine (UN 2011) as well as Quechua medicine

The seeds leaves and stems are used to cure many diseases (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015)

Traditional healing uses include as an antiseptic gargle heartburn relief constipation

relief nausea relief as a poultice as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory (UN

2011a) In addition quinoa is traditionally used to treat liver problems tonsillitis fever

69

urinary problems contusions hemorrhages bowel disorders wounds insect bites loss

of blood irritation loss of appetite loss of strength insomnia headache dizziness

anemia loss of focus and to prevent osteoporosis (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Thus in

addition to having an important role as a food product in Andean diets quinoa also is

traditionally used for a variety of medical ailments

Ajara or wild quinoa which is black colored is normally used for traditional

medicine usually by community members who specialize in healing Traditional

medicine can be purchased at the open-air farmersrsquo markets in Puno Ajara is not

normally used for consumption because it does not taste good since it is bitter

however it is used for medicinal purposes such as paste placed on the body next to

broken bones The black quinoa has more saponin than the other varieties and is used

for medicine against cancer and diabetes based on folk knowledge Recent research

on saponins in quinoa have linked it to anti-inflammatory properties (Yao et al 2014)

providing scientific support for traditional Andean medicine Based on this recent

scientific confirmation of medicinal values black quinoa is now fetching a higher price

since it is considered to have medicinal value which is being more widely-reported and

studied In other parts of the world C album has been used for medicinal purposes

(Bharagava et al 2009) Scientific analysis has revealed that Chenopodium has

antibacterial antifungal anti-parasitic anthelmintic antispasmodic antipruritic and

antinociceptive properties (Bharagava et al 2009) Thus properties of quinoa have

medicinal value and research into the variety distinctions from a medicinal or

therapeutic perspective can potentially contribute to efforts to conserve agrodiversity

70

Another medicinal use of quinoa is in relation to the practice of chewing coca In

the Andes coca is often used to alleviate symptoms of hypoxia related to the high

altitude and is also used as a stimulant which can also suppress hunger Alkaline from

the ash of burned quinoa stems (lliptu) is used for coca chewing (Simmonds 1965) The

stems of the quinoa plant are still considered to be the best for this purpose as

compared to other kinds of plants Thus quinoa has a variety of traditional and

scientifically confirmed medical benefits and the correlation of the beneficial properties

with certain varieties can provide impetus to conserve agrodiversity

Ritual Uses

Andean farmers have a close relationship with nature Many believe in

Pachamama or Earth Mother as well as the presence of spirits in the rivers springs

and tombs This cosmology also extends to sharing quinoa with other species such as

birds as exemplified by the lack of vigor to some degree in keeping birds away from

their crop because they do not want the birds to ldquocryrdquo This spiritual religion is a close

relationship between life and the actions of the farmer in the fields (Ayala Olazaacutebal

2015)

As noted above Andeans ferment quinoa to make chicha (Simmonds 1965)

Chicha is fermented with quinoa and is involved in religious and magical ancestral

ceremonies in giving to the Earth (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) This is likely one of the most

well-known ritual and culturally-laden uses of quinoa linked to Andean cosmology

Traditional Andeans make different shapes by hand from a quinoa flour

preparation called krsquoispina as noted above which are used for different festivals and

celebrations including the Carnival celebration and All Saints Day During the San Juan

Festival which is in June some people make animal shapes with this form of quinoa

71

The San Juan Festival is the day of the farmer Families have specific shapes that they

use for this product and community members recognize who made the product due to

their trademark-like shape Among the Aymara quinoa dough was used to make

figurines and shapes such as babies llamas and wreaths for use at funerals (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) Thus quinoa is not only symbolic it is used to make other

symbols

One quinoa variety has alternating white and red panicles on the same plant

Andeans usually do not eat this variety which is called miste misti misa quinua misa

jiura or mistiza but it is used in Pachamama rituals There is a ceremonycelebration

for Pachamama in which there are offerings of quinoa corn habas and guinea pig

blood The reason they use guinea pig blood is because guinea pigs reproduce quickly

and the farmers are asking Pachamama for a high yield agricultural production

Consumer Products

Quinoa can also be processed for products such as oils starch saponin and

coloring (UN 2011a) These extractions are used to produce a variety of consumer

products such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (UN 2011a) Saponins are a mixture

of triterpene glycosides and over 100 different saponins have been identified in quinoa

(Jarvis et al 2017) Saponins are mildly toxic so they are extracted before

consumption and can then be used for other items making it an efficient use of the

plant Quinoa is also used to make industrial alcohol cartons paper starch flour oil

shampoo creams detergent and industrial colorants (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Red

quinoa is used to redden lips as well as for dye

72

Animal Forage

The quinoa plant is also used for livestock forage Waste leaves and stems are

used for livestock feed for their high protein content (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Animals

however cannot consume the dried stalks One study suggests that quinoa be grown in

Colombia as sustainable forage for livestock (Rosero et al 2010) Thus quinoa can be

marketed as livestock forage which may be appealing in locations where grass does

not grow well

During this study a local professor suggested that there should be development

projects introducing more chickens to Andean farms since there is a lot of quinoa grain

waste during harvesting The chickens could feed upon the quinoa that falls to the

ground during the harvest thereby providing a nutritious animal feed Indeed chickens

were ready to eat quinoa during threshing and provided a source of humor for me while

I observed farming demonstrations

One problem with introducing more chickens to the Andes is that they need to

become acclimated to the lower-oxygen environment much like humans so the

introduction of chickens from lower elevations can be problematic The alternative would

be to breed the chickens acclimated to the highlands Chickens can thrive at the high

elevations but while I observed chickens on many farms there often were less than 10

chickens and therefore appeared to be for household egg production rather than

commercial production Large scale egg production occurs in Bolivia with eggs shipped

into Peru and the Bolivian chickens have apparently adapted to the environmental

conditions

73

Fuel

The dried stalks left over from quinoa processing can be used for fuel When it is

available it is used for fuel in earthen ovens that are constructed to bake potatoes and

oca The quinoa stalks are used to start the fire and get the embers going The root

foods are poured in the oven then the oven is then collapsed during cooking (Figures 2-

8)

A B

C D Figure 2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven A) Lighting fire with quinoa

stems B) Pouring potatoes and oca into oven C) View of potatoes and oca in oven and D) Collapsing of earthen oven for baking process Image credit Deborah Andrews 2015

74

There are a variety of uses for the different parts of the quinoa plants In addition

to the traditional and ongoing Andean uses of quinoa as well as expanded use by other

consumers there are also industrial applications of quinoa Figure 2-9 displays an array

of quinoa uses including applications that were not observed as part of this study but

which shows the production potential of quinoa for a variety of uses both traditional and

non-traditional

Source httpwwwfaoorgquinoa-2013faqsen Accessed March 13 2017

Figure 2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa

Negative Local Health Effects

One of the issues that has arisen in relation to the popularity of quinoa is the

indirect effects it may have on the health of the local communities The reason for the

concern is due to the increase in the price for quinoa and the effect the price increase

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank my parents for instilling the importance of education in me Marianne

Schmink has been a true inspiration for me and her wise advice and appreciation for my

sense of humor made this process enjoyable I would also like to thank the members of

my committee Drs Chris McCarty Ken Sassaman and Frances Putz for their wise

advice

I want to especially thank Dr Juan Marko Aro Aro of the Universidad Nacional

del Altiplano who helped me get the contacts needed to conduct this research in Puno

He spent an inordinate amount of time assisting me and often accompanying me on

field excursions His knowledge of quinoa also helped me double check my facts to

ensure accuracy I also want to thank Dr Ritva Repo-Carrasco who kindly met with me

and suggested that I contact Dr Aro her former student

Dr Aacutengel Mujica Sanchez also of the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano was

also of great inspiration and assistance to me His depth of knowledge of quinoa and

quinoa farmers from an agronomic aspect helped me to understand the details of what it

takes to study quinoa I also want to thank the students at the Universidad Nacional del

Altiplano who participated in this study and also assisted in my understanding of quinoa

farming I especially want to thank Edwin Pandia for his assistance in visiting quinoa

farms I want to thank the leadership and members of COOPAIN who participated in

this study and graciously provided access to their operations and membership Most

importantly I want to thank the quinoa farmers who took their time to participate in this

study and teach me more than they could ever learn from me

To my friends at the University of Florida who made graduate school so much

more interesting and fun A special thanks goes out to Dr Steacutephanie Borios whose

5

example I followed as we progressed through graduate school The inspiration for this

dissertation arose from our casual conversations and the ldquoQuinoa kidsrdquo name we

adopted in the horseshoe tournament at the Armadillo Roast fundraiser for the

University of Florida Department of Anthropology I also want to thank Marlon Carranza

for listening to my woes and providing humor and perspective throughout this process

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

LIST OF TABLES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 11

ABSTRACT 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 14

Research Question 14

Historic Overview 21 Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices 24 Agrodiversity and Globalization 29

2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET 36

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People 36

The Fox and the Condor 38

What is Quinoa 39

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species 41 History of Quinoa in the Andes 45

Resurgence of Quinoa 55 Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa 60 How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa 62

Food 64 Grain Products 64 Processed Quinoa 66

Medicine 68 Ritual Uses 70 Consumer Products 71 Animal Forage 72

Fuel 73 Negative Local Health Effects 74

3 ANDEAN FARMERS AND THE GLOBAL MARKET WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS REMAINED THE SAME 80

Diversification and the Environment 80 What are the Current Farming Practices 82

7

Harvesting 88

Quinoa Processing 93

What are the Strategies for Local Farmers to Access the Market 95 Farmersrsquo Markets 95 Farmersrsquo Cooperatives 96 Future Market Expansion 102 Agricultural Fairs 104

Pricing 107

4 HOW ARE ANDEAN FARMERS PRESERVING QUINOA AGRODIVERSITY DURING A TIME OF GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET 118

What is the Extent of Quinoa Variety Diversity and How is it Classified 123 Farmersrsquo Knowledge 126

Experiment in Comparative Variety Yield 144 How do Andean Farmers Select the Quinoa Variety to Plant 148

Do Andean Farmers Maintain Agrodiversity through their Seed Selection Practices 160

How do Andean Farmers Select Seeds and How do these Processes affect Agrodiversity 166

Womenrsquos Role in Seed Selection 172

A Female Semillista Example 174 What are Menrsquos Roles in Seed Selection 180

5 CONCLUSION 188

APPENDIX

A QUINOA VARIETY NAMES 199

B RAZAS DE QUINUAS RACES OF QUINOA 205

LIST OF REFERENCES 206

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 219

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa 61

4-1 INIA Commercial Varieties of Quinoa in Peru 132

4-2 Altiplano Varieties by Color 138

4-3 Races of Quinoa 139

4-4 Results of Variety Yield Experiment 145

4-5 Frequency of Planting of Quinoa Varieties 149

4-6 Average Number of Quinoa Varieties Grown 153

4-7 Collective Number of Quinoa Varieties 154

4-8 Reasons for Variety Selection 156

4-9 Sources of Quinoa Seeds 161

4-10 Reasons for Seed Selection 167

4-11 Quinoa Uses 179

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches 47

2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013 58

2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa 59

2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products 63

2-5 Peske 65

2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools 67

2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products 68

2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven 73

2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa 74

3-1 Drying quinoa at UNAP research station 89

3-2 Student farmers learning to use the trilladora to thresh quinoa fruits from the plant 90

3-3 Student farmer removing the grain from the panicle 91

3-4 Further sifting of quinoa grains 92

3-5 Wind winnowing at INIA 92

3-6 Puno Farmersrsquo Market 95

3-7 Powdered cantildeihua at Puno Farmersrsquo Market 96

3-8 Quinoa drying in the sun at COOPAIN 99

3-9 Quinoa-battered fried whole fish eyeballs included 107

3-10 Quinoa Production Volumes 2001-2014 108

3-11 Peru Quinoa Producer Prices 1991-2003 109

3-12 Puno Producer Prices 1990-2012 109

3-13 Quinoa Price Drop 110

10

4-1 Quinoa samples at the INIA office 132

4-2 Quinoa Variety Frequency University Student Farmers N=24 152

4-3 Quinoa Variety Frequency Co-op Farmers N=35 152

4-4 Mamarsquos quinoa 174

4-5 Expert Arsquos map of quinoa field 175

4-6 Expert Arsquos Seed Display 176

4-7 Rosada Taraco quinoa after harvest 182

4-8 Rosada taraco quinoa grains 183

4-9 Expert Brsquos seed selection display 183

11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANAPQUI Asociacioacuten National de Productores de Quinoa

COOPAIN Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash Cabana

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

INIA Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten Agraria

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non-governmental organization

UN United Nations

UNAP Universidad Nacional del Altiplano

US United States

12

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS

AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

Deborah J Andrews

August 2017

Chair Marianne Schmink Co-chair Christopher McCarty Major Anthropology

This research seeks to seeks to understand the inter-relationship between small-

scale Andean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa

crop and how they are maintaining same-species agrodiversity during a time of

globalization of the market Despite Spanish suppression of the crop as well as post-

colonial discriminatory practices against quinoa and the indigenous populations who ate

it this crop survived due to the inter-species relationship with Andean farmers who

relied on quinoa as an important food source The popularization of quinoa however

has changed the quinoa market with potential effects on quinoa agrodiversity

maintenance and increased risk to farmers

The study was carried out in Puno Peru using participant observation surveys

and interviews with both Quechua and Aymara farmers as well as other experts This

study investigated the quinoa variety agrodiversity practices of small-scale farmers

including the number of varieties grown during the past season the reasons farmers

selected quinoa varieties for production how seeds were selected and who influenced

variety and seed choice The literature review and field research revealed over 200

13

quinoa names including 63 varieties grown by the participant farmers during the period

of this study The farmers selected these varieties by analyzing and balancing a number

of factors including market demand environmental adaptation yield culinary

properties cultural practices and experimentation The farmers who participated in this

study grew an average of 257 quinoa varieties during the past season with a range of

between one to thirty-two varieties being grown by an individual farmer The results of

this study demonstrate that there are various influences on agrodiversity maintenance

including the availability of seed the promotion of varieties by organizations including

the government NGOs and cooperatives as well as farm-saved seed reliant upon

existing local germplasm Ongoing and future investigation of quinoa at the variety level

including nutritional and health benefit distinctions as well as culinary and other

consumer uses can maintain agrodiversity while serving the goals of both continued

crop resilience as well as competitiveness in the market through diverse unique and

marketable options Knowledge and agrodiversity maintenance by Andean farmers

especially the local experts can play a valuable role in future investigations into the

beneficial interspecies relationship between people and plants and their joint

contributions to global food security

14

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Research Question

This research addresses the inter-relationship between small-scale Andean

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa crop and how the

farmers maintain agrodiversity during a time of globalization of the quinoa market

Humans have been breeding plants for thousands of years leading to the rise of

agriculture This breeding of plants has altered biodiversity based on human selection

Unfortunately only a small number of crops now dominate global agricultural production

and human diets which is detrimental to long-term food security Murphy et al (2016)

consider maintenance of quinoa diversity to be an imperative Many cultures including

Andean farmers have maintained lesser-known traditional crops and have a wealth of

agricultural heritage and knowledge The study of quinoa and the people who have

grown it for thousands of years offers an example of ldquohumannonhuman minglingrdquo that is

the hallmark of multispecies ethnography which focuses on how other organisms as

well as humans are shaped by cultural political and economic forces (Kirksey and

Helmreich 2010546)

In light of the long-term historical suppression of quinoa starting with Spanish

colonialists and continuing with post-colonial practices this research addresses the

question of whether intra-species quinoa diversity is being maintained during a time of

market globalization In the context of a traditionally-maintained crop that has gained

global attention the working hypothesis is that the global attention on quinoa will lead to

losses in sub-species agrodiversity due to external market demands and trends towards

monocultural practices The expectation of diversity loss is further justified by the

15

dominance of the white-colored Bolivian real variety in the market which was the initial

market entry for quinoa While aggregation of quinoa of the same variety or at least

color allows for small-scale farmers to pool their crops and contribute to the global

market this market benefit could be at the expense of agrodiversity

Traditional Andean grains grown by Peruvian farmers increasingly are served on

dinner plates across the Western world With the discovery of the excellent nutritional

benefits the quinoa boom has exploded on the market as a trendy healthy new food

source in the modern world In contrast Andeans have been farming quinoa for

thousands of years While most Andean farmers still produce quinoa using traditional

small-scale farming techniques the global demands for quinoa may be affecting within-

species diversity Thus the timing of the expansion of the quinoa market especially in

light of its multi-millennial usage is an important factor in this study

This research arises from questions that have been raised by the media about

the effects of the global demand for quinoa on local farmers such as whether their diets

have suffered due to a decrease in quinoa consumption or whether other agricultural

practices have been affected such as llama or alpaca grazing areas being converted to

quinoa fields (Eg Aubrey 2013 Romero and Shahriari 2011) More recently the

popular press has also questioned the effects that the global popularity of quinoa

specifically has had on agrodiversity with claims that ldquoExport demand has focused on

very few of the 3000 or so different varieties of quinoa prompting farmers to abandon

many of those varietiesrdquo (Cherfas 2016) While this statement about the number of

varieties of quinoa is often repeated it derives from a misunderstanding of the

difference between varieties and accessioned samples in seed banks which is explored

16

below Nevertheless it clearly raised concern for continued quinoa agrodiversity This

study focuses on the current extent of quinoa agrodiversity and how it has been

maintained and conserved by small-scale Andean farmers in the Peruvian altiplano

While this study focuses on how Andean quinoa farmers are maintaining agrodiversity

this does not imply that these farmers are solely responsible for agrodiversity

maintenance or loss but rather they are an important part of the discussion and need

to be included in discourse about future efforts to maintain or improve diversity

practices In addition their knowledge can contribute to an overall understanding of the

biodiversity of quinoa

The anthropological discourse on globalization describes various processes that

affect local communities and their culture due to the pressures of global demands for

resources originating in these communities ldquoGlobalization is a long-term uneven and

paradoxical process in which widening social cooperation and deepening inequality go

togetherrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20043-4) This study investigated the practices of small-

scale Andean farmers as well as their folk knowledge related to quinoa varieties and

how they changed in response to market globalization

Since food is very much linked to cultural identity (Weismantel 1988) quinoa

provides an excellent exemplar for studying the effects of globalization on local cultures

especially since quinoa is considered to be one of the most important food crops in the

Andes having both economic and cultural importance (Christensen et al 2007 Castillo

et al 2007) Quinoa is used as a diverse food product and is also used during ritual

festivals for consumption and to make symbolic figurines out of quinoa dough (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) In this regard quinoa is like other plants that are valued for

17

symbolic ritual and sociocultural practice rather than just for direct economic benefits

(Kawa 2012) and provides evidence that money is not always the principal factor in

decision-making With this in mind this study analyzes the cultural factors in

agrodiversity decision-making during a time of globalization of this traditional product In

acknowledging the link between traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found

that those who eat more traditional foods including quinoa maintain more farm

diversity including more crop diversity and more varieties Thus there is an association

with biodiversity and food products that have a strong cultural link to the farmer and

quinoa is a prime crop to investigate this phenomenon

Prior studies of Andean crops including the aptly titled book ldquoLost Crops of the

Incardquo (1989) described quinoa and other important crops in direct connection with the

Andean people who had a deep history with the plant

Today in the high Andes the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants who are largely pure-blooded Indian and continue to grow the crops of their forbears During the centuries they have maintained the Incarsquos food crops in the face of neglect and even scorn by much of the society around them In local markets women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than 500 years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains baskets of beans of every color and bowls containing luscious fruits At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers ndash red yellow purple even candy striped some as round and bright as billiard balls others long and thin and wrinkled These are the ldquolost crops of the Incasrdquo (NRC 19893)

The National Research Councilrsquos (NRC) comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-

blooded Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including

quinoarsquos ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and

people through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food

18

Similarly in 1990 Wilson observed the relationship between the race of people

and the status of quinoa he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed complexesrdquo

where the wild ancestral plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the domesticated

varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial areasrdquo

associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including the

Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo provided a place for both indigenous

Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes from the outside world

Wilson (1990) observed as other scientists before him that there was a strong

association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and culture and

the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and plant diversity

thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live side-by-side

Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both survived

colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency

The United Nations (ldquoUNrdquo) determined that quinoa is a product that can

contribute to food security for the worldrsquos growing population (UN 2011a) Over a

decade earlier the National Research Council commented that ldquoBecause it is now

primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing its production is a good

way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo (NRC 1989150) In

contrast the process of globalization may put local farmers and the biodiversity of the

crop at risk Given the fact that the Andean altiplano is a harsh growing environment

coupled with climate change and attendant crop risk agrodiversity effects are an

important issue in understanding local effects of globalization that could lead to long

term negative consequences

19

For this dissertation the relationship between Andean quinoa farmers and this

traditional subsistence crop was studied during a time of rapid globalization and growing

popularity of quinoa As Mintz observed ldquothe social history of the use of new foods in a

western nation can contribute to an anthropology of modern liferdquo (Mintz 1985xxviii)

Quinoa provides a classic example since it is a traditional crop with a long history

culminating in recent global popularity and demand that has affected small-scale

farmers whose product climbed onto the world stage When peripheral economies such

as that of the Andean farmers are integrated into a larger capitalist system it is usually

on unequal terms (Lewis 2005) This raises the question of the effect on the local

quinoa farmers due to the increased popularity of their crop This scenario is a classic

example of the idea that ldquoglobalization involves more intensive interaction across wider

space and in shorter time than before in other words the experience of a shrinking

worldrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20048)

The product of Andean farmers vaulted to global attention in a relatively rapid

fashion after a multi-millennial relationship with the people of the Andes What was a

long-term relationship between Andeans and quinoa was altered by outside attention

and demand Since the world has noticed quinoa what has happened to the quinoa

farmers and their relationship to quinoa To understand local farmers we need to

understand the contextual components of their relationships to external markets (Dove

2011247) especially given the strong Andean cultural identity that includes quinoa The

farmersrsquo connections to the market can include a number of points of access some of

which lead directly to the global market

20

Due to the globalization of the quinoa market the popular press has raised

concerns about changes to local diets and loss of grazing areas (Aubrey 2013 Romero

and Shafiari 2011) Much like accedilaiacute (Euterpe oleraceae Mart) from the Amazon studied

by Brondizio (2008) quinoa has rocketed onto the global market yet as Brondizio

found local farmers pejoratively called caboclos in Brazil can be disenfranchised

despite the high acclaim of their plant partner on the world stage In addition to the

farmers the global attention on quinoa can also have adverse effects on the species as

noted in the popular press with regard to the maintenance of agrodiversity of quinoa

(Cherfas 2016) Thus both farmers and their partner crop can be affected by

globalization and this study investigates some of these changes including the

relationship between the two

While globalized agriculture is often associated with large factory farms in the

Andes quinoa is primarily produced on small family farms with most of the tasks done

by hand with little mechanization through the harvesting stage (Ton and Bijman 2006)

Despite the small size of the farms they are not isolated from what Dove (2011) calls

larger networks of economic exchange Indeed the farmers in this study who live in the

remote Andes are participants in the global quinoa market Farmers are not just a

collection of individuals but rather are part of a complex system (Escobar 1991) The

social organization in rural communities can substantially influence crop biodiversity

(Leclerc and Copperns drsquoEeckenbrugge 2012) While many studies of crop agrodiversity

focus on seed selection factors related to the environment culture is also an important

factor in diversity and ultimately food security Indeed at the outset agricultural crops

were selected by humans for cultivation and ultimately domestication which

21

emphasizes the human element in agrodiversity This process is not static especially in

the context of globalization when external socially driven market demands factor into

the equation

Ecological anthropology seeks to understand the relationship between social

organizations population dynamics human culture and the environment (Orlove 1980)

Coupling ecological anthropology with biodiversity discourse further focuses the

question of human factors in biodiversity maintenance Biodiversity is important and

there is concern about the loss of plant biodiversity (FAO 1999) There has been a call

for increased emphasis for biodiversity in the agricultural landscape (Brush 1995 2005)

Past agricultural research demonstrates that commercial markets often seek out

consistent standardized products which allows for the pooling and consolidation of

crops from different farms to be aggregated and sold in bulk volumes on larger markets

The drive for a singular similar-looking product however can have agrodiversity

consequences especially if the external market seeks one look But quinoa is a

polyploid plant that produces grain with highly diverse morphological characteristics and

various colors White quinoa was the initial product popularized on the global market

through the early market entry of the Bolivian real variety The emphasis on a singular

color potentially might deleteriously affect the agrodiversity of the crop which can lead

to higher production risks for local farmers due to the harsh environment in the Andes

Thus reduced agrodiversity can have immense consequences for both local farmers

and crop agrodiversity

Historic Overview

The history of quinoa and how it reached the global market and the utilization of

quinoa in the Andes are described in Chapter 2 Quinoa provides an especially

22

interesting example because it was not adopted into European agriculture for centuries

whereas the adoption of other food crops from the Andes such as potatoes was rapid

(Maughan et al 2007) From the colonial period through the first half of the twentieth

century quinoa production was in great decline Due to its association with indigenous

rituals and its ceremonial importance quinoa was suppressed by the Spanish

colonizers although cultivation continued in remote areas with mostly indigenous

populations (Sauer 1950 Simmonds 1965 Wilson 1990) What was once derogatorily

classified as an indigenous food suppressed by European colonizers under racist

practices has transformed into a global commodity

Notions of discrimination permeate the historical treatment of quinoa and the

Andeans with an interesting joint-species racialized experience As noted by Hartigan

past discourse by cultural anthropologists in the US focused on ldquomaintaining the

bulwark between culture and biologyrdquo (2013373) especially when discussing racial

classification but this research seeks to breach that bulwark using multispecies

ethnography in an attempt to understand the relationship between Andeans and

quinoa and how this relationship which has successfully maintained quinoa diversity

for thousands of years is being affected by globalization In this study I use a

multispecies approach to this analysis which means that I investigate both the plant as

well as human culture which is especially fitting here considering the history of

discrimination that both Andeans and quinoa have jointly experienced across time due

to cultural beliefs

The second chapter addresses the biological nature of quinoa and its

complicated taxonomic history Other species of Chenopodium grow throughout the

23

world with closely related species in the US and Mexico that may provide insights into

the migrations of both the plants and their associated people (Heiser 1990)

The second chapter also describes the more recent history of quinoa and the

events that led to its international resurgence as an important food crop Plants have a

history of interactions with humans and how we think about the importance or

relevance of different plant species varies Quinoa has a unique history of suppression

by Spaniards during the Conquest to the post-colonial attitudes of quinoa as an ldquoIndian

foodrdquo to the present cultural belief in quinoa as a ldquosuper-foodrdquo Scientific investigations

of quinoa led to its current status as a food for astronauts and its increasing popularity

as a health food in the West

Quinoa has high nutritional value with more protein essential amino acids and

minerals than other cereal crops (Medina et al 2010 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) A

recent UN publication states ldquoIn countries (such as Peru and Bolivia) where malnutrition

levels are high it is essential to boost quinoa consumption in order to benefit from its

exceptional nutritional propertiesrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa has tremendous

implications for human health and food security even in countries that traditionally grow

quinoa such as Peru and Bolivia yet still have malnutrition Stunting is a problem in the

Peruvian Andes which has been linked to poor diet (Mayer 2002) providing additional

reasons to investigate this highly nutritious product

Research on quinoa has been conducted by agronomists geneticists and other

agricultural scientists with more limited anthropological research on the topic which

has been growing recently While the history of quinoa and timeliness of its global

popularity is well suited to this study it is the people and the human cultural association

24

with an important food crop that are the focus here This is a prime opportunity to

investigate debate and perhaps prevent the problems that globalized agriculture has

caused in the past

Food security is a worldwide issue and this study of the cultural aspects of

quinoa production in a globalized market can provide anthropological perspectives in

agricultural contexts The FAO Rome Declaration on World Food Security (1996)

defines global food security as follows

Food security exists when all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

This study seeks to provide information that can be used to improve food security

through the maintenance of diversity of an important food crop This research can also

inform debates about globalization of the quinoa market The intent of this study is to

reflect upon and suggest ways to mitigate the unintended consequences to local

farmers as well as to mitigate agrodiversity loss

Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices

Chapter 3 describes the present farming practices of Andean farmers based on

participant observation and interviews with quinoa farmers and experts This study

describes the continuation of traditional farming practices as well as analyzing modern

changes to these practices and how they may affect agrodiversity maintenance

The research for this dissertation was based in Puno Peru on the shores of

Lake Titicaca since that is the place of greatest genetic diversity (Medina et al 2010)

as well as where there have been archaeological discoveries of ancient quinoa (Langlie

et al 2011) Presently the main producers and exporters of quinoa are Bolivia and Peru

(Medina et al 2010) The Puno region is the main quinoa agricultural growing area in

25

the altiplano Andes of Peru is a major production area in Peru is a market exchange

location for both Peru and Bolivia and is believed to have the highest range of quinoa

agrodiversity The Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (UNAP) is located in Puno and I

obtained an official affiliation with that institution and worked with professors who had a

long history of working with quinoa farmers This study was conducted during several

extensive trips to Puno from 2012 to 2015 The initial field investigation took place

during May and June 2012 I returned to Puno from May to June in 2014 and 2015 with

the fieldwork concluding in December 2015 While I was based in the City of Puno I

traveled to the nearby farms and villages in the Puno region including Cabana

Cabanillas Juli Juliaca Ilave Kilca Chucuito and Desaguadero

I primarily gathered information from farmers (N=66) student farmers (N=24)

and professors at the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (N=10) In addition to these

100 participants I conducted numerous informal interviews with quinoa wholesale

vendors government officials farmers at farmers markets fair participants three field

researchers and relatives of two of the university professors

Since I obtained an affiliation with the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano I was

introduced to numerous professors who were linked to quinoa research in various ways

The expertise of the professors was varied and included anthropology agronomy food

safety entomology and animal science I worked extensively with two professors ndash Dr

Marco Aro and Dr Aacutengel Mujicamdashthroughout this process Two additional professors

took me to their family farms where I observed their practices and informally interviewed

their relatives although they did not participate in the formal agrodiversity surveys since

it was early in the research process For the professor group I conducted interviews

26

with each of the 10 professors to gain insight and information on various aspects of

quinoa and culture This information ranged from cultural traditions to pest problems

with the crop I also sought to find an existing list of quinoa varieties upon which I could

base my agrodiversity inventory and research but was unable to locate one as further

described in my research findings

Working with Dr Mujica I participated in the agricultural field school in

Camacani where students were taught to harvest quinoa at the university research

station Twenty-three of the student farmers participated in formal surveys during this

field school and one additional student participated in the survey who did not attend this

field session In addition to the student surveys I participated in the harvest where I

took many photographs and extensively interviewed Dr Mujica In 2015 I also went on

a three-day field trip with a group of agricultural students to Arequipa Majes and

surrounding communities I obtained the additional student survey from one of these

participants who also assisted in providing farmer contacts

The first group of non-student farmers that I worked with were a convenience

sample of 31 farmers who attended a meeting conducted by Dr Mujica in the city of

Puno Since this was a convenience sample it had some bias and is not necessarily a

representative sample of all farmers in the region because they were associated with an

outreach program affiliated with the University and had the means to travel to the city

for the meeting Due to travel constraints I was not able to individually interview this set

of farmers

Towards the end of the meeting I explained my research project by going

through the Institutional Review Board-approved disclosures and request for consent

27

After answering a few questions including one question about compensation and why

they should help me for free I conducted a formal agrodiversity survey of 31 of the

farmers present who were primarily of Aymara ethnicity Several farmers declined to

participate for unknown reasons although I suspect one reason was that they could not

write another bias in this sample selection All but one of these farmers were men

Thus it was not a random sample and was skewed in both gender roles as well as in

individual motivation availability education or opportunity to travel to Puno for a

meeting

The second group of farmers that I worked with were affiliated with COOPAIN

the local cooperative located in the town of Cabana which is a small town north of the

city of Puno COOPAIN stands for Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash

Cabana COOPAIN is a democratically run organization with elections each year It is

organized into two committees the ManagementAdministration Committee and the

Oversight Committee Each committee has four members three permanent and one

substitute member Under the ManagementAdministration Committee are four

subcommittees Production Education Womenrsquos and Election each with the same

membership size and structure

The education committee focused on promotion of growing quinoa and joining

COOPAIN The education committee was primarily concerned with young people

getting involved in farming to replace the aging farmer population This concern with the

future of farming and the need to attract or keep young people in farming is an important

issue for the continuation of quinoa farming in the altiplano At the education meetings

they answer questions from the audience and also discuss climate change

28

At this cooperative farmers bring their harvested quinoa to the small factory for

processing and refinement The farmers process the quinoa in the field which includes

threshing sifting and winnowing prior to bringing their production to the cooperative in

large bags The cooperative further processes the quinoa by washing the quinoa and

removing the saponins and sorting the quinoa by color These processes will be further

described in the following chapters The cooperative distributes to the national and

global market although sales direct to consumers are also available at the remote

factory COOPAIN provides access to the globalized market due to marketing efforts

that connects the small farmers to the larger market COOPAIN maintains a market

presence through its connections with non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

international and local researchers the press its own outreach programs as well as a

website Since the farmer-members of COOPAIN were selling their crops on the global

market it offered a unique opportunity to see the effects of globalization on the local

farmers and quinoa agrodiversity While the COOPAIN facility is located in Cabana the

members live in the small communities in the surrounding region and they bring their

harvests to Cabana The meetings regarding the operation of COOPAIN occur in

Cabana and this tiny town was a central location for finding participants for this study

A total of 35 farmers affiliated with COOPAIN participated in this study I

personally met with 21 of the 35 farmers conducting a formal survey and semi-

structured interviews The additional 14 farmer participants were surveyed by student

volunteers that both Dr Aro and I trained to interview the participants gather and

record consistent data and demographics using a written interview guide In addition to

the surveys and interviews I observed the manufacturing practices at COOPAIN and

29

met with the management and leadership on several occasions conducting formal

informational and background interviews

As noted above across the period of this study I gathered information from a

variety of more informal sources I visited farmersrsquo markets and also investigated the

local food stores to gather pricing and marketing data on quinoa I attended two

agricultural fairs and observed the display of quinoa products and the competition

regarding quinoa food recipes I met with two governmental officials in Puno to gather

data on regional quinoa production I also visited the Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten

Agraria (INIA) to observe their quinoa research station and interviewed a government

official running the program The information I gathered from INIA related to quinoa

agrodiversity and they had many samples on display in the office I asked for a list of

the quinoa varieties and was told that the information was in their recent publication

which I purchased It turned out that the publication was not quite as helpful or

comprehensive as I had hoped as further discussed in Chapter 4

Agrodiversity and Globalization

Chapter 4 describes the investigation into agrodiversity conservation practices

during globalization of the quinoa market There are several components to this study

to evaluate the agrodiversity of quinoa the first component of this research was to

develop a list of quinoa varieties especially since my research discovered that a

published comprehensive list did not already exist While the popular press reported

thousands of quinoa varieties (eg Cherfas 2016) I discovered that the term ldquovarietyrdquo

was mistakenly used for ldquoaccessionsrdquo associated with seed bank collections which are

not necessarily separate varieties for each accession Thus the number of purported

quinoa varieties was both undocumented and inflated Without the collection of accurate

30

or existing data to use as a starting point I re-tooled my research to establish a set of

data from which I could evaluate the present state of agrodiversity of quinoa and its

relationship to Andean farming culture

To establish a starting point for quinoa agrodiversity I conducted a study of local

quinoa farmers and asked them to list the quinoa varieties that they had grown over the

past two years I also reviewed published research to create a comprehensive list of

quinoa names As research progressed additional varieties were added to the list after

consulting with quinoa experts to determine if the new names were indeed a different

type or just another name for a previously-listed variety Thus this component of the

study created the comprehensive quinoa variety domain

While this research started with an investigation into quinoa variety diversity it

became apparent that the nomenclature for categories within species at least for

quinoa is an area that needs further refinement and consensus which is evaluated in

Chapter 4 While I started this research using the term ldquovarietyrdquo it became readily

apparent that the use of that term was less than clear In Chapter 4 I discuss the race-

based classification systems that have been proposed by Peruvian researchers which

provides an intermediate level of taxonomic classification between species and variety

sometimes referred to as landrace which is a loosely defined term associated with

varieties developed by farmers rather than commercial organizations

The next component of the study was to interview and survey farmers about their

quinoa farming practices including quinoa variety selection This component of the

research investigated the number of different quinoa varieties grown during the recent

season the variety selection and the reasons for both seed selection and variety

31

selection by the farmers This chapter describes the factors involved in variety selection

such as yield environmental conditions culinary qualities as well as seed availability

and the importance of those reasons The sources for seeds are also analyzed as well

as the maintenance of quinoa agrodiversity on the farms To determine a comparative

and current evaluation of the variety yields during the 2014-2015 growing season I also

describe an experiment conducted by Dr Mujica at UNAP and compare it to the

dominant quinoa varieties that were in production during the time of this study

In addition to the compilation of the list I also researched the reasons for

selection of both the varieties as well as how seeds themselves are selected Since

Andean farmers have had to address a high-risk environment for thousands of years

this study investigated the cultural adaptations in seeking to benefit from the global

demand of a local product while still reducing economic risk under current climatic

conditions Producing a crop that can survive the growing season and producing a crop

that is commercially desired may not necessarily be congruent so the selection factors

were investigated to understand the trade-offs and analysis that could affect

agrodiversity maintenance

External market factors may be the reason for lack of crop agrodiversity

maintenance External consumer-driven preferences can influence the market as well

as agrodiversity which Kawa et al (2013) found in their study of social networks of

Amazonian manioc farmers They found that two crop characteristics were desired for

the manioc market high biomass and yellow color As a result varieties that produced

large manioc tubers of a yellow color were selected by farmers for production to the

external market explaining a lower agrodiversity than found in non-market contexts

32

Thus external market demands such as varieties with preferred colors can affect

agrodiversity through human selection In the Andes due to the higher prices for

quinoa other researchers found that farmers were selling their quinoa crops rather than

using them solely for their familiesrsquo consumption (Hellin and Higman 2005) Thus

quinoa is also being grown for the market and therefore the characteristics of the end

product are subject to market pressures and consumer preferences such as preferred

color as well as yield or biomass The dominance of the white sweet flavored large-

grained Bolivian real variety in the international market exemplifies external market

pressures related to color and biomass as well as flavor Color and biomass are but a

few examples of the diverse characteristics of quinoa and a range of other

characteristics are desired for other traditional Andean uses which are described in

Chapter 2

Seed selection is of great importance in agricultural and survival strategies (Tuxill

et al 2010) Andean farms tend to be highly diversified (Zimmerer 2003) The farm

diversity is implemented by using various ecological zones across the terrain (Jacoby

1992) The reason for such high diversity is due to the extreme climate and high risk of

potential crop failure By planting varieties that thrive under various climatic conditions

a harvest is more likely to succeed since at least some of the seeds will thrive in any

given range of climatic conditions (Tuxill et al 2010 Rivera 1998) Thus farmers often

select seeds based on different criteria including color as well as other factors such as

early ripening and yield (Rosero et al 2010 Tuxill et al 2010) Thus while agrodiversity

maintenance is a traditional risk-averting strategy findings also imply that other market-

based or aesthetic factors such as color influence seed selection This research tested

33

these previous findings regarding agrodiversity conservation practices among small-

scale farmers

Due to globalization the concern is the early market entry established limited

characteristics related to color and perhaps sweet taste that could influence Andean

farmersrsquo conservation practices In the global quinoa market the white colored quinoa

Bolivian real is the dominant variety (Castillo et al 2007) and is widely available in US

supermarkets Due to the consumer and market driven desire for a consistent product

the harvests from multiple farms can be collected and managed in a large scale

benefiting larger organizations and distributors Thus commercialized large scale

distribution practices can have the effect of inhibit biodiversity while at the same time

allowing for market entry and competition If farmers grow sweet white quinoa since it is

in demand by the market and discontinue growing the other varieties then there would

be consequences for in situ agrodiversity maintenance

In the past but not that long after quinoa gained global recognition it was

reported that local Andean peasants preserved their biodiversity practices (Apffel-

Marglin 1998) These varieties were often used for subsistence personal and

community purposes with the certain varieties including commercially produced

varieties grown for the external commercial market (Apffel-Marglin 1998) However

due to the more recent global market pressures the observations of Apffel-Marglin

(1998) need to be tested to see if they continue to hold true Quite recently Skarbo

(2015) documented a loss of quinoa diversity in Ecuador in association with

development projects linked to commercialized quinoa varieties raising an alarm for the

preservation of quinoa diversity during what she calls a ldquoquinoa Renaissancerdquo A goal of

34

this study is to analyze these notions of food security and agrobiodiversity in the context

of quinoa variety selection during a time of dramatic price increase In Chapter 4 I also

analyze to a very limited degree the differing roles of men and women in quinoa

agrodiversity conservation and the importance of local experts

In summary this research investigated the historical and current farming

practices that affect agrodiversity maintenance of quinoa during a time of globalization

in the context of culturally-laden meaning due to the long-term beneficial mutual

relationship between quinoa and Andean farmers The dissertation tells the unique

history of this co-evolving relationship between Andeans and quinoa from

domestication thousands of years ago through Spanish suppression of both humans

and quinoa through lingering post-colonial attitudes against ldquodirty Indiansrdquo and ldquoIndian

foodrdquo through the present worldwide acclaim and attention focused on quinoa but not

necessarily its human partners in survival This story involves the success of Andean

people who have not only survived in a harsh climate but have survived through harsh

aspects of human history The mutually-beneficial relationship between Andeans and

quinoa is a survival story that has not concluded Andean farmers cultivated and

nurtured quinoa through thousands of years of harvests resulting in human selection

playing a substantial role in the evolution of the crop alongside other genetic influences

such as natural selection gene flow mutation and genetic drift The result is a highly

diverse species that survived despite competition with introduced crops and animal

husbandry as well as intentional Spanish suppression In return quinoa provided

Andean farmers with a highly nutritious crop that can both thrive in the harsh

environment and also be stored for many years This research looks at the

35

agrodiversity methods farmers use in selecting the types of quinoa to grow during a time

of global pressure to increase production of the crop which can decrease agrodiversity

maintenance through the use of monoculture-type practices adopted from Western

agricultural practices This research has resulted in a compilation of names of different

quinoa varieties to establish a varietal domain to facilitate further investigation into

agrodiversity of the crop I discuss the agrodiversity practices including reasons for

variety selection as well as seed selection I present a survey of current quinoa variety

selection and discuss it in the context of the larger domain of quinoa types and the

future implications for agrodiversity maintenance Thus while monoculture-type

practices have clearly influenced Andean farming practices as demonstrated by the

dominance of the white Bolivian real variety there are ways to prevent further

agrodiversity loss which would be a loss not only to the species but to their millennial-

long partners ndash Andean farmers

36

CHAPTER 2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People

This chapter traces the history of agrodiversity and quinoa in Peru to place the

present status of the globalized quinoa market in historical perspective Quinoa has a

long-term connection among Andean people and a review of the history of the human-

plant relationship explains why and how an agricultural product which was once little

known outside of the Andes attained great global acclaim and associated market

expansion This chapter addresses the questions of what is quinoa and how is it

associated with human culture This chapter describes the botanical nature of quinoa

its taxonomic place and the problems with the classification of varieties as well as the

nutritional benefits and uses it provides to people This chapter also describes the

natural biodiversity and plasticity of the species as well as the effects that history has

had on the survival and success of this plant and what this information may indicate

about the present and future conservation practices

In the Andes there is a diversity of geography and ecology as well as cultures

Peru has a large variety of plants amounting to about 10 of the total plants in the

world Perursquos diverse floral regime includes about 25000 species 128 domesticated

plants and 4400 native species with known uses ranging from food to medicinal to

cosmetic (Powell and Chavarro 2008) The presence of a variety of climates and

ecozones in the Andes favors the generation and maintenance of genetic diversity

(Rivera 1998) This fact alone however does not account for the high rate of diversity

The presence of Andean culture that supports the observation and nurturance of plants

is a key factor in the development of a wide variety of domesticated plants (Rivera

37

1998) Thus humans are an important factor in the generation and maintenance of

biodiversity and Andean cosmology has a role in the successful maintenance of plant

diversity

Plant domestication signified by changes that rely upon human intervention for

continued survival is considered a key factor in the understanding of past human

behavior related to the rise of agriculture Domestication can result in the alteration of

plant life cycles such as reduction in dormancy enhancement of seedling vigor or

enhancement of stored food reserves in seeds and loss of dispersal mechanisms

(Gremillion 1993) A notable difference between domestic and wild plants is that the

latter lack seed dormancy (DeWet and Harlan 1975) Selective pressures linked to

reduced seed dormancy can encourage quick sprouting after planting and increase

survival (Smith 1995) The outer epidermis or testa has an important role in seed

development since it controls imbibition of water and hence seed germination (Smith

1995) The testa thus prevents premature germination in nature and a reduced outer

seed coat testa allow early germination (Gremillion 1993) Domesticated quinoa has a

thin seed coat and is one of the key ways that archaeologists can determine if an

archaeological sample is from a wild or domesticated plant The thin seed coat versions

cannot survive without human intervention even in the Andes (Wilson 1981) and thus

seed coat thickness is an important indicator of domestication The thin seed coat in

domesticated chenopods is the key factor in distinguishing wild from domesticated

versions and hence human intervention

The development of agriculture demonstrates the importance and contribution of

traditional ecological knowledge by farmers in Peru Agriculture developed

38

independently in several disparate locations across the globe One of the most

important locations is the Andes The Andes are one of Vavilovrsquos ldquocenters of

domesticationrdquo (Murphy 2007) including the domestication of 45 species of plants

which is more than all of the domesticated plants in Europe at the time of contact with

the Americas (Rivera 1998)

Many agricultural products were first domesticated in the Andes including

potatoes and quinoa There are 3500 different varieties of potatoes grown in the Andes

(Apffel-Marglin 1998) One province in the Peruvian Andes has more potato diversity

than the entire North American continent (Brush 2005) While potatoes are a well-known

agricultural product of the Andes there are other plants that have gained recent

notoriety Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) kaniwa or canihua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L) also known as amaranth or

love-lies-bleeding were domesticated in Peru thousands of years ago (Langlie et al

2011) More recently however the global community became more informed about the

excellent nutritional value of these products (Repo-Carrasco 2003 Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Massawe et al 2016 Gordillo-Bastidas et al 2016) and demand is at an all-time

high (Jacobsen 2011) Quinoa has become a household word in the US and can be

found at local grocery stores This chapter will review the co-evolving history of humans

and quinoa agrodiversity in Peru along with the cultural significance and scientific

discoveries about this plant

The Fox and the Condor

The Andean people have a unique relationship with quinoa and it is involved in

ritual uses and ceremonies and is a part of Andean cosmology I was told an origin

story by an Aymara participant in this study According to ancient lore in a story called

39

The Fox and the Condor quinoa was responsible for saving the Andean people from

starving recounted below

The fox meets with the condor and wants to go to Pati which is the sky The

condor tells the fox that he must be respectful when he is there and not take or touch

anything The fox agrees and he rides on the condor to Pati When they arrive the fox

sees food and violates the agreement by eating all the food The food was there for a

ceremony but when the others arrive the food was all gone because the fox ate it The

others decide to send the fox back to earth so they prepare a rope to lower the fox back

to earth While the fox was being lowered back to earth about half way down the fox

says some bad things The others then decide to cut the cord and the fox falls to the

earth with his body exploding upon impact Since the foxrsquos stomach was full all of the

food spread across the land including the Andean grains of quinoa kantildeiwa kiwicha

and all the other Andean foods That is why these grains are called the food of the gods

ndash since they fell from the sky If any of these grains are found growing out of fox feces it

is considered good Today traditional Andean people say ldquoquinoa is our liferdquo as

described by a participant since quinoa provides sustenance for their survival

This story which is one of many about quinoa demonstrates the importance of

the native Andean foods in their cosmology as well as survival Andeans understand

the life-sustaining role quinoa and other Andean grains have in their ability to continue

living in the otherwise harsh environment

What is Quinoa

Quinoa or quinua the Spanish spelling of the word (C quinoa Willd) is a

domesticated plant that grows in both the Andes and at lower elevations in South

America and is now being grown in many countries around the world Quinoa is a

40

pseudo-cereal that has been used by South Americans for thousands of years While a

primary use is similar to grains since it is often used to make flour among other things

it is not a grass but rather is a weedy species and inhabits disturbed soil environments

(Wilson 1990) Thus quinoa is an opportunistic species which may account for its wide

variation and adaption to various climates and micro-climates

Depending on growing conditions quinoa plant height can vary from 20 cm to 2

m tall (Simmonds 1965) One gram of grains can have between 250 and 520 fruits

(Simmonds 1965) and thus the yields can be quite different Along with weight quinoa

grains also vary in size with the grain area varying from 256 to 51 mmsup2 (Medina et al

2010) again a factor that can affect yield a factor that is used by farmers for selection

discussed in later chapters Another characteristic of quinoa is that in the domesticated

varieties seed dormancy is absent and germination is rapid (Simmonds 1965) as

previously noted in the context of archaeological samples Thus the quinoa grain

exhibits a wide range of morphology which diversity is not just limited to the grains

Quinoa flowers in a variety of colors and shades of those colors The most widely

known colors are white red and black In 1960 JL Lescano described 42 color tones

and 7 basic colors of quinoa white red purple yellow gray brown and black (Ayala

Olazaacutebal 2015) Additional colors include pink orange and green Thus quinoa has a

wide range of color variation which reflects the diversity of the species at an easily

detectible morphological level Thus for human selection the color of the flower or the

grain can be used to distinguish varieties and to use as a marker for identifying co-

related characteristics beyond color

41

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species

The purpose of taxonomic classification is to facilitate comprehension and

communicate ideas about the relationship of organisms to each other (Stevens 2002)

ldquoHierarchical naming systems pervade our whole language and thought and from this

point of view the Linnaean hierarchy is simply one such systemrdquo (Stevens 200212)

Taxonomies are not just simple descriptions but contain embedded theories about

natural order based on human perceptions of nature (Gould 2000) Thus human beliefs

and perceptions influence taxonomic categorization in attempts to organize and

understand species diversity This concept holds especially true as it relates to the on-

going categorization of varieties in the efforts to understand a diverse species such as

quinoa and its variety of usefulness to humans

Taxonomically quinoa is a member of the Amaranthaceae family The

Amaranthaceae family has dicotyledonous plants that are often halophytic herbs which

are salt-tolerant (Bhargava et al 2009) The chenopods used to be classified in the

Chenopodiaceae family but are now classified in the Amaranthaceae family with

Chenopodiaceae being a sub-family Thus there is a history of confusion and change

regarding the scientific classification of quinoa

Especially in older accounts quinoa and other chenopods have sometimes been

misidentified in the literature as being in the genus Amaranthus (Ford 1981) For

example quinoa has also been mis-identified as Amaranthus caudatus (Simmonds

1965) locally known as kiwicha and indeed this same error occurred during my field

work as further described in Chapter 4 This misidentification makes it difficult to

establish the early history of quinoa based on travelersrsquo accounts and colonial reports

In addition and more recently paleobotanical analysis of pollen often identifies the

42

pollen to the family level as Amaranthaceae rather than to genus thus limiting the

usefulness of such studies to the extent the precise species and variety is needed for

analysis

Finally another reason for the great difficulty in classifying some chenopods is

due to their polyploidy ldquoThe reasons for the taxonomic difficulties are the usual ones

encountered in polyploid complexes involving annual weedy groups viz marked

phenotypic plasticity parallel evolution and putative hybridizationrdquo (Rahiminejad and

Gornal 2004) Thus while polyploidy can lead to great diversity classification systems

attempt to be static and the classification history of quinoa demonstrates the foibles of

attempting to categorize dynamic plants Hartigan (2013) talks about the plasticity of

genomes of which quinoa is a good example The plasticity of quinoa has led to great

agrodiversity of the crop which will be discussed infra yet makes it difficult to classify in

a hierarchical system Considering the problems with classifying quinoa at a genus and

species level attempts to organize quinoa at the variety level for purposes of studying

and evaluating variety diversity are similarly problematic as further discussed in

Chapter 4

Quinoa is a tetraploid (Pickersgill 2007) which means that it is a polyploid plant

that has four times the number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus rather than a single

pair of chromosomes like humans have As a polyploid plant quinoa has genetic

complexity that can contribute to great intra-species diversity

Quinoa is a member of the Chenopodium genus which contains at least 250

species (Rana et al 2010) Other chenopods are present in other parts of the old and

new worlds In Europe lambsquarter or fat hen (C album L) was grown but apparently

43

was not a substantial crop in early history likely due to the availability of other grass

crops that can thrive at the lower elevations (Simmonds 1965) In China C giganticum

is grown for many uses (Maughan et al 2006) and thus the Chenopodium genus is

spread across the globe

Quinoa was assigned to the Chenopodium taxa as its place in the Linnaean

classification system in 1797 and two hundred years later was described as having

ldquoarchaic relictual and rather mysterious elements of the world of ethnoflorardquo (Wilson

199093) Quinoa was initially was thought to be a unique New World domesticated

Chenopodium species but in 1917 it was determined that a second domesticated

Chenopodium species C nuttalliae existed in domesticated form in Mexico (Wilson

and Heiser 1979) and thus quinoa has relatives in other parts of the New World

Alongside quinoa canihua (or kaniwa) (C pallidacuale Aellen) also grows in the Andes

Canihua can grow at higher altitudes and withstands cold better than quinoa (Repo-

Carrasco-Valencia et al 2009)

In Mexico C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae Moq is present in both domesticated and

wild forms This species has three well-known varieties known as huauzontle quelite

and chia roja (Wilson 1981 Glore 2006) In North America goosefoot (C berlandieri

ssp jonesium Moq) was also domesticated but the domesticated variety is now extinct

Wild goosefoot species including C berlandieri ssp zschackei C bushianum C

boscianum and C macrocalycium are present in North America (Maughan et al 2006

Ford 1981) The two most discussed North American species are C berlandieri ssp

zschackei and C bushianum Chenopodium berlandieri ssp zschackei extends across

the US west of the Mississippi as well as the Gulf coast and east of the Mississippi into

44

Wisconsin Illinois Michigan and part of Indiana and is infrequently in Mississippi

Alabama Georgia Florida and the Carolinas (Smith 1992) Chenopodium bushianum

has larger fruits (often called grains) and its geographical range includes much of the

Northeast and Midwest and has been found in Tennessee Alabama and South

Carolina (Smith 1992) The Chenopodium genus has a great number of species that

grow all over the world demonstrating its plasticity

It appears that quinoa was domesticated independently from goosefoot (C

berlandieri) and huauzontle (C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae) (Rana et al 2010 Pickersgill

2007) however it is not yet conclusive whether goosefoot and huauzontle were

domesticated independently (Pickersgill 2007 cf Ford 1981) Past genetic analysis

indicated that another North American species C berlandieri ssp zschackei may be

more closely related to quinoa and may perhaps be an intermediate subspecies

between quinoa and huauzontle (Rana et al 2010) especially since hybrids of quinoa

and C berlandieri ssp zschackei can produce fertile offspring (Maughan et al 2006)

Notably the three New World species discussed above quinoa goosefoot and

huauzontle are all tetraploids (Rahiminejad and Gornall 2009) which can account for

great genetic diversity It has been suggested that quinoa and C berlandieri ssp

zschackei as allotetraploids may share a common ancestor (Rana et al 2010)

Recently the quinoa genome was sequenced and compared to other species

including C berlandieri (goosefoot) C hircinum and C pallidicuale (kaniwa) The

quinoa genome has 44776 genes and the genomic analysis revealed that original

ancestry included the hybridization of two diploids labelled A of likely North American

origin and B of likely Eurasian origin (Jarvis et al 2016) This tetraploidization split

45

occurred 33 to 63 million years ago although Jarvis et al (2016) noted that there has

been some recombination between the A and B sub-genomes across time Now that the

quinoa genome has been sequenced additional genetic analysis can lead to further

hybridization of the species which may lead to more involvement by global agro-

industrial corporations which thus far have had limited success in tapping into the

quinoa market from a production standpoint While there are many smaller companies

involved in quinoa production including growing and marketing quinoa products the

large multi-national corporations that dominate many agricultural systems do not

presently dominate the quinoa market and do not grow significant yields or otherwise

dominate the quinoa market at the sales or distribution level The genetic manipulation

of quinoa can lead to the creation of new varieties that are qualified to receive a patent

and will surely bring significant changes to the global quinoa market in the future

History of Quinoa in the Andes

Humans have had a direct relationship with quinoa for thousands of years

Quinoa is a domesticated species with human selection occurring perhaps as early as

15000 years ago (Wilson 1990) although that date is not confirmed by the

archaeological record While the precise time when human manipulation of quinoa

plants began is unknown archaeological evidence indicates that quinoa was an

important agricultural product by the Formative Period 2000 BC in Peru (Bruno 2008)

Quinoa use pre-dates the Inca and Wari ceremonial vases have figures of quinoa on

them (Tapia et al 201413) Archaeologists continue to investigate Bolivian and

Peruvian archaeological sites with regard to the archaeobotany of the Lake Titicaca

Basin (Langlie et al 2011 Rumold 2010 Whitehead 2007) providing additional depth

of history and knowledge of the inception of agriculture and domestication of quinoa

46

Quinoa is often marketed in the US as the food of the Inca gods due to its

current cachet and popularity in Western diets thus associating it with its deep historical

association with a famous civilization Over the past several decades quinoa has

vaulted from a crop threatened with extinction to a popular food product readily

available in grocery stores across the US and elsewhere in the world The reputation of

quinoa has gone from low status ldquoIndian foodrdquo to high status health food The

relationship between humans and quinoa has evolved across time and is a dynamic

fluid relationship As Medin and Atran state ldquoMuch of human history has been spent

(and is being spent) in intimate contact with plants and animals and it is difficult to

imagine that human cognition would not be molded by that factrdquo (Medin and Atran

19991) The human-quinoa interspecies relationship can provide insight into the

concepts of biodiversity through understanding the knowledge of the people who have

been connected in time and space with the plant

Historically the three major agricultural foods in the Andes were maize potatoes

and quinoa (Wilson 1990) However there are limitations on growing food at elevations

over 10000 feet where quinoa is harvested (Simmonds 1965) While quinoa and

potatoes are grown in the altiplano corn is rarely grown with any success due to the

harsh climate Of these three products both corn and potato were adopted into

European diets during the colonial period but not so for quinoa and today corn and

potatoes rank among the most widely grown food products across the world

Quinoa was an important food crop in the Andes at the time of European contact

(Simmonds 1965) Quinoa was sacred to the Incas who called it chisiya mama or

mother grain (NRC 1989149) Quinoa was considered to have significance to the Inca

47

above other crops (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Quinoa was used by the Inca to produce

fermentation of chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of

harvest and sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and

so ensure prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Figure 2-1 is a depiction of Pachamama

holding quinoa based on an undated bronze artifact from an archaeological context in

Argentina

Figure 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches -Image credit Mintzer 193360

Thus quinoa was closely linked to spiritual beliefs and ritual practices at the time of

European contact The production of chicha using quinoa continues today as does the

reverence for Pachamama

48

Perhaps due to its ritual role Europeans did not adopt quinoa into their

agriculture (Maughan et al 2007) Plants can be perceived as having magic (Kawa

2012) In articulating several reasons for the decline in quinoa production Mujica et al

(2013) specifically listed magic

The conquistadores fear the lsquomagic quinoarsquo They believed that consuming quinoa and the religious ceremonies with quinoa were the same and they might attribute extraordinary forces to the Indians and endanger the conquest (Mujica et al 201311) This colonial concern that a plant could have the ability to empower people thus

threatening colonial conquest and domination caused the Spaniards to engage in

discrimination and suppression against quinoa to suppress this perceived powerful

alliance between quinoa and Andeans Ceremonial and ritually significant indigenous

foods such as quinoa were ldquotargeted for extinctionrdquo during the Spanish colonial period

(Wilson 1990108) European colonization dramatically affected quinoa production

relegating it to a low status food associated with the indigenous population with its

production shrinking in range through much of the 20th century (Wilson 1990)

Instead of being adopted into European cuisine quinoa remained an indigenous

local food In a report by the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG Kew) in 1909 it was

noted that quinoa was a food of the ldquoIndians or the laboring classesrdquo (RBG Kew 1909)

providing an example of the discrimination against people eating quinoa and it was

considered ldquoIndian foodrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 201526 Bazile et al 2014) a derogatory

reference based on continuing neocolonial mind-sets that considered Indians to be

inferior to either the white or the mestizo population Based on recent ethnographic

research at least in Puno quinoa sometimes is still perceived as food for poor people

with rich people eating rice noodles and chicken (Aguumlero Garcia 2014) although

49

quinoa is marketed to tourists today and there is a strong native Peruvian food

revitalization movement Thus while the production of quinoa was suppressed by the

Spaniards due to its ritual use along with neo-colonial perceptions of low social status

associated with Indians that lingered until recent globalization and coupled with

competition from other newly introduced crops as well as animals quinoa production

declined except in Andean regions where its cultural significance survived European

contact and neo-colonial discrimination against indigenous Andeans and quinoa

Besides the history of suppression and racism associated with ldquoIndian foodrdquo

another reason postulated for the reduction in quinoa production was the introduction of

sheep and cattle as alternative sources of protein (Mujica et al 2013) The increased

competition with broad beans oats and barley is yet another reason for the past decline

in quinoa production (Wilson 1990) In 1990 Wilson remarked that ldquothis leafy grain

apparently failed in direct global competition with the true cerealsrdquo (Wilson 199096)

although at the time of Wilsonrsquos publication the trend was changing and he was

apparently referring to the earlier decline across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This fact however has changed since then While Europeans failed to recognize the

value of quinoa for hundreds of years South American indigenous communities

continued to cultivate quinoa Thus much of the traditional indigenous knowledge is still

present in these farming communities and can be key to the conservation of the

biodiversity Cultural traditions therefore are very important in the understanding of

Andean agriculture and ecosystems

Perhaps quinoarsquos symbolic representation of Inca or indigenous culture coupled

with the time-consuming processing required to remove the toxic saponins (Safford

50

1968 [1915]) dissuaded Europeans from adopting quinoa into their diets Consuming

quinoa without first removing the saponins which requires vigorous abrasion of the

seeds and washing with water can have unpleasant effects on the digestive tract as

well as having an unpleasant bitter taste Either reason or perhaps both may have

contributed to the European rejection of quinoa starting with colonial times

While Europeans failed to recognize the value of quinoa for hundreds of years

South American indigenous communities managed to maintain quinoa as a

domesticated plant for personal and local consumption Indigenous Andean women are

responsible for approximately 70 of agricultural work (Tapia and De La Torre 1997)

so it is likely that women were the conservators of quinoa knowledge and diversity

through silent resistance to colonial domination Thus despite the rejection of quinoa by

European colonizers quinoa survived in remote indigenous populations that

maintained traditional knowledge and practices

While quinoa was not adopted into European cuisine it has been described

across time in various reports emanating from the Andes by European and American

explorers and scientists In 1551 Spaniard Pedro Valdivia described fields of Chilean

quinoa which he called quingua (Wilson 1990) Other early explorers including

Garcilaso de la Vega also described quinoa and stated that it resembled millet or short-

grained rice (Mujica et al 2013) Such descriptions continued into the 19th and 20th

centuries (eg Ledesma and Bollaert 1856 Jameson 1861 Forbes 1870 Milstead

1928) Ledesman and Bollaert (1856) noted that quinoa was grown on the island of

Lake Titicaca Forbes (1870) noted the different varieties of quinoa that were yellow

red and white and called it Inca rice a hint at the diversity of the crop while

51

acknowledging that it was a Chenopodium species In 1891 Safford observed the time-

consuming processing of quinoa grains in Bolivia and found it to have good flavor

(Safford 1968 [1915]) In 1931 Standley noted that quinoa was a common crop in the

Andes due to its edible seeds Thus across time explorers and researchers took note of

quinoa although it was not adopted into European cuisine and therefore not widely

known

While indigenous Andeans maintained local quinoa production botanists

continued to explore species across the globe including lesser-known plants In the

1800s Alexander von Humboldt observed that quinoa was like ldquolsquowine was to the

Greeks wheat to the Romans cotton to the Arabsrsquordquo (NRC 1989151) Quinoa was a

plant that was observed by scientists known and classified yet was not otherwise well-

known to global consumers maintaining an air of mystery to it What was this plant that

the Spaniards rejected yet that still managed to survive

In 1909 the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens issued a short report on quinoa and

noted an interest by Americans for potential import into the US (RBG Kew 1909) In

1928 quinoa was described in a published survey of Peruvian agricultural crops

(Milstead 1928) At that time it was reported to be grown in small patches but spread

out across the landscape of farms Milstead noted that quinoa provides ldquoa palatable and

nutritious article of food for the highland Indiansrdquo (Milstead 1928101) although he does

not otherwise describe how he came to the conclusion that it was a nutritious food In a

Spanish language publication Mintzer (1933) published an extensive article on the

botanical cultural and agronomic characteristics of quinoa including study in the

Peruvian altiplano and included nutritional data Mintzer (1933) also noted the presence

52

of different varieties that could be distinguished by pigmentation and ecological zone

growing conditions a noteworthy acknowledgement of the agrodiversity based on both

color and environment in which he used the terms ldquovarietiesrdquo and ldquoracesrdquo somewhat

interchangeably

While there were prior hints at the nutritional value of quinoa (eg Milstead

1928) over the past fifty years or more there have been ongoing studies of the

nutritional values of quinoa (Eg Repo-Carrasco 1991 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003

Repo de Carrasco 2014 Villa et al 2014) Much of this scholarship is based in South

America often presented at conferences but not often published in scholarly journals

and rarely in English language journals Between 1970 and 1986 there were at least 43

published papers about quinoa over half of which were in Spanish and most of which

were published in gray literature (Rafats 1986) While there was much information about

quinoa in the South American scholarly articles and gray literature not all of it is widely

distributed or easily accessible which may have also delayed its explosion onto the

world market until the scientific analysis was more widely-accessible More widespread

publications of the nutritional benefits of quinoa in English language articles along with

the growing popularity of health foods in the US and Europe led to the rise in global

consumption

The rejection of quinoa continued well past Spanish colonial domination and in

1950 Sauer reported that quinoa has now retreated from the extremities of its earlier

range but is still a characteristic food plant of the Inca-dominated Highlands (Sauer

1950) In the mid-1960s it was also reported that quinoa was in decline in Ecuador

Chile and Argentina and absent in Columbia (Simmonds 1965) In 1965 Simmonds

53

reported that quinoa had excellent protein content especially as compared to other

cereals and noted that ldquothe uses to which this plant are put are intimately bound up with

the lore and customs of the people that grow themrdquo (232) Again the nutritional value of

quinoa was noted in the scientific literature without much acclaim Simmonds (1965)

however acknowledged the meaningful interspecies relationship between quinoa and

Andeans by including the intimate connection between quinoa people and customs

In 1968 an international convention on quinoa and kantildeiwa was held in Puno

Peru organized by prominent South American scientists to demonstrate and

consolidate their efforts to emphasize the importance of Andean grains to modern

science (NRC 1989) Over a decade later some of those same South American

scientists published what the National Research Council has called a ldquomajor

collaborative work on quinoa and kaniwardquo (NRC 198913) referring to Tapia et al

1979 Notwithstanding the scholarship and efforts of Andean researchers who

extensively studied quinoa the National Research Council acknowledged that they

ldquostruggled for decades to promote them in the face of deeply ingrained prejudices in

favor of European foodrdquo (NRC 1989v) Thus not only were quinoa and other Andean

products disparaged as inferior ldquoIndian foodrdquo the efforts by Andean scholars were also

affected by this bias

Events occurred in the 1970s and 1980s that would lead quinoa to the global

market The scientific community continued to study quinoa including its nutritional

value and in 1975 scientists reported that quinoa was ldquoa little known plant hellip with a

high protein contentrdquo that could contribute to food security if problems associated with

processing were resolved (Brown and Pariser 1975) referring to the saponin removal

54

process Scientific interest in quinoa started to increase and in 1980 in Peru the

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria established the Programa de Cultivos

Andinos which included investigations into quinoa (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Across the

border international marketing of Bolivian quinoa began in 1983 when the national

quinoa growers association was established (ANAPQUI) (Jacobsen 2011) The main

producers and exporters of quinoa currently are in Bolivia and Peru Quinoa is also

cultivated in Colombia Ecuador Argentina and Chile (Medina et al 2010) Quinoa is

also grown in lesser amounts in various countries around the world

In 1986 the FAO defined quinoa as a strategic food crop for the Andes and later

acknowledged its high nutritional value Based on this acclaim by a world-renowned

organization quinoa was no longer a ldquosecond-rate productrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015 26)

The National Research Council collaborated with over 600 scientists to produce a book

in 1989 called ldquoLost Crops of the Incasrdquo led by Dr Hugh Popenoe of the University of

Florida and included quinoa as one of the so-called lost crops These crops including

the ldquoglowing grainsrdquo of quinoa were aptly described in connection with the Andean

people (NRC 19893) The NRCrsquos comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-blooded

Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including the

ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and people

through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food The NRC commented

that ldquoBecause it is now primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing

its production is a good way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo

(NRC 1989150) Thus even in 1989 quinoa was still considered food for the poor with

both viewed together through a socio-economic lens

55

The relationship between quinoa and Andeans was also noted by Wilson (1990)

who similarly observed the relationship between the race of people and the status of

quinoa in a paper published in 1990 he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed

complexesrdquo where the wild parent plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the

domesticated varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial

areasrdquo associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including

the Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo (Wilson 1990108) provided a

place for both indigenous Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes

from the outside world Wilson observed as other scientists before him that there was

a strong association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and

culture and the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and

plant diversity thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live

side-by-side Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both

survived colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency Thus while

Wilson could observe as recently as 1990 that quinoa was in a downward spiral from a

production standpoint struggling to survive much as their human Andean counterparts

prior literature regarding the nutritional value hinted at things to come Over time the

world re-discovered what the Andeans already knew quinoa is a high-value nutritional

food source worthy of consumer attention and acclaim as demonstrated by its

noteworthy rise on the world market and place on grocery shelves across the Western

world

Resurgence of Quinoa

Quinoa gained international attention in 1993 from a report by NASA in which it

was identified as suitable for astronauts on long-term space missions (Bubenheim and

56

Schlick 1993) Due to its high protein value and unique combination of amino acids

including lysine NASA concluded that it is a food that can provide life-sustaining

nutrients from one species Interestingly NASA noted the varying colors of quinoa and

speculated that the colors are associated with ldquoeco-typesrdquo hinting at diversity of the

species but not further explaining the significance of these factors or what they mean by

ldquoeco-typerdquo The results of this NASA report had a significant effect on the worldwide

market If quinoa was a premium food for astronauts it was a commodity that health

food stores certainly wanted in stock Gradually the quinoa market in the US

expanded from health food stores to mainstream grocers

Twenty years after the NASA report the United Nations (UN) named 2013 to be

the Year of Quinoa (UN Resolution 66221 22 December 2011) (UN 2011b) This

proclamation elevated quinoa to an exclusive club alongside other UN designated

years including lofty goals such as education human rights peace literacy biodiversity

and sustainable energy to name a few The reason that quinoa achieved such

accolades by the UN was due to its high nutritional status The resolution seeking this

status stated the importance of quinoa and of the indigenous people who grow it (UN

2011b)

Recognizing that Andean indigenous peoples through their traditional knowledge and practices of living well in harmony with mother earth and nature have maintained controlled protected and preserved quinoa in its natural state including its many varieties and landraces as food for present and future generations Affirming the need to focus world attention on the role that quinoa biodiversity plays owing to the nutritional value of quinoa in providing food security and nutrition the eradication of poverty in support of the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals including the Millennium Development Goals and the outcome document of the High-Level Plenary Meeting on the Millennium Development Goals

57

Recalling the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (13-17 November 1996) the Declaration of the World Food Summit five years later (10-13 June 2002) and the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (16-18 November 2009) Affirming the need to heighten public awareness of the nutritional economic environmental and cultural properties of quinoa The recognition given to this traditional food crop by the UN is linked to important

issues including global food security and eradication of poverty Notably the UN

acknowledged that traditional Andean practices and relationship with nature have

conserved quinoa varieties for future generations This UN declaration acknowledged

the scientific contributions of the traditional Andean farmers and also emphasized the

environmentally-sensitive sustainable traditional farming practices they need Notably

the UN declaration points out that the Andean people preserved the biodiversity of the

quinoa agricultural complex including its ldquonatural state including its many varieties and

landracesrdquo (UN 2011b) This statement harkens to Wilsonrsquos (1990) observation about

the importance of the intact ldquocropweedrdquo complex associated with the indigenous people

who maintained this agricultural strategy Thus the selection of quinoa as the focus of a

UN ldquoyear ofrdquo sends multiple messages about the relationship of quinoa to the Andean

people and their harmonious farming practices and traditions and their joint

contributions to the world including the biodiversity maintenance of varieties drawing

an interesting parallel between plants and humans where diversity maintenance can

lead to worldwide contributions to humanity including global-scale food security and

support of UN Millennium Goals

What is interesting about quinoa is that it is a relative newcomer to the world

market Since 1959 the UN has elevated three crops to the ldquoYear ofrdquo status rice

58

(2004) potato (2008) quinoa (2013) (UN nd) and more recently pulses (legumes

including beans peas lentils and chickpeas) (UN 2016) While both potato and quinoa

originated in the Andes and were domesticated there of the two only the potato was

taken to Europe during early colonization by Spain and adopted into foodways across

the globe While quinoa was part of the Andean diet when the Spaniards arrived it was

not adopted into European diets and was relegated the status of ldquoIndian foodrdquo Thus

for quinoa to achieve UN recognition a mere five years after the potato is a remarkable

shift in status While both have been lauded by the UN a distinction between potatoes

and quinoa is the relative nutritional value of these products with quinoa being highly

nutritional compared to potato as has been revealed by recent scientific investigation

While quinoa is a crop that is endemic to the Andes it is presently being grown in

various countries across the globe (Figure 2-2) According to FAO databases however

the only countries that export quinoa in quantity are Bolivia Peru and Ecuador

although it is grown in all the Andean countries as well as scattered locations across

the world including the US and Canada

Source Bazile et al 2014

Figure 2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013

59

The expansion of quinoa production beyond the Andean countries is fairly recent

although there were some noteworthy earlier efforts including in Kenya and the US

Figure 2-3 shows plots the growth in the number of UN countries that grow quinoa from

1900 to 2014

Source Bazile et al 2016

Figure 2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa

The interest in quinoa as a global food product sharply increased in conjunction with

increased scientific and development efforts as well as the recognition due to the UN

Year of Quinoa Thus quinoa now has widespread global acceptance and other

countries are growing or attempting to grown quinoa This chart tracks the history of

quinoa outlined above and shows that an increase in global production was associated

with significant historical events including the formation of the quinoa producers

association in Bolivia in the early 1980s to the expanded scientific investigation from

the 1980s to the present

60

Peru Bolivia and Ecuador are the only significant sources of quinoa for export

more countries are involved in growing quinoa or conducting research on how to grow

quinoa under their climate conditions While the FAO does not list the US as a quinoa

exporter it is being grown in various locations including Colorado Washington

Oregon California and Utah There are different companies in the US that are involved

in quinoa sales including Ancient Harvests Quinoa Corporation Quinoa Foods

Company Keen One Quinoa Inca Organics Eden Foods Alter Eco Foods Quaker

Oats and Trader Joersquos The Ancient Harvests company claims to be the first company

to import quinoa into the US from Bolivia in 1983 Farms in the US that grow quinoa

include White Mountains Farm in Colorado and Lundberg Family Farms in California

Quinoa is also grown in Canada and Northern Quinoa Production Company both grows

and markets quinoa products While the global quinoa market is dominated by Peru and

Bolivia and Ecuador to a lesser extent production has expanded across the globe and

there is no doubt that there will be a larger global presence in the future including large

multi-national industrial agriculture corporations

Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa

Based on its unique history of being an important ritual food then suppressed by

the Spanish then once again returning to high acclaim by the scientific community

quinoa has left its mark on the global stage This section reviews scientific investigation

into the nutritional qualities and values of quinoa

Quinoa is high in protein especially as compared to other cereal crops (Table 2-

3 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) While Repo-Carrasco et al (2003) found that quinoa had

144 g100 g of protein the actual protein contents vary 12-17 depending on the

variety (Murphy et al 2016)

61

Table 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa

PRODUCT PROTEIN CONTENT g100g FAT CONTENT g100g

QUINOA 144 6 COMMON RYE 134 18 BARLEY 118 18 OATS 116 52 CORN 111 49 ENGLISH WHEAT 105 26 RICE 91 22

Source Data compiled from Repo-Carrasco et al 2003181

Quinoa contains amino acids that are similar to casein which is milk protein

(Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) ldquoThe amino acid content of the quinoa grainacutes protein

meets the amino acid requirements recommended for preschool children school

children and adultsrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa provides an important protein for human

growth and is likened to the importance of milk in a childrsquos modern diet Beyond its

protein content quinoa contains high calcium magnesium iron copper and zinc

content In addition to the grains quinoa leaves also contain protein as well as calcium

phosphorous and iron (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003)

Quinoa contains fatty acids that are about 82 unsaturated (Repo-Carrasco et

al 2003) Since it contains omega 3 and omega 6 it helps reduce LDL (or bad

cholesterol) and helps raise HDL (or good cholesterol) (UN 2011a) Quinoa also

contains tocopherols as Vitamin E which is an antioxidant This protects cell

membranes against free radical attack thus providing additional health benefits (Repo-

Carrasco et al 2003)

The carbohydrates in quinoa seeds contain between 58 and 68 starch and 5

sugar Quinoa is also a good energy source that is slowly released into the body due to

its high fiber content (UN 2011a)

62

In addition to the high nutritional value quinoa also has a high percentage of total

dietary fiber As such quinoa is a food that can be used to detoxify the body (UN

2011a) Quinoa also has the ability to absorb water and remain for a longer period of

time in the stomach (UN 2011a) The dietary fiber in quinoa promotes intestinal transit

and regulates cholesterol (UN 2011a)

Interestingly quinoa has two phytoestrogens deaidzein and cenisteina These

two phytoestrogens help prevent osteoporosis In addition they may alleviate disorders

caused by the lack of estrogen during menopause (UN 2011a) Due to these various

properties of quinoa it certainly deserves the title ldquosuperfoodrdquo

Quinoa is also gluten free and provides an excellent alternative to grains such as

wheat (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) Some studies indicate that the consumption of

quinoa by people with celiac disease improves their condition (UN 2011) Thus quinoa

is an alternative food source for populations with food sensitivities Quinoa is now being

touted as an alternative for a gluten-free diet has anti-oxidant characteristics linked to

cancer preventions (Villa et al 2014) and has anti-inflammatory effects (Yao et al

2014) all of which are prevalent health concerns today

Fueled by studies of quinoarsquos nutritional value which is now well-known the

global market has expanded and consumer choices across the world can affect the

farming practices of Andeans The next section discusses the Andean uses of quinoa

which is also a part of the deep history of this human-plant relationship

How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa

Prior to the globalization of quinoa the crop was primarily used for personal

consumption and was not historically a cash crop (Jacobsen 2011) While globalization

has changed quinoa into a cash crop Andeans still use quinoa and this section

63

describes the current uses of quinoa by Andeans Many commercial quinoa products

are currently available on the Peruvian consumer food market (Figure 2-4) All parts of

the plants can be used for various products and uses While Andean people primarily

consumed quinoa as food it also has a variety of other uses including medicinal ritual

cultural artistic industrial and for animal forage In acknowledging the link between

traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found that those who eat more

traditional foods maintain higher levels of farm diversity both between and within

species Thus having a strong tradition of quinoa use has a positive correlation with

agrodiversity and the variety of Andean uses for quinoa demonstrates this link

Various parts of the plant have different uses Quinoa grains are the primary

focus of production although other parts of the plant including the flower stems and

leaves also have economic value The leaves are similar to spinach and are also

consumed either as a salad or potherb (Simmonds 1965) Thus while quinoa is

commonly associated today as a nutritious grain the quinoa plant is very productive

and plays a diverse role in Andean culture and economy

Figure 2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products Image Credit Deborah Andrews

2012

64

Food

As previously noted quinoa is an important Andean food product Quinoa is

consumed as a part of any meal of the day including snacks Quinoa varieties can have

different flavors which can sometimes be distinguished based on the color although

there are also flavor distinctions within the same color but based on different varieties

In addition the texture varies based on variety with some varieties preferred for certain

recipes and uses Different quinoa varieties have culinary qualities that are used for

different cooking purposes For example chullpi is used for soups pasankalla is used

for toasting altiplano is used for flour and real is used for pissara or grains (Mujica et

al 2001) Black quinoa is harder to cook and harder to grind for flour Thus Andeans

have distinct culinary uses for the different types or varieties of quinoa which

underscores the relevance of agrodiversity The selection of quinoa varieties based on

culinary uses is further explored in Chapter 4 which focuses on agrodiversity and

farmer variety selection

Grain Products

The grain is the primary focus of quinoa production Andeans frequently

consume quinoa in the form of grain which is boiled with two parts water and one part

quinoa similar to rice The grains can be used in many recipes in the place of rice

although in the Andes rice appears to be more frequently consumed than quinoa The

grains are often used to make porridge and soups A common Andean dish is peske

which is boiled quinoa served with milk as depicted in Figure 2-5 The variety used for

the peske that I was served was kancolla which has a large grain so it can be prepared

like rice In addition to boiling the grain can be toasted or puffed

65

Figure 2-5 Peske Image Credit Deborah Andrews 2014

Since the time of the Inca quinoa has been used to produce fermentation of

chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of harvest and

sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and so ensure

prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) In Quechua culture Isbell (1978) observed that

quinoa was added to corn-based chicha to make a special ritual drink called machka

celebrating the first planting of the season Andeans also presently prepare a juice from

quinoa usually made with orange juice Indeed chicha is widely available in Peru

beyond the Andes and is a symbol of national pride and patrimony

A more trendy use of quinoa is the manufacture of protein bars containing

combinations of quinoa and other products such as peanuts kiwicha or cantildeihua which

are sold in modern grocery stores in Peru These bars are similar in style and

convenience to granola bars and appear to be a more recent modern consumer

product since I did not see these bars being either sold or consumed in small stores in

villages or by farmers

66

Processed Quinoa

While raw quinoa grain is the primary form of the product that is sold

commercially and for export there is also a market for products that are further

processed and used in forms other than as raw grain Processed quinoa products can

be found in Peruvian grocery stores and include items such as quinoa flour as well as

products made using quinoa flour such as pasta There are a variety of modern recipes

for quinoa using either the grains or milled flour The grains are milled into flour for

baking purposes for bread and other products Based on my use of quinoa flour it

makes a stiffer product than wheat flour so it is not necessarily an acceptable substitute

for bread wheat flour unless a firmer product is desired such as in crisp cookies

Quinoa is also milled to make flakes which can be used as a breakfast food or added

to yogurt smoothies purees soups and drinks (Montoya Restrepo et al 2005) Quinoa

smoothies can be purchased from roadside vendors in Puno as a quick portable

breakfast Other Peruvian retail products include a breakfast porridge that combines

quinoa flakes with oatmeal A limited variety of quinoa products are sold in retail stores

in the United States including pasta and baby food

In the Andes one of the local complaints about consuming quinoa relates to the

length of time it takes to prepare If the quinoa grain has not been processed past the

winnowing stage the grain needs to be further prepared before cooking This important

step is the removal of the saponins Due to the mild toxicity of the saponins they need

to be removed prior to cooking This is done by abrading the grain to remove the outer

layer as well as washing the grains and disposing of the waste-water For quinoa that is

exported on the global market the saponin removal process can occur at different

stages of the distribution chain including by the end-use consumer However most

67

quinoa on the US market today already has the saponin removed with no additional

rinsing needed by the consumer although this was not always the case

Another time-consuming tedious process is the grinding of quinoa into flour The

traditional method of milling quinoa is to actually grind the grains on a mill stone using

an oblong stone tool as depicted in Figure 2-6 One informant said that when he was a

child when he came home from school he would have to grind quinoa using the grind

stone before he could go out to play He said that he resents quinoa due to this

childhood chore While modern electric mills are now available the female informants

agreed that stone ground quinoa tastes better than the modern processing and that they

can tell the difference in flavor between the two milling practices A problem of

modernization however is that at least in the Juli region south of Puno the man who

makes the stone grinding tools is getting old and no one else in the area is known to

make the stone grinding tools COOPAIN has an industrial mill at their processing plant

in Cabana for the members to mill their quinoa into flour for personal consumption

Figure 2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools Image

credit Deborah Andrews 2014

68

Masamora is a dish made with quinoa flour with added calcium obtained from

rocks Figure 2-7 depicts masamora along with other quinoa food products Masamora

is cooked into a paste-like dish usually eaten for breakfast Krsquoispina is steamed quinoa

dough Many families have their own special krsquoispina recipe for lunch as well as for trips

Traditional Andeans also use krsquoispina formed into special shapes for ritual ceremonial

purposes

Figure 2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products Image credit Deborah Andrews

2014

Medicine

While scientists are studying medicinal values of quinoa (Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Yao et al 2014 Navruz-Varley and Sanlier 2016) various parts of the quinoa

plant are used in traditional Aymara medicine (UN 2011) as well as Quechua medicine

The seeds leaves and stems are used to cure many diseases (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015)

Traditional healing uses include as an antiseptic gargle heartburn relief constipation

relief nausea relief as a poultice as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory (UN

2011a) In addition quinoa is traditionally used to treat liver problems tonsillitis fever

69

urinary problems contusions hemorrhages bowel disorders wounds insect bites loss

of blood irritation loss of appetite loss of strength insomnia headache dizziness

anemia loss of focus and to prevent osteoporosis (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Thus in

addition to having an important role as a food product in Andean diets quinoa also is

traditionally used for a variety of medical ailments

Ajara or wild quinoa which is black colored is normally used for traditional

medicine usually by community members who specialize in healing Traditional

medicine can be purchased at the open-air farmersrsquo markets in Puno Ajara is not

normally used for consumption because it does not taste good since it is bitter

however it is used for medicinal purposes such as paste placed on the body next to

broken bones The black quinoa has more saponin than the other varieties and is used

for medicine against cancer and diabetes based on folk knowledge Recent research

on saponins in quinoa have linked it to anti-inflammatory properties (Yao et al 2014)

providing scientific support for traditional Andean medicine Based on this recent

scientific confirmation of medicinal values black quinoa is now fetching a higher price

since it is considered to have medicinal value which is being more widely-reported and

studied In other parts of the world C album has been used for medicinal purposes

(Bharagava et al 2009) Scientific analysis has revealed that Chenopodium has

antibacterial antifungal anti-parasitic anthelmintic antispasmodic antipruritic and

antinociceptive properties (Bharagava et al 2009) Thus properties of quinoa have

medicinal value and research into the variety distinctions from a medicinal or

therapeutic perspective can potentially contribute to efforts to conserve agrodiversity

70

Another medicinal use of quinoa is in relation to the practice of chewing coca In

the Andes coca is often used to alleviate symptoms of hypoxia related to the high

altitude and is also used as a stimulant which can also suppress hunger Alkaline from

the ash of burned quinoa stems (lliptu) is used for coca chewing (Simmonds 1965) The

stems of the quinoa plant are still considered to be the best for this purpose as

compared to other kinds of plants Thus quinoa has a variety of traditional and

scientifically confirmed medical benefits and the correlation of the beneficial properties

with certain varieties can provide impetus to conserve agrodiversity

Ritual Uses

Andean farmers have a close relationship with nature Many believe in

Pachamama or Earth Mother as well as the presence of spirits in the rivers springs

and tombs This cosmology also extends to sharing quinoa with other species such as

birds as exemplified by the lack of vigor to some degree in keeping birds away from

their crop because they do not want the birds to ldquocryrdquo This spiritual religion is a close

relationship between life and the actions of the farmer in the fields (Ayala Olazaacutebal

2015)

As noted above Andeans ferment quinoa to make chicha (Simmonds 1965)

Chicha is fermented with quinoa and is involved in religious and magical ancestral

ceremonies in giving to the Earth (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) This is likely one of the most

well-known ritual and culturally-laden uses of quinoa linked to Andean cosmology

Traditional Andeans make different shapes by hand from a quinoa flour

preparation called krsquoispina as noted above which are used for different festivals and

celebrations including the Carnival celebration and All Saints Day During the San Juan

Festival which is in June some people make animal shapes with this form of quinoa

71

The San Juan Festival is the day of the farmer Families have specific shapes that they

use for this product and community members recognize who made the product due to

their trademark-like shape Among the Aymara quinoa dough was used to make

figurines and shapes such as babies llamas and wreaths for use at funerals (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) Thus quinoa is not only symbolic it is used to make other

symbols

One quinoa variety has alternating white and red panicles on the same plant

Andeans usually do not eat this variety which is called miste misti misa quinua misa

jiura or mistiza but it is used in Pachamama rituals There is a ceremonycelebration

for Pachamama in which there are offerings of quinoa corn habas and guinea pig

blood The reason they use guinea pig blood is because guinea pigs reproduce quickly

and the farmers are asking Pachamama for a high yield agricultural production

Consumer Products

Quinoa can also be processed for products such as oils starch saponin and

coloring (UN 2011a) These extractions are used to produce a variety of consumer

products such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (UN 2011a) Saponins are a mixture

of triterpene glycosides and over 100 different saponins have been identified in quinoa

(Jarvis et al 2017) Saponins are mildly toxic so they are extracted before

consumption and can then be used for other items making it an efficient use of the

plant Quinoa is also used to make industrial alcohol cartons paper starch flour oil

shampoo creams detergent and industrial colorants (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Red

quinoa is used to redden lips as well as for dye

72

Animal Forage

The quinoa plant is also used for livestock forage Waste leaves and stems are

used for livestock feed for their high protein content (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Animals

however cannot consume the dried stalks One study suggests that quinoa be grown in

Colombia as sustainable forage for livestock (Rosero et al 2010) Thus quinoa can be

marketed as livestock forage which may be appealing in locations where grass does

not grow well

During this study a local professor suggested that there should be development

projects introducing more chickens to Andean farms since there is a lot of quinoa grain

waste during harvesting The chickens could feed upon the quinoa that falls to the

ground during the harvest thereby providing a nutritious animal feed Indeed chickens

were ready to eat quinoa during threshing and provided a source of humor for me while

I observed farming demonstrations

One problem with introducing more chickens to the Andes is that they need to

become acclimated to the lower-oxygen environment much like humans so the

introduction of chickens from lower elevations can be problematic The alternative would

be to breed the chickens acclimated to the highlands Chickens can thrive at the high

elevations but while I observed chickens on many farms there often were less than 10

chickens and therefore appeared to be for household egg production rather than

commercial production Large scale egg production occurs in Bolivia with eggs shipped

into Peru and the Bolivian chickens have apparently adapted to the environmental

conditions

73

Fuel

The dried stalks left over from quinoa processing can be used for fuel When it is

available it is used for fuel in earthen ovens that are constructed to bake potatoes and

oca The quinoa stalks are used to start the fire and get the embers going The root

foods are poured in the oven then the oven is then collapsed during cooking (Figures 2-

8)

A B

C D Figure 2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven A) Lighting fire with quinoa

stems B) Pouring potatoes and oca into oven C) View of potatoes and oca in oven and D) Collapsing of earthen oven for baking process Image credit Deborah Andrews 2015

74

There are a variety of uses for the different parts of the quinoa plants In addition

to the traditional and ongoing Andean uses of quinoa as well as expanded use by other

consumers there are also industrial applications of quinoa Figure 2-9 displays an array

of quinoa uses including applications that were not observed as part of this study but

which shows the production potential of quinoa for a variety of uses both traditional and

non-traditional

Source httpwwwfaoorgquinoa-2013faqsen Accessed March 13 2017

Figure 2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa

Negative Local Health Effects

One of the issues that has arisen in relation to the popularity of quinoa is the

indirect effects it may have on the health of the local communities The reason for the

concern is due to the increase in the price for quinoa and the effect the price increase

5

example I followed as we progressed through graduate school The inspiration for this

dissertation arose from our casual conversations and the ldquoQuinoa kidsrdquo name we

adopted in the horseshoe tournament at the Armadillo Roast fundraiser for the

University of Florida Department of Anthropology I also want to thank Marlon Carranza

for listening to my woes and providing humor and perspective throughout this process

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

LIST OF TABLES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 11

ABSTRACT 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 14

Research Question 14

Historic Overview 21 Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices 24 Agrodiversity and Globalization 29

2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET 36

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People 36

The Fox and the Condor 38

What is Quinoa 39

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species 41 History of Quinoa in the Andes 45

Resurgence of Quinoa 55 Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa 60 How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa 62

Food 64 Grain Products 64 Processed Quinoa 66

Medicine 68 Ritual Uses 70 Consumer Products 71 Animal Forage 72

Fuel 73 Negative Local Health Effects 74

3 ANDEAN FARMERS AND THE GLOBAL MARKET WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS REMAINED THE SAME 80

Diversification and the Environment 80 What are the Current Farming Practices 82

7

Harvesting 88

Quinoa Processing 93

What are the Strategies for Local Farmers to Access the Market 95 Farmersrsquo Markets 95 Farmersrsquo Cooperatives 96 Future Market Expansion 102 Agricultural Fairs 104

Pricing 107

4 HOW ARE ANDEAN FARMERS PRESERVING QUINOA AGRODIVERSITY DURING A TIME OF GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET 118

What is the Extent of Quinoa Variety Diversity and How is it Classified 123 Farmersrsquo Knowledge 126

Experiment in Comparative Variety Yield 144 How do Andean Farmers Select the Quinoa Variety to Plant 148

Do Andean Farmers Maintain Agrodiversity through their Seed Selection Practices 160

How do Andean Farmers Select Seeds and How do these Processes affect Agrodiversity 166

Womenrsquos Role in Seed Selection 172

A Female Semillista Example 174 What are Menrsquos Roles in Seed Selection 180

5 CONCLUSION 188

APPENDIX

A QUINOA VARIETY NAMES 199

B RAZAS DE QUINUAS RACES OF QUINOA 205

LIST OF REFERENCES 206

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 219

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa 61

4-1 INIA Commercial Varieties of Quinoa in Peru 132

4-2 Altiplano Varieties by Color 138

4-3 Races of Quinoa 139

4-4 Results of Variety Yield Experiment 145

4-5 Frequency of Planting of Quinoa Varieties 149

4-6 Average Number of Quinoa Varieties Grown 153

4-7 Collective Number of Quinoa Varieties 154

4-8 Reasons for Variety Selection 156

4-9 Sources of Quinoa Seeds 161

4-10 Reasons for Seed Selection 167

4-11 Quinoa Uses 179

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches 47

2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013 58

2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa 59

2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products 63

2-5 Peske 65

2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools 67

2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products 68

2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven 73

2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa 74

3-1 Drying quinoa at UNAP research station 89

3-2 Student farmers learning to use the trilladora to thresh quinoa fruits from the plant 90

3-3 Student farmer removing the grain from the panicle 91

3-4 Further sifting of quinoa grains 92

3-5 Wind winnowing at INIA 92

3-6 Puno Farmersrsquo Market 95

3-7 Powdered cantildeihua at Puno Farmersrsquo Market 96

3-8 Quinoa drying in the sun at COOPAIN 99

3-9 Quinoa-battered fried whole fish eyeballs included 107

3-10 Quinoa Production Volumes 2001-2014 108

3-11 Peru Quinoa Producer Prices 1991-2003 109

3-12 Puno Producer Prices 1990-2012 109

3-13 Quinoa Price Drop 110

10

4-1 Quinoa samples at the INIA office 132

4-2 Quinoa Variety Frequency University Student Farmers N=24 152

4-3 Quinoa Variety Frequency Co-op Farmers N=35 152

4-4 Mamarsquos quinoa 174

4-5 Expert Arsquos map of quinoa field 175

4-6 Expert Arsquos Seed Display 176

4-7 Rosada Taraco quinoa after harvest 182

4-8 Rosada taraco quinoa grains 183

4-9 Expert Brsquos seed selection display 183

11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANAPQUI Asociacioacuten National de Productores de Quinoa

COOPAIN Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash Cabana

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

INIA Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten Agraria

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non-governmental organization

UN United Nations

UNAP Universidad Nacional del Altiplano

US United States

12

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS

AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

Deborah J Andrews

August 2017

Chair Marianne Schmink Co-chair Christopher McCarty Major Anthropology

This research seeks to seeks to understand the inter-relationship between small-

scale Andean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa

crop and how they are maintaining same-species agrodiversity during a time of

globalization of the market Despite Spanish suppression of the crop as well as post-

colonial discriminatory practices against quinoa and the indigenous populations who ate

it this crop survived due to the inter-species relationship with Andean farmers who

relied on quinoa as an important food source The popularization of quinoa however

has changed the quinoa market with potential effects on quinoa agrodiversity

maintenance and increased risk to farmers

The study was carried out in Puno Peru using participant observation surveys

and interviews with both Quechua and Aymara farmers as well as other experts This

study investigated the quinoa variety agrodiversity practices of small-scale farmers

including the number of varieties grown during the past season the reasons farmers

selected quinoa varieties for production how seeds were selected and who influenced

variety and seed choice The literature review and field research revealed over 200

13

quinoa names including 63 varieties grown by the participant farmers during the period

of this study The farmers selected these varieties by analyzing and balancing a number

of factors including market demand environmental adaptation yield culinary

properties cultural practices and experimentation The farmers who participated in this

study grew an average of 257 quinoa varieties during the past season with a range of

between one to thirty-two varieties being grown by an individual farmer The results of

this study demonstrate that there are various influences on agrodiversity maintenance

including the availability of seed the promotion of varieties by organizations including

the government NGOs and cooperatives as well as farm-saved seed reliant upon

existing local germplasm Ongoing and future investigation of quinoa at the variety level

including nutritional and health benefit distinctions as well as culinary and other

consumer uses can maintain agrodiversity while serving the goals of both continued

crop resilience as well as competitiveness in the market through diverse unique and

marketable options Knowledge and agrodiversity maintenance by Andean farmers

especially the local experts can play a valuable role in future investigations into the

beneficial interspecies relationship between people and plants and their joint

contributions to global food security

14

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Research Question

This research addresses the inter-relationship between small-scale Andean

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa crop and how the

farmers maintain agrodiversity during a time of globalization of the quinoa market

Humans have been breeding plants for thousands of years leading to the rise of

agriculture This breeding of plants has altered biodiversity based on human selection

Unfortunately only a small number of crops now dominate global agricultural production

and human diets which is detrimental to long-term food security Murphy et al (2016)

consider maintenance of quinoa diversity to be an imperative Many cultures including

Andean farmers have maintained lesser-known traditional crops and have a wealth of

agricultural heritage and knowledge The study of quinoa and the people who have

grown it for thousands of years offers an example of ldquohumannonhuman minglingrdquo that is

the hallmark of multispecies ethnography which focuses on how other organisms as

well as humans are shaped by cultural political and economic forces (Kirksey and

Helmreich 2010546)

In light of the long-term historical suppression of quinoa starting with Spanish

colonialists and continuing with post-colonial practices this research addresses the

question of whether intra-species quinoa diversity is being maintained during a time of

market globalization In the context of a traditionally-maintained crop that has gained

global attention the working hypothesis is that the global attention on quinoa will lead to

losses in sub-species agrodiversity due to external market demands and trends towards

monocultural practices The expectation of diversity loss is further justified by the

15

dominance of the white-colored Bolivian real variety in the market which was the initial

market entry for quinoa While aggregation of quinoa of the same variety or at least

color allows for small-scale farmers to pool their crops and contribute to the global

market this market benefit could be at the expense of agrodiversity

Traditional Andean grains grown by Peruvian farmers increasingly are served on

dinner plates across the Western world With the discovery of the excellent nutritional

benefits the quinoa boom has exploded on the market as a trendy healthy new food

source in the modern world In contrast Andeans have been farming quinoa for

thousands of years While most Andean farmers still produce quinoa using traditional

small-scale farming techniques the global demands for quinoa may be affecting within-

species diversity Thus the timing of the expansion of the quinoa market especially in

light of its multi-millennial usage is an important factor in this study

This research arises from questions that have been raised by the media about

the effects of the global demand for quinoa on local farmers such as whether their diets

have suffered due to a decrease in quinoa consumption or whether other agricultural

practices have been affected such as llama or alpaca grazing areas being converted to

quinoa fields (Eg Aubrey 2013 Romero and Shahriari 2011) More recently the

popular press has also questioned the effects that the global popularity of quinoa

specifically has had on agrodiversity with claims that ldquoExport demand has focused on

very few of the 3000 or so different varieties of quinoa prompting farmers to abandon

many of those varietiesrdquo (Cherfas 2016) While this statement about the number of

varieties of quinoa is often repeated it derives from a misunderstanding of the

difference between varieties and accessioned samples in seed banks which is explored

16

below Nevertheless it clearly raised concern for continued quinoa agrodiversity This

study focuses on the current extent of quinoa agrodiversity and how it has been

maintained and conserved by small-scale Andean farmers in the Peruvian altiplano

While this study focuses on how Andean quinoa farmers are maintaining agrodiversity

this does not imply that these farmers are solely responsible for agrodiversity

maintenance or loss but rather they are an important part of the discussion and need

to be included in discourse about future efforts to maintain or improve diversity

practices In addition their knowledge can contribute to an overall understanding of the

biodiversity of quinoa

The anthropological discourse on globalization describes various processes that

affect local communities and their culture due to the pressures of global demands for

resources originating in these communities ldquoGlobalization is a long-term uneven and

paradoxical process in which widening social cooperation and deepening inequality go

togetherrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20043-4) This study investigated the practices of small-

scale Andean farmers as well as their folk knowledge related to quinoa varieties and

how they changed in response to market globalization

Since food is very much linked to cultural identity (Weismantel 1988) quinoa

provides an excellent exemplar for studying the effects of globalization on local cultures

especially since quinoa is considered to be one of the most important food crops in the

Andes having both economic and cultural importance (Christensen et al 2007 Castillo

et al 2007) Quinoa is used as a diverse food product and is also used during ritual

festivals for consumption and to make symbolic figurines out of quinoa dough (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) In this regard quinoa is like other plants that are valued for

17

symbolic ritual and sociocultural practice rather than just for direct economic benefits

(Kawa 2012) and provides evidence that money is not always the principal factor in

decision-making With this in mind this study analyzes the cultural factors in

agrodiversity decision-making during a time of globalization of this traditional product In

acknowledging the link between traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found

that those who eat more traditional foods including quinoa maintain more farm

diversity including more crop diversity and more varieties Thus there is an association

with biodiversity and food products that have a strong cultural link to the farmer and

quinoa is a prime crop to investigate this phenomenon

Prior studies of Andean crops including the aptly titled book ldquoLost Crops of the

Incardquo (1989) described quinoa and other important crops in direct connection with the

Andean people who had a deep history with the plant

Today in the high Andes the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants who are largely pure-blooded Indian and continue to grow the crops of their forbears During the centuries they have maintained the Incarsquos food crops in the face of neglect and even scorn by much of the society around them In local markets women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than 500 years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains baskets of beans of every color and bowls containing luscious fruits At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers ndash red yellow purple even candy striped some as round and bright as billiard balls others long and thin and wrinkled These are the ldquolost crops of the Incasrdquo (NRC 19893)

The National Research Councilrsquos (NRC) comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-

blooded Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including

quinoarsquos ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and

people through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food

18

Similarly in 1990 Wilson observed the relationship between the race of people

and the status of quinoa he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed complexesrdquo

where the wild ancestral plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the domesticated

varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial areasrdquo

associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including the

Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo provided a place for both indigenous

Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes from the outside world

Wilson (1990) observed as other scientists before him that there was a strong

association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and culture and

the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and plant diversity

thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live side-by-side

Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both survived

colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency

The United Nations (ldquoUNrdquo) determined that quinoa is a product that can

contribute to food security for the worldrsquos growing population (UN 2011a) Over a

decade earlier the National Research Council commented that ldquoBecause it is now

primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing its production is a good

way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo (NRC 1989150) In

contrast the process of globalization may put local farmers and the biodiversity of the

crop at risk Given the fact that the Andean altiplano is a harsh growing environment

coupled with climate change and attendant crop risk agrodiversity effects are an

important issue in understanding local effects of globalization that could lead to long

term negative consequences

19

For this dissertation the relationship between Andean quinoa farmers and this

traditional subsistence crop was studied during a time of rapid globalization and growing

popularity of quinoa As Mintz observed ldquothe social history of the use of new foods in a

western nation can contribute to an anthropology of modern liferdquo (Mintz 1985xxviii)

Quinoa provides a classic example since it is a traditional crop with a long history

culminating in recent global popularity and demand that has affected small-scale

farmers whose product climbed onto the world stage When peripheral economies such

as that of the Andean farmers are integrated into a larger capitalist system it is usually

on unequal terms (Lewis 2005) This raises the question of the effect on the local

quinoa farmers due to the increased popularity of their crop This scenario is a classic

example of the idea that ldquoglobalization involves more intensive interaction across wider

space and in shorter time than before in other words the experience of a shrinking

worldrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20048)

The product of Andean farmers vaulted to global attention in a relatively rapid

fashion after a multi-millennial relationship with the people of the Andes What was a

long-term relationship between Andeans and quinoa was altered by outside attention

and demand Since the world has noticed quinoa what has happened to the quinoa

farmers and their relationship to quinoa To understand local farmers we need to

understand the contextual components of their relationships to external markets (Dove

2011247) especially given the strong Andean cultural identity that includes quinoa The

farmersrsquo connections to the market can include a number of points of access some of

which lead directly to the global market

20

Due to the globalization of the quinoa market the popular press has raised

concerns about changes to local diets and loss of grazing areas (Aubrey 2013 Romero

and Shafiari 2011) Much like accedilaiacute (Euterpe oleraceae Mart) from the Amazon studied

by Brondizio (2008) quinoa has rocketed onto the global market yet as Brondizio

found local farmers pejoratively called caboclos in Brazil can be disenfranchised

despite the high acclaim of their plant partner on the world stage In addition to the

farmers the global attention on quinoa can also have adverse effects on the species as

noted in the popular press with regard to the maintenance of agrodiversity of quinoa

(Cherfas 2016) Thus both farmers and their partner crop can be affected by

globalization and this study investigates some of these changes including the

relationship between the two

While globalized agriculture is often associated with large factory farms in the

Andes quinoa is primarily produced on small family farms with most of the tasks done

by hand with little mechanization through the harvesting stage (Ton and Bijman 2006)

Despite the small size of the farms they are not isolated from what Dove (2011) calls

larger networks of economic exchange Indeed the farmers in this study who live in the

remote Andes are participants in the global quinoa market Farmers are not just a

collection of individuals but rather are part of a complex system (Escobar 1991) The

social organization in rural communities can substantially influence crop biodiversity

(Leclerc and Copperns drsquoEeckenbrugge 2012) While many studies of crop agrodiversity

focus on seed selection factors related to the environment culture is also an important

factor in diversity and ultimately food security Indeed at the outset agricultural crops

were selected by humans for cultivation and ultimately domestication which

21

emphasizes the human element in agrodiversity This process is not static especially in

the context of globalization when external socially driven market demands factor into

the equation

Ecological anthropology seeks to understand the relationship between social

organizations population dynamics human culture and the environment (Orlove 1980)

Coupling ecological anthropology with biodiversity discourse further focuses the

question of human factors in biodiversity maintenance Biodiversity is important and

there is concern about the loss of plant biodiversity (FAO 1999) There has been a call

for increased emphasis for biodiversity in the agricultural landscape (Brush 1995 2005)

Past agricultural research demonstrates that commercial markets often seek out

consistent standardized products which allows for the pooling and consolidation of

crops from different farms to be aggregated and sold in bulk volumes on larger markets

The drive for a singular similar-looking product however can have agrodiversity

consequences especially if the external market seeks one look But quinoa is a

polyploid plant that produces grain with highly diverse morphological characteristics and

various colors White quinoa was the initial product popularized on the global market

through the early market entry of the Bolivian real variety The emphasis on a singular

color potentially might deleteriously affect the agrodiversity of the crop which can lead

to higher production risks for local farmers due to the harsh environment in the Andes

Thus reduced agrodiversity can have immense consequences for both local farmers

and crop agrodiversity

Historic Overview

The history of quinoa and how it reached the global market and the utilization of

quinoa in the Andes are described in Chapter 2 Quinoa provides an especially

22

interesting example because it was not adopted into European agriculture for centuries

whereas the adoption of other food crops from the Andes such as potatoes was rapid

(Maughan et al 2007) From the colonial period through the first half of the twentieth

century quinoa production was in great decline Due to its association with indigenous

rituals and its ceremonial importance quinoa was suppressed by the Spanish

colonizers although cultivation continued in remote areas with mostly indigenous

populations (Sauer 1950 Simmonds 1965 Wilson 1990) What was once derogatorily

classified as an indigenous food suppressed by European colonizers under racist

practices has transformed into a global commodity

Notions of discrimination permeate the historical treatment of quinoa and the

Andeans with an interesting joint-species racialized experience As noted by Hartigan

past discourse by cultural anthropologists in the US focused on ldquomaintaining the

bulwark between culture and biologyrdquo (2013373) especially when discussing racial

classification but this research seeks to breach that bulwark using multispecies

ethnography in an attempt to understand the relationship between Andeans and

quinoa and how this relationship which has successfully maintained quinoa diversity

for thousands of years is being affected by globalization In this study I use a

multispecies approach to this analysis which means that I investigate both the plant as

well as human culture which is especially fitting here considering the history of

discrimination that both Andeans and quinoa have jointly experienced across time due

to cultural beliefs

The second chapter addresses the biological nature of quinoa and its

complicated taxonomic history Other species of Chenopodium grow throughout the

23

world with closely related species in the US and Mexico that may provide insights into

the migrations of both the plants and their associated people (Heiser 1990)

The second chapter also describes the more recent history of quinoa and the

events that led to its international resurgence as an important food crop Plants have a

history of interactions with humans and how we think about the importance or

relevance of different plant species varies Quinoa has a unique history of suppression

by Spaniards during the Conquest to the post-colonial attitudes of quinoa as an ldquoIndian

foodrdquo to the present cultural belief in quinoa as a ldquosuper-foodrdquo Scientific investigations

of quinoa led to its current status as a food for astronauts and its increasing popularity

as a health food in the West

Quinoa has high nutritional value with more protein essential amino acids and

minerals than other cereal crops (Medina et al 2010 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) A

recent UN publication states ldquoIn countries (such as Peru and Bolivia) where malnutrition

levels are high it is essential to boost quinoa consumption in order to benefit from its

exceptional nutritional propertiesrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa has tremendous

implications for human health and food security even in countries that traditionally grow

quinoa such as Peru and Bolivia yet still have malnutrition Stunting is a problem in the

Peruvian Andes which has been linked to poor diet (Mayer 2002) providing additional

reasons to investigate this highly nutritious product

Research on quinoa has been conducted by agronomists geneticists and other

agricultural scientists with more limited anthropological research on the topic which

has been growing recently While the history of quinoa and timeliness of its global

popularity is well suited to this study it is the people and the human cultural association

24

with an important food crop that are the focus here This is a prime opportunity to

investigate debate and perhaps prevent the problems that globalized agriculture has

caused in the past

Food security is a worldwide issue and this study of the cultural aspects of

quinoa production in a globalized market can provide anthropological perspectives in

agricultural contexts The FAO Rome Declaration on World Food Security (1996)

defines global food security as follows

Food security exists when all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

This study seeks to provide information that can be used to improve food security

through the maintenance of diversity of an important food crop This research can also

inform debates about globalization of the quinoa market The intent of this study is to

reflect upon and suggest ways to mitigate the unintended consequences to local

farmers as well as to mitigate agrodiversity loss

Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices

Chapter 3 describes the present farming practices of Andean farmers based on

participant observation and interviews with quinoa farmers and experts This study

describes the continuation of traditional farming practices as well as analyzing modern

changes to these practices and how they may affect agrodiversity maintenance

The research for this dissertation was based in Puno Peru on the shores of

Lake Titicaca since that is the place of greatest genetic diversity (Medina et al 2010)

as well as where there have been archaeological discoveries of ancient quinoa (Langlie

et al 2011) Presently the main producers and exporters of quinoa are Bolivia and Peru

(Medina et al 2010) The Puno region is the main quinoa agricultural growing area in

25

the altiplano Andes of Peru is a major production area in Peru is a market exchange

location for both Peru and Bolivia and is believed to have the highest range of quinoa

agrodiversity The Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (UNAP) is located in Puno and I

obtained an official affiliation with that institution and worked with professors who had a

long history of working with quinoa farmers This study was conducted during several

extensive trips to Puno from 2012 to 2015 The initial field investigation took place

during May and June 2012 I returned to Puno from May to June in 2014 and 2015 with

the fieldwork concluding in December 2015 While I was based in the City of Puno I

traveled to the nearby farms and villages in the Puno region including Cabana

Cabanillas Juli Juliaca Ilave Kilca Chucuito and Desaguadero

I primarily gathered information from farmers (N=66) student farmers (N=24)

and professors at the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (N=10) In addition to these

100 participants I conducted numerous informal interviews with quinoa wholesale

vendors government officials farmers at farmers markets fair participants three field

researchers and relatives of two of the university professors

Since I obtained an affiliation with the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano I was

introduced to numerous professors who were linked to quinoa research in various ways

The expertise of the professors was varied and included anthropology agronomy food

safety entomology and animal science I worked extensively with two professors ndash Dr

Marco Aro and Dr Aacutengel Mujicamdashthroughout this process Two additional professors

took me to their family farms where I observed their practices and informally interviewed

their relatives although they did not participate in the formal agrodiversity surveys since

it was early in the research process For the professor group I conducted interviews

26

with each of the 10 professors to gain insight and information on various aspects of

quinoa and culture This information ranged from cultural traditions to pest problems

with the crop I also sought to find an existing list of quinoa varieties upon which I could

base my agrodiversity inventory and research but was unable to locate one as further

described in my research findings

Working with Dr Mujica I participated in the agricultural field school in

Camacani where students were taught to harvest quinoa at the university research

station Twenty-three of the student farmers participated in formal surveys during this

field school and one additional student participated in the survey who did not attend this

field session In addition to the student surveys I participated in the harvest where I

took many photographs and extensively interviewed Dr Mujica In 2015 I also went on

a three-day field trip with a group of agricultural students to Arequipa Majes and

surrounding communities I obtained the additional student survey from one of these

participants who also assisted in providing farmer contacts

The first group of non-student farmers that I worked with were a convenience

sample of 31 farmers who attended a meeting conducted by Dr Mujica in the city of

Puno Since this was a convenience sample it had some bias and is not necessarily a

representative sample of all farmers in the region because they were associated with an

outreach program affiliated with the University and had the means to travel to the city

for the meeting Due to travel constraints I was not able to individually interview this set

of farmers

Towards the end of the meeting I explained my research project by going

through the Institutional Review Board-approved disclosures and request for consent

27

After answering a few questions including one question about compensation and why

they should help me for free I conducted a formal agrodiversity survey of 31 of the

farmers present who were primarily of Aymara ethnicity Several farmers declined to

participate for unknown reasons although I suspect one reason was that they could not

write another bias in this sample selection All but one of these farmers were men

Thus it was not a random sample and was skewed in both gender roles as well as in

individual motivation availability education or opportunity to travel to Puno for a

meeting

The second group of farmers that I worked with were affiliated with COOPAIN

the local cooperative located in the town of Cabana which is a small town north of the

city of Puno COOPAIN stands for Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash

Cabana COOPAIN is a democratically run organization with elections each year It is

organized into two committees the ManagementAdministration Committee and the

Oversight Committee Each committee has four members three permanent and one

substitute member Under the ManagementAdministration Committee are four

subcommittees Production Education Womenrsquos and Election each with the same

membership size and structure

The education committee focused on promotion of growing quinoa and joining

COOPAIN The education committee was primarily concerned with young people

getting involved in farming to replace the aging farmer population This concern with the

future of farming and the need to attract or keep young people in farming is an important

issue for the continuation of quinoa farming in the altiplano At the education meetings

they answer questions from the audience and also discuss climate change

28

At this cooperative farmers bring their harvested quinoa to the small factory for

processing and refinement The farmers process the quinoa in the field which includes

threshing sifting and winnowing prior to bringing their production to the cooperative in

large bags The cooperative further processes the quinoa by washing the quinoa and

removing the saponins and sorting the quinoa by color These processes will be further

described in the following chapters The cooperative distributes to the national and

global market although sales direct to consumers are also available at the remote

factory COOPAIN provides access to the globalized market due to marketing efforts

that connects the small farmers to the larger market COOPAIN maintains a market

presence through its connections with non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

international and local researchers the press its own outreach programs as well as a

website Since the farmer-members of COOPAIN were selling their crops on the global

market it offered a unique opportunity to see the effects of globalization on the local

farmers and quinoa agrodiversity While the COOPAIN facility is located in Cabana the

members live in the small communities in the surrounding region and they bring their

harvests to Cabana The meetings regarding the operation of COOPAIN occur in

Cabana and this tiny town was a central location for finding participants for this study

A total of 35 farmers affiliated with COOPAIN participated in this study I

personally met with 21 of the 35 farmers conducting a formal survey and semi-

structured interviews The additional 14 farmer participants were surveyed by student

volunteers that both Dr Aro and I trained to interview the participants gather and

record consistent data and demographics using a written interview guide In addition to

the surveys and interviews I observed the manufacturing practices at COOPAIN and

29

met with the management and leadership on several occasions conducting formal

informational and background interviews

As noted above across the period of this study I gathered information from a

variety of more informal sources I visited farmersrsquo markets and also investigated the

local food stores to gather pricing and marketing data on quinoa I attended two

agricultural fairs and observed the display of quinoa products and the competition

regarding quinoa food recipes I met with two governmental officials in Puno to gather

data on regional quinoa production I also visited the Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten

Agraria (INIA) to observe their quinoa research station and interviewed a government

official running the program The information I gathered from INIA related to quinoa

agrodiversity and they had many samples on display in the office I asked for a list of

the quinoa varieties and was told that the information was in their recent publication

which I purchased It turned out that the publication was not quite as helpful or

comprehensive as I had hoped as further discussed in Chapter 4

Agrodiversity and Globalization

Chapter 4 describes the investigation into agrodiversity conservation practices

during globalization of the quinoa market There are several components to this study

to evaluate the agrodiversity of quinoa the first component of this research was to

develop a list of quinoa varieties especially since my research discovered that a

published comprehensive list did not already exist While the popular press reported

thousands of quinoa varieties (eg Cherfas 2016) I discovered that the term ldquovarietyrdquo

was mistakenly used for ldquoaccessionsrdquo associated with seed bank collections which are

not necessarily separate varieties for each accession Thus the number of purported

quinoa varieties was both undocumented and inflated Without the collection of accurate

30

or existing data to use as a starting point I re-tooled my research to establish a set of

data from which I could evaluate the present state of agrodiversity of quinoa and its

relationship to Andean farming culture

To establish a starting point for quinoa agrodiversity I conducted a study of local

quinoa farmers and asked them to list the quinoa varieties that they had grown over the

past two years I also reviewed published research to create a comprehensive list of

quinoa names As research progressed additional varieties were added to the list after

consulting with quinoa experts to determine if the new names were indeed a different

type or just another name for a previously-listed variety Thus this component of the

study created the comprehensive quinoa variety domain

While this research started with an investigation into quinoa variety diversity it

became apparent that the nomenclature for categories within species at least for

quinoa is an area that needs further refinement and consensus which is evaluated in

Chapter 4 While I started this research using the term ldquovarietyrdquo it became readily

apparent that the use of that term was less than clear In Chapter 4 I discuss the race-

based classification systems that have been proposed by Peruvian researchers which

provides an intermediate level of taxonomic classification between species and variety

sometimes referred to as landrace which is a loosely defined term associated with

varieties developed by farmers rather than commercial organizations

The next component of the study was to interview and survey farmers about their

quinoa farming practices including quinoa variety selection This component of the

research investigated the number of different quinoa varieties grown during the recent

season the variety selection and the reasons for both seed selection and variety

31

selection by the farmers This chapter describes the factors involved in variety selection

such as yield environmental conditions culinary qualities as well as seed availability

and the importance of those reasons The sources for seeds are also analyzed as well

as the maintenance of quinoa agrodiversity on the farms To determine a comparative

and current evaluation of the variety yields during the 2014-2015 growing season I also

describe an experiment conducted by Dr Mujica at UNAP and compare it to the

dominant quinoa varieties that were in production during the time of this study

In addition to the compilation of the list I also researched the reasons for

selection of both the varieties as well as how seeds themselves are selected Since

Andean farmers have had to address a high-risk environment for thousands of years

this study investigated the cultural adaptations in seeking to benefit from the global

demand of a local product while still reducing economic risk under current climatic

conditions Producing a crop that can survive the growing season and producing a crop

that is commercially desired may not necessarily be congruent so the selection factors

were investigated to understand the trade-offs and analysis that could affect

agrodiversity maintenance

External market factors may be the reason for lack of crop agrodiversity

maintenance External consumer-driven preferences can influence the market as well

as agrodiversity which Kawa et al (2013) found in their study of social networks of

Amazonian manioc farmers They found that two crop characteristics were desired for

the manioc market high biomass and yellow color As a result varieties that produced

large manioc tubers of a yellow color were selected by farmers for production to the

external market explaining a lower agrodiversity than found in non-market contexts

32

Thus external market demands such as varieties with preferred colors can affect

agrodiversity through human selection In the Andes due to the higher prices for

quinoa other researchers found that farmers were selling their quinoa crops rather than

using them solely for their familiesrsquo consumption (Hellin and Higman 2005) Thus

quinoa is also being grown for the market and therefore the characteristics of the end

product are subject to market pressures and consumer preferences such as preferred

color as well as yield or biomass The dominance of the white sweet flavored large-

grained Bolivian real variety in the international market exemplifies external market

pressures related to color and biomass as well as flavor Color and biomass are but a

few examples of the diverse characteristics of quinoa and a range of other

characteristics are desired for other traditional Andean uses which are described in

Chapter 2

Seed selection is of great importance in agricultural and survival strategies (Tuxill

et al 2010) Andean farms tend to be highly diversified (Zimmerer 2003) The farm

diversity is implemented by using various ecological zones across the terrain (Jacoby

1992) The reason for such high diversity is due to the extreme climate and high risk of

potential crop failure By planting varieties that thrive under various climatic conditions

a harvest is more likely to succeed since at least some of the seeds will thrive in any

given range of climatic conditions (Tuxill et al 2010 Rivera 1998) Thus farmers often

select seeds based on different criteria including color as well as other factors such as

early ripening and yield (Rosero et al 2010 Tuxill et al 2010) Thus while agrodiversity

maintenance is a traditional risk-averting strategy findings also imply that other market-

based or aesthetic factors such as color influence seed selection This research tested

33

these previous findings regarding agrodiversity conservation practices among small-

scale farmers

Due to globalization the concern is the early market entry established limited

characteristics related to color and perhaps sweet taste that could influence Andean

farmersrsquo conservation practices In the global quinoa market the white colored quinoa

Bolivian real is the dominant variety (Castillo et al 2007) and is widely available in US

supermarkets Due to the consumer and market driven desire for a consistent product

the harvests from multiple farms can be collected and managed in a large scale

benefiting larger organizations and distributors Thus commercialized large scale

distribution practices can have the effect of inhibit biodiversity while at the same time

allowing for market entry and competition If farmers grow sweet white quinoa since it is

in demand by the market and discontinue growing the other varieties then there would

be consequences for in situ agrodiversity maintenance

In the past but not that long after quinoa gained global recognition it was

reported that local Andean peasants preserved their biodiversity practices (Apffel-

Marglin 1998) These varieties were often used for subsistence personal and

community purposes with the certain varieties including commercially produced

varieties grown for the external commercial market (Apffel-Marglin 1998) However

due to the more recent global market pressures the observations of Apffel-Marglin

(1998) need to be tested to see if they continue to hold true Quite recently Skarbo

(2015) documented a loss of quinoa diversity in Ecuador in association with

development projects linked to commercialized quinoa varieties raising an alarm for the

preservation of quinoa diversity during what she calls a ldquoquinoa Renaissancerdquo A goal of

34

this study is to analyze these notions of food security and agrobiodiversity in the context

of quinoa variety selection during a time of dramatic price increase In Chapter 4 I also

analyze to a very limited degree the differing roles of men and women in quinoa

agrodiversity conservation and the importance of local experts

In summary this research investigated the historical and current farming

practices that affect agrodiversity maintenance of quinoa during a time of globalization

in the context of culturally-laden meaning due to the long-term beneficial mutual

relationship between quinoa and Andean farmers The dissertation tells the unique

history of this co-evolving relationship between Andeans and quinoa from

domestication thousands of years ago through Spanish suppression of both humans

and quinoa through lingering post-colonial attitudes against ldquodirty Indiansrdquo and ldquoIndian

foodrdquo through the present worldwide acclaim and attention focused on quinoa but not

necessarily its human partners in survival This story involves the success of Andean

people who have not only survived in a harsh climate but have survived through harsh

aspects of human history The mutually-beneficial relationship between Andeans and

quinoa is a survival story that has not concluded Andean farmers cultivated and

nurtured quinoa through thousands of years of harvests resulting in human selection

playing a substantial role in the evolution of the crop alongside other genetic influences

such as natural selection gene flow mutation and genetic drift The result is a highly

diverse species that survived despite competition with introduced crops and animal

husbandry as well as intentional Spanish suppression In return quinoa provided

Andean farmers with a highly nutritious crop that can both thrive in the harsh

environment and also be stored for many years This research looks at the

35

agrodiversity methods farmers use in selecting the types of quinoa to grow during a time

of global pressure to increase production of the crop which can decrease agrodiversity

maintenance through the use of monoculture-type practices adopted from Western

agricultural practices This research has resulted in a compilation of names of different

quinoa varieties to establish a varietal domain to facilitate further investigation into

agrodiversity of the crop I discuss the agrodiversity practices including reasons for

variety selection as well as seed selection I present a survey of current quinoa variety

selection and discuss it in the context of the larger domain of quinoa types and the

future implications for agrodiversity maintenance Thus while monoculture-type

practices have clearly influenced Andean farming practices as demonstrated by the

dominance of the white Bolivian real variety there are ways to prevent further

agrodiversity loss which would be a loss not only to the species but to their millennial-

long partners ndash Andean farmers

36

CHAPTER 2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People

This chapter traces the history of agrodiversity and quinoa in Peru to place the

present status of the globalized quinoa market in historical perspective Quinoa has a

long-term connection among Andean people and a review of the history of the human-

plant relationship explains why and how an agricultural product which was once little

known outside of the Andes attained great global acclaim and associated market

expansion This chapter addresses the questions of what is quinoa and how is it

associated with human culture This chapter describes the botanical nature of quinoa

its taxonomic place and the problems with the classification of varieties as well as the

nutritional benefits and uses it provides to people This chapter also describes the

natural biodiversity and plasticity of the species as well as the effects that history has

had on the survival and success of this plant and what this information may indicate

about the present and future conservation practices

In the Andes there is a diversity of geography and ecology as well as cultures

Peru has a large variety of plants amounting to about 10 of the total plants in the

world Perursquos diverse floral regime includes about 25000 species 128 domesticated

plants and 4400 native species with known uses ranging from food to medicinal to

cosmetic (Powell and Chavarro 2008) The presence of a variety of climates and

ecozones in the Andes favors the generation and maintenance of genetic diversity

(Rivera 1998) This fact alone however does not account for the high rate of diversity

The presence of Andean culture that supports the observation and nurturance of plants

is a key factor in the development of a wide variety of domesticated plants (Rivera

37

1998) Thus humans are an important factor in the generation and maintenance of

biodiversity and Andean cosmology has a role in the successful maintenance of plant

diversity

Plant domestication signified by changes that rely upon human intervention for

continued survival is considered a key factor in the understanding of past human

behavior related to the rise of agriculture Domestication can result in the alteration of

plant life cycles such as reduction in dormancy enhancement of seedling vigor or

enhancement of stored food reserves in seeds and loss of dispersal mechanisms

(Gremillion 1993) A notable difference between domestic and wild plants is that the

latter lack seed dormancy (DeWet and Harlan 1975) Selective pressures linked to

reduced seed dormancy can encourage quick sprouting after planting and increase

survival (Smith 1995) The outer epidermis or testa has an important role in seed

development since it controls imbibition of water and hence seed germination (Smith

1995) The testa thus prevents premature germination in nature and a reduced outer

seed coat testa allow early germination (Gremillion 1993) Domesticated quinoa has a

thin seed coat and is one of the key ways that archaeologists can determine if an

archaeological sample is from a wild or domesticated plant The thin seed coat versions

cannot survive without human intervention even in the Andes (Wilson 1981) and thus

seed coat thickness is an important indicator of domestication The thin seed coat in

domesticated chenopods is the key factor in distinguishing wild from domesticated

versions and hence human intervention

The development of agriculture demonstrates the importance and contribution of

traditional ecological knowledge by farmers in Peru Agriculture developed

38

independently in several disparate locations across the globe One of the most

important locations is the Andes The Andes are one of Vavilovrsquos ldquocenters of

domesticationrdquo (Murphy 2007) including the domestication of 45 species of plants

which is more than all of the domesticated plants in Europe at the time of contact with

the Americas (Rivera 1998)

Many agricultural products were first domesticated in the Andes including

potatoes and quinoa There are 3500 different varieties of potatoes grown in the Andes

(Apffel-Marglin 1998) One province in the Peruvian Andes has more potato diversity

than the entire North American continent (Brush 2005) While potatoes are a well-known

agricultural product of the Andes there are other plants that have gained recent

notoriety Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) kaniwa or canihua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L) also known as amaranth or

love-lies-bleeding were domesticated in Peru thousands of years ago (Langlie et al

2011) More recently however the global community became more informed about the

excellent nutritional value of these products (Repo-Carrasco 2003 Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Massawe et al 2016 Gordillo-Bastidas et al 2016) and demand is at an all-time

high (Jacobsen 2011) Quinoa has become a household word in the US and can be

found at local grocery stores This chapter will review the co-evolving history of humans

and quinoa agrodiversity in Peru along with the cultural significance and scientific

discoveries about this plant

The Fox and the Condor

The Andean people have a unique relationship with quinoa and it is involved in

ritual uses and ceremonies and is a part of Andean cosmology I was told an origin

story by an Aymara participant in this study According to ancient lore in a story called

39

The Fox and the Condor quinoa was responsible for saving the Andean people from

starving recounted below

The fox meets with the condor and wants to go to Pati which is the sky The

condor tells the fox that he must be respectful when he is there and not take or touch

anything The fox agrees and he rides on the condor to Pati When they arrive the fox

sees food and violates the agreement by eating all the food The food was there for a

ceremony but when the others arrive the food was all gone because the fox ate it The

others decide to send the fox back to earth so they prepare a rope to lower the fox back

to earth While the fox was being lowered back to earth about half way down the fox

says some bad things The others then decide to cut the cord and the fox falls to the

earth with his body exploding upon impact Since the foxrsquos stomach was full all of the

food spread across the land including the Andean grains of quinoa kantildeiwa kiwicha

and all the other Andean foods That is why these grains are called the food of the gods

ndash since they fell from the sky If any of these grains are found growing out of fox feces it

is considered good Today traditional Andean people say ldquoquinoa is our liferdquo as

described by a participant since quinoa provides sustenance for their survival

This story which is one of many about quinoa demonstrates the importance of

the native Andean foods in their cosmology as well as survival Andeans understand

the life-sustaining role quinoa and other Andean grains have in their ability to continue

living in the otherwise harsh environment

What is Quinoa

Quinoa or quinua the Spanish spelling of the word (C quinoa Willd) is a

domesticated plant that grows in both the Andes and at lower elevations in South

America and is now being grown in many countries around the world Quinoa is a

40

pseudo-cereal that has been used by South Americans for thousands of years While a

primary use is similar to grains since it is often used to make flour among other things

it is not a grass but rather is a weedy species and inhabits disturbed soil environments

(Wilson 1990) Thus quinoa is an opportunistic species which may account for its wide

variation and adaption to various climates and micro-climates

Depending on growing conditions quinoa plant height can vary from 20 cm to 2

m tall (Simmonds 1965) One gram of grains can have between 250 and 520 fruits

(Simmonds 1965) and thus the yields can be quite different Along with weight quinoa

grains also vary in size with the grain area varying from 256 to 51 mmsup2 (Medina et al

2010) again a factor that can affect yield a factor that is used by farmers for selection

discussed in later chapters Another characteristic of quinoa is that in the domesticated

varieties seed dormancy is absent and germination is rapid (Simmonds 1965) as

previously noted in the context of archaeological samples Thus the quinoa grain

exhibits a wide range of morphology which diversity is not just limited to the grains

Quinoa flowers in a variety of colors and shades of those colors The most widely

known colors are white red and black In 1960 JL Lescano described 42 color tones

and 7 basic colors of quinoa white red purple yellow gray brown and black (Ayala

Olazaacutebal 2015) Additional colors include pink orange and green Thus quinoa has a

wide range of color variation which reflects the diversity of the species at an easily

detectible morphological level Thus for human selection the color of the flower or the

grain can be used to distinguish varieties and to use as a marker for identifying co-

related characteristics beyond color

41

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species

The purpose of taxonomic classification is to facilitate comprehension and

communicate ideas about the relationship of organisms to each other (Stevens 2002)

ldquoHierarchical naming systems pervade our whole language and thought and from this

point of view the Linnaean hierarchy is simply one such systemrdquo (Stevens 200212)

Taxonomies are not just simple descriptions but contain embedded theories about

natural order based on human perceptions of nature (Gould 2000) Thus human beliefs

and perceptions influence taxonomic categorization in attempts to organize and

understand species diversity This concept holds especially true as it relates to the on-

going categorization of varieties in the efforts to understand a diverse species such as

quinoa and its variety of usefulness to humans

Taxonomically quinoa is a member of the Amaranthaceae family The

Amaranthaceae family has dicotyledonous plants that are often halophytic herbs which

are salt-tolerant (Bhargava et al 2009) The chenopods used to be classified in the

Chenopodiaceae family but are now classified in the Amaranthaceae family with

Chenopodiaceae being a sub-family Thus there is a history of confusion and change

regarding the scientific classification of quinoa

Especially in older accounts quinoa and other chenopods have sometimes been

misidentified in the literature as being in the genus Amaranthus (Ford 1981) For

example quinoa has also been mis-identified as Amaranthus caudatus (Simmonds

1965) locally known as kiwicha and indeed this same error occurred during my field

work as further described in Chapter 4 This misidentification makes it difficult to

establish the early history of quinoa based on travelersrsquo accounts and colonial reports

In addition and more recently paleobotanical analysis of pollen often identifies the

42

pollen to the family level as Amaranthaceae rather than to genus thus limiting the

usefulness of such studies to the extent the precise species and variety is needed for

analysis

Finally another reason for the great difficulty in classifying some chenopods is

due to their polyploidy ldquoThe reasons for the taxonomic difficulties are the usual ones

encountered in polyploid complexes involving annual weedy groups viz marked

phenotypic plasticity parallel evolution and putative hybridizationrdquo (Rahiminejad and

Gornal 2004) Thus while polyploidy can lead to great diversity classification systems

attempt to be static and the classification history of quinoa demonstrates the foibles of

attempting to categorize dynamic plants Hartigan (2013) talks about the plasticity of

genomes of which quinoa is a good example The plasticity of quinoa has led to great

agrodiversity of the crop which will be discussed infra yet makes it difficult to classify in

a hierarchical system Considering the problems with classifying quinoa at a genus and

species level attempts to organize quinoa at the variety level for purposes of studying

and evaluating variety diversity are similarly problematic as further discussed in

Chapter 4

Quinoa is a tetraploid (Pickersgill 2007) which means that it is a polyploid plant

that has four times the number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus rather than a single

pair of chromosomes like humans have As a polyploid plant quinoa has genetic

complexity that can contribute to great intra-species diversity

Quinoa is a member of the Chenopodium genus which contains at least 250

species (Rana et al 2010) Other chenopods are present in other parts of the old and

new worlds In Europe lambsquarter or fat hen (C album L) was grown but apparently

43

was not a substantial crop in early history likely due to the availability of other grass

crops that can thrive at the lower elevations (Simmonds 1965) In China C giganticum

is grown for many uses (Maughan et al 2006) and thus the Chenopodium genus is

spread across the globe

Quinoa was assigned to the Chenopodium taxa as its place in the Linnaean

classification system in 1797 and two hundred years later was described as having

ldquoarchaic relictual and rather mysterious elements of the world of ethnoflorardquo (Wilson

199093) Quinoa was initially was thought to be a unique New World domesticated

Chenopodium species but in 1917 it was determined that a second domesticated

Chenopodium species C nuttalliae existed in domesticated form in Mexico (Wilson

and Heiser 1979) and thus quinoa has relatives in other parts of the New World

Alongside quinoa canihua (or kaniwa) (C pallidacuale Aellen) also grows in the Andes

Canihua can grow at higher altitudes and withstands cold better than quinoa (Repo-

Carrasco-Valencia et al 2009)

In Mexico C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae Moq is present in both domesticated and

wild forms This species has three well-known varieties known as huauzontle quelite

and chia roja (Wilson 1981 Glore 2006) In North America goosefoot (C berlandieri

ssp jonesium Moq) was also domesticated but the domesticated variety is now extinct

Wild goosefoot species including C berlandieri ssp zschackei C bushianum C

boscianum and C macrocalycium are present in North America (Maughan et al 2006

Ford 1981) The two most discussed North American species are C berlandieri ssp

zschackei and C bushianum Chenopodium berlandieri ssp zschackei extends across

the US west of the Mississippi as well as the Gulf coast and east of the Mississippi into

44

Wisconsin Illinois Michigan and part of Indiana and is infrequently in Mississippi

Alabama Georgia Florida and the Carolinas (Smith 1992) Chenopodium bushianum

has larger fruits (often called grains) and its geographical range includes much of the

Northeast and Midwest and has been found in Tennessee Alabama and South

Carolina (Smith 1992) The Chenopodium genus has a great number of species that

grow all over the world demonstrating its plasticity

It appears that quinoa was domesticated independently from goosefoot (C

berlandieri) and huauzontle (C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae) (Rana et al 2010 Pickersgill

2007) however it is not yet conclusive whether goosefoot and huauzontle were

domesticated independently (Pickersgill 2007 cf Ford 1981) Past genetic analysis

indicated that another North American species C berlandieri ssp zschackei may be

more closely related to quinoa and may perhaps be an intermediate subspecies

between quinoa and huauzontle (Rana et al 2010) especially since hybrids of quinoa

and C berlandieri ssp zschackei can produce fertile offspring (Maughan et al 2006)

Notably the three New World species discussed above quinoa goosefoot and

huauzontle are all tetraploids (Rahiminejad and Gornall 2009) which can account for

great genetic diversity It has been suggested that quinoa and C berlandieri ssp

zschackei as allotetraploids may share a common ancestor (Rana et al 2010)

Recently the quinoa genome was sequenced and compared to other species

including C berlandieri (goosefoot) C hircinum and C pallidicuale (kaniwa) The

quinoa genome has 44776 genes and the genomic analysis revealed that original

ancestry included the hybridization of two diploids labelled A of likely North American

origin and B of likely Eurasian origin (Jarvis et al 2016) This tetraploidization split

45

occurred 33 to 63 million years ago although Jarvis et al (2016) noted that there has

been some recombination between the A and B sub-genomes across time Now that the

quinoa genome has been sequenced additional genetic analysis can lead to further

hybridization of the species which may lead to more involvement by global agro-

industrial corporations which thus far have had limited success in tapping into the

quinoa market from a production standpoint While there are many smaller companies

involved in quinoa production including growing and marketing quinoa products the

large multi-national corporations that dominate many agricultural systems do not

presently dominate the quinoa market and do not grow significant yields or otherwise

dominate the quinoa market at the sales or distribution level The genetic manipulation

of quinoa can lead to the creation of new varieties that are qualified to receive a patent

and will surely bring significant changes to the global quinoa market in the future

History of Quinoa in the Andes

Humans have had a direct relationship with quinoa for thousands of years

Quinoa is a domesticated species with human selection occurring perhaps as early as

15000 years ago (Wilson 1990) although that date is not confirmed by the

archaeological record While the precise time when human manipulation of quinoa

plants began is unknown archaeological evidence indicates that quinoa was an

important agricultural product by the Formative Period 2000 BC in Peru (Bruno 2008)

Quinoa use pre-dates the Inca and Wari ceremonial vases have figures of quinoa on

them (Tapia et al 201413) Archaeologists continue to investigate Bolivian and

Peruvian archaeological sites with regard to the archaeobotany of the Lake Titicaca

Basin (Langlie et al 2011 Rumold 2010 Whitehead 2007) providing additional depth

of history and knowledge of the inception of agriculture and domestication of quinoa

46

Quinoa is often marketed in the US as the food of the Inca gods due to its

current cachet and popularity in Western diets thus associating it with its deep historical

association with a famous civilization Over the past several decades quinoa has

vaulted from a crop threatened with extinction to a popular food product readily

available in grocery stores across the US and elsewhere in the world The reputation of

quinoa has gone from low status ldquoIndian foodrdquo to high status health food The

relationship between humans and quinoa has evolved across time and is a dynamic

fluid relationship As Medin and Atran state ldquoMuch of human history has been spent

(and is being spent) in intimate contact with plants and animals and it is difficult to

imagine that human cognition would not be molded by that factrdquo (Medin and Atran

19991) The human-quinoa interspecies relationship can provide insight into the

concepts of biodiversity through understanding the knowledge of the people who have

been connected in time and space with the plant

Historically the three major agricultural foods in the Andes were maize potatoes

and quinoa (Wilson 1990) However there are limitations on growing food at elevations

over 10000 feet where quinoa is harvested (Simmonds 1965) While quinoa and

potatoes are grown in the altiplano corn is rarely grown with any success due to the

harsh climate Of these three products both corn and potato were adopted into

European diets during the colonial period but not so for quinoa and today corn and

potatoes rank among the most widely grown food products across the world

Quinoa was an important food crop in the Andes at the time of European contact

(Simmonds 1965) Quinoa was sacred to the Incas who called it chisiya mama or

mother grain (NRC 1989149) Quinoa was considered to have significance to the Inca

47

above other crops (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Quinoa was used by the Inca to produce

fermentation of chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of

harvest and sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and

so ensure prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Figure 2-1 is a depiction of Pachamama

holding quinoa based on an undated bronze artifact from an archaeological context in

Argentina

Figure 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches -Image credit Mintzer 193360

Thus quinoa was closely linked to spiritual beliefs and ritual practices at the time of

European contact The production of chicha using quinoa continues today as does the

reverence for Pachamama

48

Perhaps due to its ritual role Europeans did not adopt quinoa into their

agriculture (Maughan et al 2007) Plants can be perceived as having magic (Kawa

2012) In articulating several reasons for the decline in quinoa production Mujica et al

(2013) specifically listed magic

The conquistadores fear the lsquomagic quinoarsquo They believed that consuming quinoa and the religious ceremonies with quinoa were the same and they might attribute extraordinary forces to the Indians and endanger the conquest (Mujica et al 201311) This colonial concern that a plant could have the ability to empower people thus

threatening colonial conquest and domination caused the Spaniards to engage in

discrimination and suppression against quinoa to suppress this perceived powerful

alliance between quinoa and Andeans Ceremonial and ritually significant indigenous

foods such as quinoa were ldquotargeted for extinctionrdquo during the Spanish colonial period

(Wilson 1990108) European colonization dramatically affected quinoa production

relegating it to a low status food associated with the indigenous population with its

production shrinking in range through much of the 20th century (Wilson 1990)

Instead of being adopted into European cuisine quinoa remained an indigenous

local food In a report by the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG Kew) in 1909 it was

noted that quinoa was a food of the ldquoIndians or the laboring classesrdquo (RBG Kew 1909)

providing an example of the discrimination against people eating quinoa and it was

considered ldquoIndian foodrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 201526 Bazile et al 2014) a derogatory

reference based on continuing neocolonial mind-sets that considered Indians to be

inferior to either the white or the mestizo population Based on recent ethnographic

research at least in Puno quinoa sometimes is still perceived as food for poor people

with rich people eating rice noodles and chicken (Aguumlero Garcia 2014) although

49

quinoa is marketed to tourists today and there is a strong native Peruvian food

revitalization movement Thus while the production of quinoa was suppressed by the

Spaniards due to its ritual use along with neo-colonial perceptions of low social status

associated with Indians that lingered until recent globalization and coupled with

competition from other newly introduced crops as well as animals quinoa production

declined except in Andean regions where its cultural significance survived European

contact and neo-colonial discrimination against indigenous Andeans and quinoa

Besides the history of suppression and racism associated with ldquoIndian foodrdquo

another reason postulated for the reduction in quinoa production was the introduction of

sheep and cattle as alternative sources of protein (Mujica et al 2013) The increased

competition with broad beans oats and barley is yet another reason for the past decline

in quinoa production (Wilson 1990) In 1990 Wilson remarked that ldquothis leafy grain

apparently failed in direct global competition with the true cerealsrdquo (Wilson 199096)

although at the time of Wilsonrsquos publication the trend was changing and he was

apparently referring to the earlier decline across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This fact however has changed since then While Europeans failed to recognize the

value of quinoa for hundreds of years South American indigenous communities

continued to cultivate quinoa Thus much of the traditional indigenous knowledge is still

present in these farming communities and can be key to the conservation of the

biodiversity Cultural traditions therefore are very important in the understanding of

Andean agriculture and ecosystems

Perhaps quinoarsquos symbolic representation of Inca or indigenous culture coupled

with the time-consuming processing required to remove the toxic saponins (Safford

50

1968 [1915]) dissuaded Europeans from adopting quinoa into their diets Consuming

quinoa without first removing the saponins which requires vigorous abrasion of the

seeds and washing with water can have unpleasant effects on the digestive tract as

well as having an unpleasant bitter taste Either reason or perhaps both may have

contributed to the European rejection of quinoa starting with colonial times

While Europeans failed to recognize the value of quinoa for hundreds of years

South American indigenous communities managed to maintain quinoa as a

domesticated plant for personal and local consumption Indigenous Andean women are

responsible for approximately 70 of agricultural work (Tapia and De La Torre 1997)

so it is likely that women were the conservators of quinoa knowledge and diversity

through silent resistance to colonial domination Thus despite the rejection of quinoa by

European colonizers quinoa survived in remote indigenous populations that

maintained traditional knowledge and practices

While quinoa was not adopted into European cuisine it has been described

across time in various reports emanating from the Andes by European and American

explorers and scientists In 1551 Spaniard Pedro Valdivia described fields of Chilean

quinoa which he called quingua (Wilson 1990) Other early explorers including

Garcilaso de la Vega also described quinoa and stated that it resembled millet or short-

grained rice (Mujica et al 2013) Such descriptions continued into the 19th and 20th

centuries (eg Ledesma and Bollaert 1856 Jameson 1861 Forbes 1870 Milstead

1928) Ledesman and Bollaert (1856) noted that quinoa was grown on the island of

Lake Titicaca Forbes (1870) noted the different varieties of quinoa that were yellow

red and white and called it Inca rice a hint at the diversity of the crop while

51

acknowledging that it was a Chenopodium species In 1891 Safford observed the time-

consuming processing of quinoa grains in Bolivia and found it to have good flavor

(Safford 1968 [1915]) In 1931 Standley noted that quinoa was a common crop in the

Andes due to its edible seeds Thus across time explorers and researchers took note of

quinoa although it was not adopted into European cuisine and therefore not widely

known

While indigenous Andeans maintained local quinoa production botanists

continued to explore species across the globe including lesser-known plants In the

1800s Alexander von Humboldt observed that quinoa was like ldquolsquowine was to the

Greeks wheat to the Romans cotton to the Arabsrsquordquo (NRC 1989151) Quinoa was a

plant that was observed by scientists known and classified yet was not otherwise well-

known to global consumers maintaining an air of mystery to it What was this plant that

the Spaniards rejected yet that still managed to survive

In 1909 the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens issued a short report on quinoa and

noted an interest by Americans for potential import into the US (RBG Kew 1909) In

1928 quinoa was described in a published survey of Peruvian agricultural crops

(Milstead 1928) At that time it was reported to be grown in small patches but spread

out across the landscape of farms Milstead noted that quinoa provides ldquoa palatable and

nutritious article of food for the highland Indiansrdquo (Milstead 1928101) although he does

not otherwise describe how he came to the conclusion that it was a nutritious food In a

Spanish language publication Mintzer (1933) published an extensive article on the

botanical cultural and agronomic characteristics of quinoa including study in the

Peruvian altiplano and included nutritional data Mintzer (1933) also noted the presence

52

of different varieties that could be distinguished by pigmentation and ecological zone

growing conditions a noteworthy acknowledgement of the agrodiversity based on both

color and environment in which he used the terms ldquovarietiesrdquo and ldquoracesrdquo somewhat

interchangeably

While there were prior hints at the nutritional value of quinoa (eg Milstead

1928) over the past fifty years or more there have been ongoing studies of the

nutritional values of quinoa (Eg Repo-Carrasco 1991 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003

Repo de Carrasco 2014 Villa et al 2014) Much of this scholarship is based in South

America often presented at conferences but not often published in scholarly journals

and rarely in English language journals Between 1970 and 1986 there were at least 43

published papers about quinoa over half of which were in Spanish and most of which

were published in gray literature (Rafats 1986) While there was much information about

quinoa in the South American scholarly articles and gray literature not all of it is widely

distributed or easily accessible which may have also delayed its explosion onto the

world market until the scientific analysis was more widely-accessible More widespread

publications of the nutritional benefits of quinoa in English language articles along with

the growing popularity of health foods in the US and Europe led to the rise in global

consumption

The rejection of quinoa continued well past Spanish colonial domination and in

1950 Sauer reported that quinoa has now retreated from the extremities of its earlier

range but is still a characteristic food plant of the Inca-dominated Highlands (Sauer

1950) In the mid-1960s it was also reported that quinoa was in decline in Ecuador

Chile and Argentina and absent in Columbia (Simmonds 1965) In 1965 Simmonds

53

reported that quinoa had excellent protein content especially as compared to other

cereals and noted that ldquothe uses to which this plant are put are intimately bound up with

the lore and customs of the people that grow themrdquo (232) Again the nutritional value of

quinoa was noted in the scientific literature without much acclaim Simmonds (1965)

however acknowledged the meaningful interspecies relationship between quinoa and

Andeans by including the intimate connection between quinoa people and customs

In 1968 an international convention on quinoa and kantildeiwa was held in Puno

Peru organized by prominent South American scientists to demonstrate and

consolidate their efforts to emphasize the importance of Andean grains to modern

science (NRC 1989) Over a decade later some of those same South American

scientists published what the National Research Council has called a ldquomajor

collaborative work on quinoa and kaniwardquo (NRC 198913) referring to Tapia et al

1979 Notwithstanding the scholarship and efforts of Andean researchers who

extensively studied quinoa the National Research Council acknowledged that they

ldquostruggled for decades to promote them in the face of deeply ingrained prejudices in

favor of European foodrdquo (NRC 1989v) Thus not only were quinoa and other Andean

products disparaged as inferior ldquoIndian foodrdquo the efforts by Andean scholars were also

affected by this bias

Events occurred in the 1970s and 1980s that would lead quinoa to the global

market The scientific community continued to study quinoa including its nutritional

value and in 1975 scientists reported that quinoa was ldquoa little known plant hellip with a

high protein contentrdquo that could contribute to food security if problems associated with

processing were resolved (Brown and Pariser 1975) referring to the saponin removal

54

process Scientific interest in quinoa started to increase and in 1980 in Peru the

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria established the Programa de Cultivos

Andinos which included investigations into quinoa (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Across the

border international marketing of Bolivian quinoa began in 1983 when the national

quinoa growers association was established (ANAPQUI) (Jacobsen 2011) The main

producers and exporters of quinoa currently are in Bolivia and Peru Quinoa is also

cultivated in Colombia Ecuador Argentina and Chile (Medina et al 2010) Quinoa is

also grown in lesser amounts in various countries around the world

In 1986 the FAO defined quinoa as a strategic food crop for the Andes and later

acknowledged its high nutritional value Based on this acclaim by a world-renowned

organization quinoa was no longer a ldquosecond-rate productrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015 26)

The National Research Council collaborated with over 600 scientists to produce a book

in 1989 called ldquoLost Crops of the Incasrdquo led by Dr Hugh Popenoe of the University of

Florida and included quinoa as one of the so-called lost crops These crops including

the ldquoglowing grainsrdquo of quinoa were aptly described in connection with the Andean

people (NRC 19893) The NRCrsquos comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-blooded

Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including the

ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and people

through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food The NRC commented

that ldquoBecause it is now primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing

its production is a good way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo

(NRC 1989150) Thus even in 1989 quinoa was still considered food for the poor with

both viewed together through a socio-economic lens

55

The relationship between quinoa and Andeans was also noted by Wilson (1990)

who similarly observed the relationship between the race of people and the status of

quinoa in a paper published in 1990 he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed

complexesrdquo where the wild parent plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the

domesticated varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial

areasrdquo associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including

the Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo (Wilson 1990108) provided a

place for both indigenous Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes

from the outside world Wilson observed as other scientists before him that there was

a strong association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and

culture and the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and

plant diversity thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live

side-by-side Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both

survived colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency Thus while

Wilson could observe as recently as 1990 that quinoa was in a downward spiral from a

production standpoint struggling to survive much as their human Andean counterparts

prior literature regarding the nutritional value hinted at things to come Over time the

world re-discovered what the Andeans already knew quinoa is a high-value nutritional

food source worthy of consumer attention and acclaim as demonstrated by its

noteworthy rise on the world market and place on grocery shelves across the Western

world

Resurgence of Quinoa

Quinoa gained international attention in 1993 from a report by NASA in which it

was identified as suitable for astronauts on long-term space missions (Bubenheim and

56

Schlick 1993) Due to its high protein value and unique combination of amino acids

including lysine NASA concluded that it is a food that can provide life-sustaining

nutrients from one species Interestingly NASA noted the varying colors of quinoa and

speculated that the colors are associated with ldquoeco-typesrdquo hinting at diversity of the

species but not further explaining the significance of these factors or what they mean by

ldquoeco-typerdquo The results of this NASA report had a significant effect on the worldwide

market If quinoa was a premium food for astronauts it was a commodity that health

food stores certainly wanted in stock Gradually the quinoa market in the US

expanded from health food stores to mainstream grocers

Twenty years after the NASA report the United Nations (UN) named 2013 to be

the Year of Quinoa (UN Resolution 66221 22 December 2011) (UN 2011b) This

proclamation elevated quinoa to an exclusive club alongside other UN designated

years including lofty goals such as education human rights peace literacy biodiversity

and sustainable energy to name a few The reason that quinoa achieved such

accolades by the UN was due to its high nutritional status The resolution seeking this

status stated the importance of quinoa and of the indigenous people who grow it (UN

2011b)

Recognizing that Andean indigenous peoples through their traditional knowledge and practices of living well in harmony with mother earth and nature have maintained controlled protected and preserved quinoa in its natural state including its many varieties and landraces as food for present and future generations Affirming the need to focus world attention on the role that quinoa biodiversity plays owing to the nutritional value of quinoa in providing food security and nutrition the eradication of poverty in support of the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals including the Millennium Development Goals and the outcome document of the High-Level Plenary Meeting on the Millennium Development Goals

57

Recalling the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (13-17 November 1996) the Declaration of the World Food Summit five years later (10-13 June 2002) and the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (16-18 November 2009) Affirming the need to heighten public awareness of the nutritional economic environmental and cultural properties of quinoa The recognition given to this traditional food crop by the UN is linked to important

issues including global food security and eradication of poverty Notably the UN

acknowledged that traditional Andean practices and relationship with nature have

conserved quinoa varieties for future generations This UN declaration acknowledged

the scientific contributions of the traditional Andean farmers and also emphasized the

environmentally-sensitive sustainable traditional farming practices they need Notably

the UN declaration points out that the Andean people preserved the biodiversity of the

quinoa agricultural complex including its ldquonatural state including its many varieties and

landracesrdquo (UN 2011b) This statement harkens to Wilsonrsquos (1990) observation about

the importance of the intact ldquocropweedrdquo complex associated with the indigenous people

who maintained this agricultural strategy Thus the selection of quinoa as the focus of a

UN ldquoyear ofrdquo sends multiple messages about the relationship of quinoa to the Andean

people and their harmonious farming practices and traditions and their joint

contributions to the world including the biodiversity maintenance of varieties drawing

an interesting parallel between plants and humans where diversity maintenance can

lead to worldwide contributions to humanity including global-scale food security and

support of UN Millennium Goals

What is interesting about quinoa is that it is a relative newcomer to the world

market Since 1959 the UN has elevated three crops to the ldquoYear ofrdquo status rice

58

(2004) potato (2008) quinoa (2013) (UN nd) and more recently pulses (legumes

including beans peas lentils and chickpeas) (UN 2016) While both potato and quinoa

originated in the Andes and were domesticated there of the two only the potato was

taken to Europe during early colonization by Spain and adopted into foodways across

the globe While quinoa was part of the Andean diet when the Spaniards arrived it was

not adopted into European diets and was relegated the status of ldquoIndian foodrdquo Thus

for quinoa to achieve UN recognition a mere five years after the potato is a remarkable

shift in status While both have been lauded by the UN a distinction between potatoes

and quinoa is the relative nutritional value of these products with quinoa being highly

nutritional compared to potato as has been revealed by recent scientific investigation

While quinoa is a crop that is endemic to the Andes it is presently being grown in

various countries across the globe (Figure 2-2) According to FAO databases however

the only countries that export quinoa in quantity are Bolivia Peru and Ecuador

although it is grown in all the Andean countries as well as scattered locations across

the world including the US and Canada

Source Bazile et al 2014

Figure 2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013

59

The expansion of quinoa production beyond the Andean countries is fairly recent

although there were some noteworthy earlier efforts including in Kenya and the US

Figure 2-3 shows plots the growth in the number of UN countries that grow quinoa from

1900 to 2014

Source Bazile et al 2016

Figure 2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa

The interest in quinoa as a global food product sharply increased in conjunction with

increased scientific and development efforts as well as the recognition due to the UN

Year of Quinoa Thus quinoa now has widespread global acceptance and other

countries are growing or attempting to grown quinoa This chart tracks the history of

quinoa outlined above and shows that an increase in global production was associated

with significant historical events including the formation of the quinoa producers

association in Bolivia in the early 1980s to the expanded scientific investigation from

the 1980s to the present

60

Peru Bolivia and Ecuador are the only significant sources of quinoa for export

more countries are involved in growing quinoa or conducting research on how to grow

quinoa under their climate conditions While the FAO does not list the US as a quinoa

exporter it is being grown in various locations including Colorado Washington

Oregon California and Utah There are different companies in the US that are involved

in quinoa sales including Ancient Harvests Quinoa Corporation Quinoa Foods

Company Keen One Quinoa Inca Organics Eden Foods Alter Eco Foods Quaker

Oats and Trader Joersquos The Ancient Harvests company claims to be the first company

to import quinoa into the US from Bolivia in 1983 Farms in the US that grow quinoa

include White Mountains Farm in Colorado and Lundberg Family Farms in California

Quinoa is also grown in Canada and Northern Quinoa Production Company both grows

and markets quinoa products While the global quinoa market is dominated by Peru and

Bolivia and Ecuador to a lesser extent production has expanded across the globe and

there is no doubt that there will be a larger global presence in the future including large

multi-national industrial agriculture corporations

Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa

Based on its unique history of being an important ritual food then suppressed by

the Spanish then once again returning to high acclaim by the scientific community

quinoa has left its mark on the global stage This section reviews scientific investigation

into the nutritional qualities and values of quinoa

Quinoa is high in protein especially as compared to other cereal crops (Table 2-

3 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) While Repo-Carrasco et al (2003) found that quinoa had

144 g100 g of protein the actual protein contents vary 12-17 depending on the

variety (Murphy et al 2016)

61

Table 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa

PRODUCT PROTEIN CONTENT g100g FAT CONTENT g100g

QUINOA 144 6 COMMON RYE 134 18 BARLEY 118 18 OATS 116 52 CORN 111 49 ENGLISH WHEAT 105 26 RICE 91 22

Source Data compiled from Repo-Carrasco et al 2003181

Quinoa contains amino acids that are similar to casein which is milk protein

(Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) ldquoThe amino acid content of the quinoa grainacutes protein

meets the amino acid requirements recommended for preschool children school

children and adultsrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa provides an important protein for human

growth and is likened to the importance of milk in a childrsquos modern diet Beyond its

protein content quinoa contains high calcium magnesium iron copper and zinc

content In addition to the grains quinoa leaves also contain protein as well as calcium

phosphorous and iron (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003)

Quinoa contains fatty acids that are about 82 unsaturated (Repo-Carrasco et

al 2003) Since it contains omega 3 and omega 6 it helps reduce LDL (or bad

cholesterol) and helps raise HDL (or good cholesterol) (UN 2011a) Quinoa also

contains tocopherols as Vitamin E which is an antioxidant This protects cell

membranes against free radical attack thus providing additional health benefits (Repo-

Carrasco et al 2003)

The carbohydrates in quinoa seeds contain between 58 and 68 starch and 5

sugar Quinoa is also a good energy source that is slowly released into the body due to

its high fiber content (UN 2011a)

62

In addition to the high nutritional value quinoa also has a high percentage of total

dietary fiber As such quinoa is a food that can be used to detoxify the body (UN

2011a) Quinoa also has the ability to absorb water and remain for a longer period of

time in the stomach (UN 2011a) The dietary fiber in quinoa promotes intestinal transit

and regulates cholesterol (UN 2011a)

Interestingly quinoa has two phytoestrogens deaidzein and cenisteina These

two phytoestrogens help prevent osteoporosis In addition they may alleviate disorders

caused by the lack of estrogen during menopause (UN 2011a) Due to these various

properties of quinoa it certainly deserves the title ldquosuperfoodrdquo

Quinoa is also gluten free and provides an excellent alternative to grains such as

wheat (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) Some studies indicate that the consumption of

quinoa by people with celiac disease improves their condition (UN 2011) Thus quinoa

is an alternative food source for populations with food sensitivities Quinoa is now being

touted as an alternative for a gluten-free diet has anti-oxidant characteristics linked to

cancer preventions (Villa et al 2014) and has anti-inflammatory effects (Yao et al

2014) all of which are prevalent health concerns today

Fueled by studies of quinoarsquos nutritional value which is now well-known the

global market has expanded and consumer choices across the world can affect the

farming practices of Andeans The next section discusses the Andean uses of quinoa

which is also a part of the deep history of this human-plant relationship

How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa

Prior to the globalization of quinoa the crop was primarily used for personal

consumption and was not historically a cash crop (Jacobsen 2011) While globalization

has changed quinoa into a cash crop Andeans still use quinoa and this section

63

describes the current uses of quinoa by Andeans Many commercial quinoa products

are currently available on the Peruvian consumer food market (Figure 2-4) All parts of

the plants can be used for various products and uses While Andean people primarily

consumed quinoa as food it also has a variety of other uses including medicinal ritual

cultural artistic industrial and for animal forage In acknowledging the link between

traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found that those who eat more

traditional foods maintain higher levels of farm diversity both between and within

species Thus having a strong tradition of quinoa use has a positive correlation with

agrodiversity and the variety of Andean uses for quinoa demonstrates this link

Various parts of the plant have different uses Quinoa grains are the primary

focus of production although other parts of the plant including the flower stems and

leaves also have economic value The leaves are similar to spinach and are also

consumed either as a salad or potherb (Simmonds 1965) Thus while quinoa is

commonly associated today as a nutritious grain the quinoa plant is very productive

and plays a diverse role in Andean culture and economy

Figure 2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products Image Credit Deborah Andrews

2012

64

Food

As previously noted quinoa is an important Andean food product Quinoa is

consumed as a part of any meal of the day including snacks Quinoa varieties can have

different flavors which can sometimes be distinguished based on the color although

there are also flavor distinctions within the same color but based on different varieties

In addition the texture varies based on variety with some varieties preferred for certain

recipes and uses Different quinoa varieties have culinary qualities that are used for

different cooking purposes For example chullpi is used for soups pasankalla is used

for toasting altiplano is used for flour and real is used for pissara or grains (Mujica et

al 2001) Black quinoa is harder to cook and harder to grind for flour Thus Andeans

have distinct culinary uses for the different types or varieties of quinoa which

underscores the relevance of agrodiversity The selection of quinoa varieties based on

culinary uses is further explored in Chapter 4 which focuses on agrodiversity and

farmer variety selection

Grain Products

The grain is the primary focus of quinoa production Andeans frequently

consume quinoa in the form of grain which is boiled with two parts water and one part

quinoa similar to rice The grains can be used in many recipes in the place of rice

although in the Andes rice appears to be more frequently consumed than quinoa The

grains are often used to make porridge and soups A common Andean dish is peske

which is boiled quinoa served with milk as depicted in Figure 2-5 The variety used for

the peske that I was served was kancolla which has a large grain so it can be prepared

like rice In addition to boiling the grain can be toasted or puffed

65

Figure 2-5 Peske Image Credit Deborah Andrews 2014

Since the time of the Inca quinoa has been used to produce fermentation of

chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of harvest and

sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and so ensure

prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) In Quechua culture Isbell (1978) observed that

quinoa was added to corn-based chicha to make a special ritual drink called machka

celebrating the first planting of the season Andeans also presently prepare a juice from

quinoa usually made with orange juice Indeed chicha is widely available in Peru

beyond the Andes and is a symbol of national pride and patrimony

A more trendy use of quinoa is the manufacture of protein bars containing

combinations of quinoa and other products such as peanuts kiwicha or cantildeihua which

are sold in modern grocery stores in Peru These bars are similar in style and

convenience to granola bars and appear to be a more recent modern consumer

product since I did not see these bars being either sold or consumed in small stores in

villages or by farmers

66

Processed Quinoa

While raw quinoa grain is the primary form of the product that is sold

commercially and for export there is also a market for products that are further

processed and used in forms other than as raw grain Processed quinoa products can

be found in Peruvian grocery stores and include items such as quinoa flour as well as

products made using quinoa flour such as pasta There are a variety of modern recipes

for quinoa using either the grains or milled flour The grains are milled into flour for

baking purposes for bread and other products Based on my use of quinoa flour it

makes a stiffer product than wheat flour so it is not necessarily an acceptable substitute

for bread wheat flour unless a firmer product is desired such as in crisp cookies

Quinoa is also milled to make flakes which can be used as a breakfast food or added

to yogurt smoothies purees soups and drinks (Montoya Restrepo et al 2005) Quinoa

smoothies can be purchased from roadside vendors in Puno as a quick portable

breakfast Other Peruvian retail products include a breakfast porridge that combines

quinoa flakes with oatmeal A limited variety of quinoa products are sold in retail stores

in the United States including pasta and baby food

In the Andes one of the local complaints about consuming quinoa relates to the

length of time it takes to prepare If the quinoa grain has not been processed past the

winnowing stage the grain needs to be further prepared before cooking This important

step is the removal of the saponins Due to the mild toxicity of the saponins they need

to be removed prior to cooking This is done by abrading the grain to remove the outer

layer as well as washing the grains and disposing of the waste-water For quinoa that is

exported on the global market the saponin removal process can occur at different

stages of the distribution chain including by the end-use consumer However most

67

quinoa on the US market today already has the saponin removed with no additional

rinsing needed by the consumer although this was not always the case

Another time-consuming tedious process is the grinding of quinoa into flour The

traditional method of milling quinoa is to actually grind the grains on a mill stone using

an oblong stone tool as depicted in Figure 2-6 One informant said that when he was a

child when he came home from school he would have to grind quinoa using the grind

stone before he could go out to play He said that he resents quinoa due to this

childhood chore While modern electric mills are now available the female informants

agreed that stone ground quinoa tastes better than the modern processing and that they

can tell the difference in flavor between the two milling practices A problem of

modernization however is that at least in the Juli region south of Puno the man who

makes the stone grinding tools is getting old and no one else in the area is known to

make the stone grinding tools COOPAIN has an industrial mill at their processing plant

in Cabana for the members to mill their quinoa into flour for personal consumption

Figure 2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools Image

credit Deborah Andrews 2014

68

Masamora is a dish made with quinoa flour with added calcium obtained from

rocks Figure 2-7 depicts masamora along with other quinoa food products Masamora

is cooked into a paste-like dish usually eaten for breakfast Krsquoispina is steamed quinoa

dough Many families have their own special krsquoispina recipe for lunch as well as for trips

Traditional Andeans also use krsquoispina formed into special shapes for ritual ceremonial

purposes

Figure 2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products Image credit Deborah Andrews

2014

Medicine

While scientists are studying medicinal values of quinoa (Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Yao et al 2014 Navruz-Varley and Sanlier 2016) various parts of the quinoa

plant are used in traditional Aymara medicine (UN 2011) as well as Quechua medicine

The seeds leaves and stems are used to cure many diseases (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015)

Traditional healing uses include as an antiseptic gargle heartburn relief constipation

relief nausea relief as a poultice as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory (UN

2011a) In addition quinoa is traditionally used to treat liver problems tonsillitis fever

69

urinary problems contusions hemorrhages bowel disorders wounds insect bites loss

of blood irritation loss of appetite loss of strength insomnia headache dizziness

anemia loss of focus and to prevent osteoporosis (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Thus in

addition to having an important role as a food product in Andean diets quinoa also is

traditionally used for a variety of medical ailments

Ajara or wild quinoa which is black colored is normally used for traditional

medicine usually by community members who specialize in healing Traditional

medicine can be purchased at the open-air farmersrsquo markets in Puno Ajara is not

normally used for consumption because it does not taste good since it is bitter

however it is used for medicinal purposes such as paste placed on the body next to

broken bones The black quinoa has more saponin than the other varieties and is used

for medicine against cancer and diabetes based on folk knowledge Recent research

on saponins in quinoa have linked it to anti-inflammatory properties (Yao et al 2014)

providing scientific support for traditional Andean medicine Based on this recent

scientific confirmation of medicinal values black quinoa is now fetching a higher price

since it is considered to have medicinal value which is being more widely-reported and

studied In other parts of the world C album has been used for medicinal purposes

(Bharagava et al 2009) Scientific analysis has revealed that Chenopodium has

antibacterial antifungal anti-parasitic anthelmintic antispasmodic antipruritic and

antinociceptive properties (Bharagava et al 2009) Thus properties of quinoa have

medicinal value and research into the variety distinctions from a medicinal or

therapeutic perspective can potentially contribute to efforts to conserve agrodiversity

70

Another medicinal use of quinoa is in relation to the practice of chewing coca In

the Andes coca is often used to alleviate symptoms of hypoxia related to the high

altitude and is also used as a stimulant which can also suppress hunger Alkaline from

the ash of burned quinoa stems (lliptu) is used for coca chewing (Simmonds 1965) The

stems of the quinoa plant are still considered to be the best for this purpose as

compared to other kinds of plants Thus quinoa has a variety of traditional and

scientifically confirmed medical benefits and the correlation of the beneficial properties

with certain varieties can provide impetus to conserve agrodiversity

Ritual Uses

Andean farmers have a close relationship with nature Many believe in

Pachamama or Earth Mother as well as the presence of spirits in the rivers springs

and tombs This cosmology also extends to sharing quinoa with other species such as

birds as exemplified by the lack of vigor to some degree in keeping birds away from

their crop because they do not want the birds to ldquocryrdquo This spiritual religion is a close

relationship between life and the actions of the farmer in the fields (Ayala Olazaacutebal

2015)

As noted above Andeans ferment quinoa to make chicha (Simmonds 1965)

Chicha is fermented with quinoa and is involved in religious and magical ancestral

ceremonies in giving to the Earth (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) This is likely one of the most

well-known ritual and culturally-laden uses of quinoa linked to Andean cosmology

Traditional Andeans make different shapes by hand from a quinoa flour

preparation called krsquoispina as noted above which are used for different festivals and

celebrations including the Carnival celebration and All Saints Day During the San Juan

Festival which is in June some people make animal shapes with this form of quinoa

71

The San Juan Festival is the day of the farmer Families have specific shapes that they

use for this product and community members recognize who made the product due to

their trademark-like shape Among the Aymara quinoa dough was used to make

figurines and shapes such as babies llamas and wreaths for use at funerals (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) Thus quinoa is not only symbolic it is used to make other

symbols

One quinoa variety has alternating white and red panicles on the same plant

Andeans usually do not eat this variety which is called miste misti misa quinua misa

jiura or mistiza but it is used in Pachamama rituals There is a ceremonycelebration

for Pachamama in which there are offerings of quinoa corn habas and guinea pig

blood The reason they use guinea pig blood is because guinea pigs reproduce quickly

and the farmers are asking Pachamama for a high yield agricultural production

Consumer Products

Quinoa can also be processed for products such as oils starch saponin and

coloring (UN 2011a) These extractions are used to produce a variety of consumer

products such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (UN 2011a) Saponins are a mixture

of triterpene glycosides and over 100 different saponins have been identified in quinoa

(Jarvis et al 2017) Saponins are mildly toxic so they are extracted before

consumption and can then be used for other items making it an efficient use of the

plant Quinoa is also used to make industrial alcohol cartons paper starch flour oil

shampoo creams detergent and industrial colorants (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Red

quinoa is used to redden lips as well as for dye

72

Animal Forage

The quinoa plant is also used for livestock forage Waste leaves and stems are

used for livestock feed for their high protein content (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Animals

however cannot consume the dried stalks One study suggests that quinoa be grown in

Colombia as sustainable forage for livestock (Rosero et al 2010) Thus quinoa can be

marketed as livestock forage which may be appealing in locations where grass does

not grow well

During this study a local professor suggested that there should be development

projects introducing more chickens to Andean farms since there is a lot of quinoa grain

waste during harvesting The chickens could feed upon the quinoa that falls to the

ground during the harvest thereby providing a nutritious animal feed Indeed chickens

were ready to eat quinoa during threshing and provided a source of humor for me while

I observed farming demonstrations

One problem with introducing more chickens to the Andes is that they need to

become acclimated to the lower-oxygen environment much like humans so the

introduction of chickens from lower elevations can be problematic The alternative would

be to breed the chickens acclimated to the highlands Chickens can thrive at the high

elevations but while I observed chickens on many farms there often were less than 10

chickens and therefore appeared to be for household egg production rather than

commercial production Large scale egg production occurs in Bolivia with eggs shipped

into Peru and the Bolivian chickens have apparently adapted to the environmental

conditions

73

Fuel

The dried stalks left over from quinoa processing can be used for fuel When it is

available it is used for fuel in earthen ovens that are constructed to bake potatoes and

oca The quinoa stalks are used to start the fire and get the embers going The root

foods are poured in the oven then the oven is then collapsed during cooking (Figures 2-

8)

A B

C D Figure 2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven A) Lighting fire with quinoa

stems B) Pouring potatoes and oca into oven C) View of potatoes and oca in oven and D) Collapsing of earthen oven for baking process Image credit Deborah Andrews 2015

74

There are a variety of uses for the different parts of the quinoa plants In addition

to the traditional and ongoing Andean uses of quinoa as well as expanded use by other

consumers there are also industrial applications of quinoa Figure 2-9 displays an array

of quinoa uses including applications that were not observed as part of this study but

which shows the production potential of quinoa for a variety of uses both traditional and

non-traditional

Source httpwwwfaoorgquinoa-2013faqsen Accessed March 13 2017

Figure 2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa

Negative Local Health Effects

One of the issues that has arisen in relation to the popularity of quinoa is the

indirect effects it may have on the health of the local communities The reason for the

concern is due to the increase in the price for quinoa and the effect the price increase

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

LIST OF TABLES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 11

ABSTRACT 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 14

Research Question 14

Historic Overview 21 Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices 24 Agrodiversity and Globalization 29

2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET 36

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People 36

The Fox and the Condor 38

What is Quinoa 39

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species 41 History of Quinoa in the Andes 45

Resurgence of Quinoa 55 Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa 60 How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa 62

Food 64 Grain Products 64 Processed Quinoa 66

Medicine 68 Ritual Uses 70 Consumer Products 71 Animal Forage 72

Fuel 73 Negative Local Health Effects 74

3 ANDEAN FARMERS AND THE GLOBAL MARKET WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS REMAINED THE SAME 80

Diversification and the Environment 80 What are the Current Farming Practices 82

7

Harvesting 88

Quinoa Processing 93

What are the Strategies for Local Farmers to Access the Market 95 Farmersrsquo Markets 95 Farmersrsquo Cooperatives 96 Future Market Expansion 102 Agricultural Fairs 104

Pricing 107

4 HOW ARE ANDEAN FARMERS PRESERVING QUINOA AGRODIVERSITY DURING A TIME OF GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET 118

What is the Extent of Quinoa Variety Diversity and How is it Classified 123 Farmersrsquo Knowledge 126

Experiment in Comparative Variety Yield 144 How do Andean Farmers Select the Quinoa Variety to Plant 148

Do Andean Farmers Maintain Agrodiversity through their Seed Selection Practices 160

How do Andean Farmers Select Seeds and How do these Processes affect Agrodiversity 166

Womenrsquos Role in Seed Selection 172

A Female Semillista Example 174 What are Menrsquos Roles in Seed Selection 180

5 CONCLUSION 188

APPENDIX

A QUINOA VARIETY NAMES 199

B RAZAS DE QUINUAS RACES OF QUINOA 205

LIST OF REFERENCES 206

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 219

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa 61

4-1 INIA Commercial Varieties of Quinoa in Peru 132

4-2 Altiplano Varieties by Color 138

4-3 Races of Quinoa 139

4-4 Results of Variety Yield Experiment 145

4-5 Frequency of Planting of Quinoa Varieties 149

4-6 Average Number of Quinoa Varieties Grown 153

4-7 Collective Number of Quinoa Varieties 154

4-8 Reasons for Variety Selection 156

4-9 Sources of Quinoa Seeds 161

4-10 Reasons for Seed Selection 167

4-11 Quinoa Uses 179

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches 47

2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013 58

2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa 59

2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products 63

2-5 Peske 65

2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools 67

2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products 68

2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven 73

2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa 74

3-1 Drying quinoa at UNAP research station 89

3-2 Student farmers learning to use the trilladora to thresh quinoa fruits from the plant 90

3-3 Student farmer removing the grain from the panicle 91

3-4 Further sifting of quinoa grains 92

3-5 Wind winnowing at INIA 92

3-6 Puno Farmersrsquo Market 95

3-7 Powdered cantildeihua at Puno Farmersrsquo Market 96

3-8 Quinoa drying in the sun at COOPAIN 99

3-9 Quinoa-battered fried whole fish eyeballs included 107

3-10 Quinoa Production Volumes 2001-2014 108

3-11 Peru Quinoa Producer Prices 1991-2003 109

3-12 Puno Producer Prices 1990-2012 109

3-13 Quinoa Price Drop 110

10

4-1 Quinoa samples at the INIA office 132

4-2 Quinoa Variety Frequency University Student Farmers N=24 152

4-3 Quinoa Variety Frequency Co-op Farmers N=35 152

4-4 Mamarsquos quinoa 174

4-5 Expert Arsquos map of quinoa field 175

4-6 Expert Arsquos Seed Display 176

4-7 Rosada Taraco quinoa after harvest 182

4-8 Rosada taraco quinoa grains 183

4-9 Expert Brsquos seed selection display 183

11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANAPQUI Asociacioacuten National de Productores de Quinoa

COOPAIN Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash Cabana

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

INIA Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten Agraria

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non-governmental organization

UN United Nations

UNAP Universidad Nacional del Altiplano

US United States

12

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THERErsquoS SOMETHING ABOUT QUINOA SMALL-SCALE ANDEAN FARMERS

AGRODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE MARKET

By

Deborah J Andrews

August 2017

Chair Marianne Schmink Co-chair Christopher McCarty Major Anthropology

This research seeks to seeks to understand the inter-relationship between small-

scale Andean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa

crop and how they are maintaining same-species agrodiversity during a time of

globalization of the market Despite Spanish suppression of the crop as well as post-

colonial discriminatory practices against quinoa and the indigenous populations who ate

it this crop survived due to the inter-species relationship with Andean farmers who

relied on quinoa as an important food source The popularization of quinoa however

has changed the quinoa market with potential effects on quinoa agrodiversity

maintenance and increased risk to farmers

The study was carried out in Puno Peru using participant observation surveys

and interviews with both Quechua and Aymara farmers as well as other experts This

study investigated the quinoa variety agrodiversity practices of small-scale farmers

including the number of varieties grown during the past season the reasons farmers

selected quinoa varieties for production how seeds were selected and who influenced

variety and seed choice The literature review and field research revealed over 200

13

quinoa names including 63 varieties grown by the participant farmers during the period

of this study The farmers selected these varieties by analyzing and balancing a number

of factors including market demand environmental adaptation yield culinary

properties cultural practices and experimentation The farmers who participated in this

study grew an average of 257 quinoa varieties during the past season with a range of

between one to thirty-two varieties being grown by an individual farmer The results of

this study demonstrate that there are various influences on agrodiversity maintenance

including the availability of seed the promotion of varieties by organizations including

the government NGOs and cooperatives as well as farm-saved seed reliant upon

existing local germplasm Ongoing and future investigation of quinoa at the variety level

including nutritional and health benefit distinctions as well as culinary and other

consumer uses can maintain agrodiversity while serving the goals of both continued

crop resilience as well as competitiveness in the market through diverse unique and

marketable options Knowledge and agrodiversity maintenance by Andean farmers

especially the local experts can play a valuable role in future investigations into the

beneficial interspecies relationship between people and plants and their joint

contributions to global food security

14

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Research Question

This research addresses the inter-relationship between small-scale Andean

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) farmers in Peru and their quinoa crop and how the

farmers maintain agrodiversity during a time of globalization of the quinoa market

Humans have been breeding plants for thousands of years leading to the rise of

agriculture This breeding of plants has altered biodiversity based on human selection

Unfortunately only a small number of crops now dominate global agricultural production

and human diets which is detrimental to long-term food security Murphy et al (2016)

consider maintenance of quinoa diversity to be an imperative Many cultures including

Andean farmers have maintained lesser-known traditional crops and have a wealth of

agricultural heritage and knowledge The study of quinoa and the people who have

grown it for thousands of years offers an example of ldquohumannonhuman minglingrdquo that is

the hallmark of multispecies ethnography which focuses on how other organisms as

well as humans are shaped by cultural political and economic forces (Kirksey and

Helmreich 2010546)

In light of the long-term historical suppression of quinoa starting with Spanish

colonialists and continuing with post-colonial practices this research addresses the

question of whether intra-species quinoa diversity is being maintained during a time of

market globalization In the context of a traditionally-maintained crop that has gained

global attention the working hypothesis is that the global attention on quinoa will lead to

losses in sub-species agrodiversity due to external market demands and trends towards

monocultural practices The expectation of diversity loss is further justified by the

15

dominance of the white-colored Bolivian real variety in the market which was the initial

market entry for quinoa While aggregation of quinoa of the same variety or at least

color allows for small-scale farmers to pool their crops and contribute to the global

market this market benefit could be at the expense of agrodiversity

Traditional Andean grains grown by Peruvian farmers increasingly are served on

dinner plates across the Western world With the discovery of the excellent nutritional

benefits the quinoa boom has exploded on the market as a trendy healthy new food

source in the modern world In contrast Andeans have been farming quinoa for

thousands of years While most Andean farmers still produce quinoa using traditional

small-scale farming techniques the global demands for quinoa may be affecting within-

species diversity Thus the timing of the expansion of the quinoa market especially in

light of its multi-millennial usage is an important factor in this study

This research arises from questions that have been raised by the media about

the effects of the global demand for quinoa on local farmers such as whether their diets

have suffered due to a decrease in quinoa consumption or whether other agricultural

practices have been affected such as llama or alpaca grazing areas being converted to

quinoa fields (Eg Aubrey 2013 Romero and Shahriari 2011) More recently the

popular press has also questioned the effects that the global popularity of quinoa

specifically has had on agrodiversity with claims that ldquoExport demand has focused on

very few of the 3000 or so different varieties of quinoa prompting farmers to abandon

many of those varietiesrdquo (Cherfas 2016) While this statement about the number of

varieties of quinoa is often repeated it derives from a misunderstanding of the

difference between varieties and accessioned samples in seed banks which is explored

16

below Nevertheless it clearly raised concern for continued quinoa agrodiversity This

study focuses on the current extent of quinoa agrodiversity and how it has been

maintained and conserved by small-scale Andean farmers in the Peruvian altiplano

While this study focuses on how Andean quinoa farmers are maintaining agrodiversity

this does not imply that these farmers are solely responsible for agrodiversity

maintenance or loss but rather they are an important part of the discussion and need

to be included in discourse about future efforts to maintain or improve diversity

practices In addition their knowledge can contribute to an overall understanding of the

biodiversity of quinoa

The anthropological discourse on globalization describes various processes that

affect local communities and their culture due to the pressures of global demands for

resources originating in these communities ldquoGlobalization is a long-term uneven and

paradoxical process in which widening social cooperation and deepening inequality go

togetherrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20043-4) This study investigated the practices of small-

scale Andean farmers as well as their folk knowledge related to quinoa varieties and

how they changed in response to market globalization

Since food is very much linked to cultural identity (Weismantel 1988) quinoa

provides an excellent exemplar for studying the effects of globalization on local cultures

especially since quinoa is considered to be one of the most important food crops in the

Andes having both economic and cultural importance (Christensen et al 2007 Castillo

et al 2007) Quinoa is used as a diverse food product and is also used during ritual

festivals for consumption and to make symbolic figurines out of quinoa dough (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) In this regard quinoa is like other plants that are valued for

17

symbolic ritual and sociocultural practice rather than just for direct economic benefits

(Kawa 2012) and provides evidence that money is not always the principal factor in

decision-making With this in mind this study analyzes the cultural factors in

agrodiversity decision-making during a time of globalization of this traditional product In

acknowledging the link between traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found

that those who eat more traditional foods including quinoa maintain more farm

diversity including more crop diversity and more varieties Thus there is an association

with biodiversity and food products that have a strong cultural link to the farmer and

quinoa is a prime crop to investigate this phenomenon

Prior studies of Andean crops including the aptly titled book ldquoLost Crops of the

Incardquo (1989) described quinoa and other important crops in direct connection with the

Andean people who had a deep history with the plant

Today in the high Andes the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants who are largely pure-blooded Indian and continue to grow the crops of their forbears During the centuries they have maintained the Incarsquos food crops in the face of neglect and even scorn by much of the society around them In local markets women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than 500 years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains baskets of beans of every color and bowls containing luscious fruits At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers ndash red yellow purple even candy striped some as round and bright as billiard balls others long and thin and wrinkled These are the ldquolost crops of the Incasrdquo (NRC 19893)

The National Research Councilrsquos (NRC) comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-

blooded Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including

quinoarsquos ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and

people through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food

18

Similarly in 1990 Wilson observed the relationship between the race of people

and the status of quinoa he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed complexesrdquo

where the wild ancestral plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the domesticated

varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial areasrdquo

associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including the

Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo provided a place for both indigenous

Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes from the outside world

Wilson (1990) observed as other scientists before him that there was a strong

association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and culture and

the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and plant diversity

thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live side-by-side

Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both survived

colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency

The United Nations (ldquoUNrdquo) determined that quinoa is a product that can

contribute to food security for the worldrsquos growing population (UN 2011a) Over a

decade earlier the National Research Council commented that ldquoBecause it is now

primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing its production is a good

way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo (NRC 1989150) In

contrast the process of globalization may put local farmers and the biodiversity of the

crop at risk Given the fact that the Andean altiplano is a harsh growing environment

coupled with climate change and attendant crop risk agrodiversity effects are an

important issue in understanding local effects of globalization that could lead to long

term negative consequences

19

For this dissertation the relationship between Andean quinoa farmers and this

traditional subsistence crop was studied during a time of rapid globalization and growing

popularity of quinoa As Mintz observed ldquothe social history of the use of new foods in a

western nation can contribute to an anthropology of modern liferdquo (Mintz 1985xxviii)

Quinoa provides a classic example since it is a traditional crop with a long history

culminating in recent global popularity and demand that has affected small-scale

farmers whose product climbed onto the world stage When peripheral economies such

as that of the Andean farmers are integrated into a larger capitalist system it is usually

on unequal terms (Lewis 2005) This raises the question of the effect on the local

quinoa farmers due to the increased popularity of their crop This scenario is a classic

example of the idea that ldquoglobalization involves more intensive interaction across wider

space and in shorter time than before in other words the experience of a shrinking

worldrdquo (Nederveen Pieterse 20048)

The product of Andean farmers vaulted to global attention in a relatively rapid

fashion after a multi-millennial relationship with the people of the Andes What was a

long-term relationship between Andeans and quinoa was altered by outside attention

and demand Since the world has noticed quinoa what has happened to the quinoa

farmers and their relationship to quinoa To understand local farmers we need to

understand the contextual components of their relationships to external markets (Dove

2011247) especially given the strong Andean cultural identity that includes quinoa The

farmersrsquo connections to the market can include a number of points of access some of

which lead directly to the global market

20

Due to the globalization of the quinoa market the popular press has raised

concerns about changes to local diets and loss of grazing areas (Aubrey 2013 Romero

and Shafiari 2011) Much like accedilaiacute (Euterpe oleraceae Mart) from the Amazon studied

by Brondizio (2008) quinoa has rocketed onto the global market yet as Brondizio

found local farmers pejoratively called caboclos in Brazil can be disenfranchised

despite the high acclaim of their plant partner on the world stage In addition to the

farmers the global attention on quinoa can also have adverse effects on the species as

noted in the popular press with regard to the maintenance of agrodiversity of quinoa

(Cherfas 2016) Thus both farmers and their partner crop can be affected by

globalization and this study investigates some of these changes including the

relationship between the two

While globalized agriculture is often associated with large factory farms in the

Andes quinoa is primarily produced on small family farms with most of the tasks done

by hand with little mechanization through the harvesting stage (Ton and Bijman 2006)

Despite the small size of the farms they are not isolated from what Dove (2011) calls

larger networks of economic exchange Indeed the farmers in this study who live in the

remote Andes are participants in the global quinoa market Farmers are not just a

collection of individuals but rather are part of a complex system (Escobar 1991) The

social organization in rural communities can substantially influence crop biodiversity

(Leclerc and Copperns drsquoEeckenbrugge 2012) While many studies of crop agrodiversity

focus on seed selection factors related to the environment culture is also an important

factor in diversity and ultimately food security Indeed at the outset agricultural crops

were selected by humans for cultivation and ultimately domestication which

21

emphasizes the human element in agrodiversity This process is not static especially in

the context of globalization when external socially driven market demands factor into

the equation

Ecological anthropology seeks to understand the relationship between social

organizations population dynamics human culture and the environment (Orlove 1980)

Coupling ecological anthropology with biodiversity discourse further focuses the

question of human factors in biodiversity maintenance Biodiversity is important and

there is concern about the loss of plant biodiversity (FAO 1999) There has been a call

for increased emphasis for biodiversity in the agricultural landscape (Brush 1995 2005)

Past agricultural research demonstrates that commercial markets often seek out

consistent standardized products which allows for the pooling and consolidation of

crops from different farms to be aggregated and sold in bulk volumes on larger markets

The drive for a singular similar-looking product however can have agrodiversity

consequences especially if the external market seeks one look But quinoa is a

polyploid plant that produces grain with highly diverse morphological characteristics and

various colors White quinoa was the initial product popularized on the global market

through the early market entry of the Bolivian real variety The emphasis on a singular

color potentially might deleteriously affect the agrodiversity of the crop which can lead

to higher production risks for local farmers due to the harsh environment in the Andes

Thus reduced agrodiversity can have immense consequences for both local farmers

and crop agrodiversity

Historic Overview

The history of quinoa and how it reached the global market and the utilization of

quinoa in the Andes are described in Chapter 2 Quinoa provides an especially

22

interesting example because it was not adopted into European agriculture for centuries

whereas the adoption of other food crops from the Andes such as potatoes was rapid

(Maughan et al 2007) From the colonial period through the first half of the twentieth

century quinoa production was in great decline Due to its association with indigenous

rituals and its ceremonial importance quinoa was suppressed by the Spanish

colonizers although cultivation continued in remote areas with mostly indigenous

populations (Sauer 1950 Simmonds 1965 Wilson 1990) What was once derogatorily

classified as an indigenous food suppressed by European colonizers under racist

practices has transformed into a global commodity

Notions of discrimination permeate the historical treatment of quinoa and the

Andeans with an interesting joint-species racialized experience As noted by Hartigan

past discourse by cultural anthropologists in the US focused on ldquomaintaining the

bulwark between culture and biologyrdquo (2013373) especially when discussing racial

classification but this research seeks to breach that bulwark using multispecies

ethnography in an attempt to understand the relationship between Andeans and

quinoa and how this relationship which has successfully maintained quinoa diversity

for thousands of years is being affected by globalization In this study I use a

multispecies approach to this analysis which means that I investigate both the plant as

well as human culture which is especially fitting here considering the history of

discrimination that both Andeans and quinoa have jointly experienced across time due

to cultural beliefs

The second chapter addresses the biological nature of quinoa and its

complicated taxonomic history Other species of Chenopodium grow throughout the

23

world with closely related species in the US and Mexico that may provide insights into

the migrations of both the plants and their associated people (Heiser 1990)

The second chapter also describes the more recent history of quinoa and the

events that led to its international resurgence as an important food crop Plants have a

history of interactions with humans and how we think about the importance or

relevance of different plant species varies Quinoa has a unique history of suppression

by Spaniards during the Conquest to the post-colonial attitudes of quinoa as an ldquoIndian

foodrdquo to the present cultural belief in quinoa as a ldquosuper-foodrdquo Scientific investigations

of quinoa led to its current status as a food for astronauts and its increasing popularity

as a health food in the West

Quinoa has high nutritional value with more protein essential amino acids and

minerals than other cereal crops (Medina et al 2010 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) A

recent UN publication states ldquoIn countries (such as Peru and Bolivia) where malnutrition

levels are high it is essential to boost quinoa consumption in order to benefit from its

exceptional nutritional propertiesrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa has tremendous

implications for human health and food security even in countries that traditionally grow

quinoa such as Peru and Bolivia yet still have malnutrition Stunting is a problem in the

Peruvian Andes which has been linked to poor diet (Mayer 2002) providing additional

reasons to investigate this highly nutritious product

Research on quinoa has been conducted by agronomists geneticists and other

agricultural scientists with more limited anthropological research on the topic which

has been growing recently While the history of quinoa and timeliness of its global

popularity is well suited to this study it is the people and the human cultural association

24

with an important food crop that are the focus here This is a prime opportunity to

investigate debate and perhaps prevent the problems that globalized agriculture has

caused in the past

Food security is a worldwide issue and this study of the cultural aspects of

quinoa production in a globalized market can provide anthropological perspectives in

agricultural contexts The FAO Rome Declaration on World Food Security (1996)

defines global food security as follows

Food security exists when all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

This study seeks to provide information that can be used to improve food security

through the maintenance of diversity of an important food crop This research can also

inform debates about globalization of the quinoa market The intent of this study is to

reflect upon and suggest ways to mitigate the unintended consequences to local

farmers as well as to mitigate agrodiversity loss

Research Locale Methods and Farming Practices

Chapter 3 describes the present farming practices of Andean farmers based on

participant observation and interviews with quinoa farmers and experts This study

describes the continuation of traditional farming practices as well as analyzing modern

changes to these practices and how they may affect agrodiversity maintenance

The research for this dissertation was based in Puno Peru on the shores of

Lake Titicaca since that is the place of greatest genetic diversity (Medina et al 2010)

as well as where there have been archaeological discoveries of ancient quinoa (Langlie

et al 2011) Presently the main producers and exporters of quinoa are Bolivia and Peru

(Medina et al 2010) The Puno region is the main quinoa agricultural growing area in

25

the altiplano Andes of Peru is a major production area in Peru is a market exchange

location for both Peru and Bolivia and is believed to have the highest range of quinoa

agrodiversity The Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (UNAP) is located in Puno and I

obtained an official affiliation with that institution and worked with professors who had a

long history of working with quinoa farmers This study was conducted during several

extensive trips to Puno from 2012 to 2015 The initial field investigation took place

during May and June 2012 I returned to Puno from May to June in 2014 and 2015 with

the fieldwork concluding in December 2015 While I was based in the City of Puno I

traveled to the nearby farms and villages in the Puno region including Cabana

Cabanillas Juli Juliaca Ilave Kilca Chucuito and Desaguadero

I primarily gathered information from farmers (N=66) student farmers (N=24)

and professors at the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano (N=10) In addition to these

100 participants I conducted numerous informal interviews with quinoa wholesale

vendors government officials farmers at farmers markets fair participants three field

researchers and relatives of two of the university professors

Since I obtained an affiliation with the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano I was

introduced to numerous professors who were linked to quinoa research in various ways

The expertise of the professors was varied and included anthropology agronomy food

safety entomology and animal science I worked extensively with two professors ndash Dr

Marco Aro and Dr Aacutengel Mujicamdashthroughout this process Two additional professors

took me to their family farms where I observed their practices and informally interviewed

their relatives although they did not participate in the formal agrodiversity surveys since

it was early in the research process For the professor group I conducted interviews

26

with each of the 10 professors to gain insight and information on various aspects of

quinoa and culture This information ranged from cultural traditions to pest problems

with the crop I also sought to find an existing list of quinoa varieties upon which I could

base my agrodiversity inventory and research but was unable to locate one as further

described in my research findings

Working with Dr Mujica I participated in the agricultural field school in

Camacani where students were taught to harvest quinoa at the university research

station Twenty-three of the student farmers participated in formal surveys during this

field school and one additional student participated in the survey who did not attend this

field session In addition to the student surveys I participated in the harvest where I

took many photographs and extensively interviewed Dr Mujica In 2015 I also went on

a three-day field trip with a group of agricultural students to Arequipa Majes and

surrounding communities I obtained the additional student survey from one of these

participants who also assisted in providing farmer contacts

The first group of non-student farmers that I worked with were a convenience

sample of 31 farmers who attended a meeting conducted by Dr Mujica in the city of

Puno Since this was a convenience sample it had some bias and is not necessarily a

representative sample of all farmers in the region because they were associated with an

outreach program affiliated with the University and had the means to travel to the city

for the meeting Due to travel constraints I was not able to individually interview this set

of farmers

Towards the end of the meeting I explained my research project by going

through the Institutional Review Board-approved disclosures and request for consent

27

After answering a few questions including one question about compensation and why

they should help me for free I conducted a formal agrodiversity survey of 31 of the

farmers present who were primarily of Aymara ethnicity Several farmers declined to

participate for unknown reasons although I suspect one reason was that they could not

write another bias in this sample selection All but one of these farmers were men

Thus it was not a random sample and was skewed in both gender roles as well as in

individual motivation availability education or opportunity to travel to Puno for a

meeting

The second group of farmers that I worked with were affiliated with COOPAIN

the local cooperative located in the town of Cabana which is a small town north of the

city of Puno COOPAIN stands for Cooperative Agro Industrial Cabana Ltda Coopain ndash

Cabana COOPAIN is a democratically run organization with elections each year It is

organized into two committees the ManagementAdministration Committee and the

Oversight Committee Each committee has four members three permanent and one

substitute member Under the ManagementAdministration Committee are four

subcommittees Production Education Womenrsquos and Election each with the same

membership size and structure

The education committee focused on promotion of growing quinoa and joining

COOPAIN The education committee was primarily concerned with young people

getting involved in farming to replace the aging farmer population This concern with the

future of farming and the need to attract or keep young people in farming is an important

issue for the continuation of quinoa farming in the altiplano At the education meetings

they answer questions from the audience and also discuss climate change

28

At this cooperative farmers bring their harvested quinoa to the small factory for

processing and refinement The farmers process the quinoa in the field which includes

threshing sifting and winnowing prior to bringing their production to the cooperative in

large bags The cooperative further processes the quinoa by washing the quinoa and

removing the saponins and sorting the quinoa by color These processes will be further

described in the following chapters The cooperative distributes to the national and

global market although sales direct to consumers are also available at the remote

factory COOPAIN provides access to the globalized market due to marketing efforts

that connects the small farmers to the larger market COOPAIN maintains a market

presence through its connections with non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

international and local researchers the press its own outreach programs as well as a

website Since the farmer-members of COOPAIN were selling their crops on the global

market it offered a unique opportunity to see the effects of globalization on the local

farmers and quinoa agrodiversity While the COOPAIN facility is located in Cabana the

members live in the small communities in the surrounding region and they bring their

harvests to Cabana The meetings regarding the operation of COOPAIN occur in

Cabana and this tiny town was a central location for finding participants for this study

A total of 35 farmers affiliated with COOPAIN participated in this study I

personally met with 21 of the 35 farmers conducting a formal survey and semi-

structured interviews The additional 14 farmer participants were surveyed by student

volunteers that both Dr Aro and I trained to interview the participants gather and

record consistent data and demographics using a written interview guide In addition to

the surveys and interviews I observed the manufacturing practices at COOPAIN and

29

met with the management and leadership on several occasions conducting formal

informational and background interviews

As noted above across the period of this study I gathered information from a

variety of more informal sources I visited farmersrsquo markets and also investigated the

local food stores to gather pricing and marketing data on quinoa I attended two

agricultural fairs and observed the display of quinoa products and the competition

regarding quinoa food recipes I met with two governmental officials in Puno to gather

data on regional quinoa production I also visited the Instituto Nacional de Innovacioacuten

Agraria (INIA) to observe their quinoa research station and interviewed a government

official running the program The information I gathered from INIA related to quinoa

agrodiversity and they had many samples on display in the office I asked for a list of

the quinoa varieties and was told that the information was in their recent publication

which I purchased It turned out that the publication was not quite as helpful or

comprehensive as I had hoped as further discussed in Chapter 4

Agrodiversity and Globalization

Chapter 4 describes the investigation into agrodiversity conservation practices

during globalization of the quinoa market There are several components to this study

to evaluate the agrodiversity of quinoa the first component of this research was to

develop a list of quinoa varieties especially since my research discovered that a

published comprehensive list did not already exist While the popular press reported

thousands of quinoa varieties (eg Cherfas 2016) I discovered that the term ldquovarietyrdquo

was mistakenly used for ldquoaccessionsrdquo associated with seed bank collections which are

not necessarily separate varieties for each accession Thus the number of purported

quinoa varieties was both undocumented and inflated Without the collection of accurate

30

or existing data to use as a starting point I re-tooled my research to establish a set of

data from which I could evaluate the present state of agrodiversity of quinoa and its

relationship to Andean farming culture

To establish a starting point for quinoa agrodiversity I conducted a study of local

quinoa farmers and asked them to list the quinoa varieties that they had grown over the

past two years I also reviewed published research to create a comprehensive list of

quinoa names As research progressed additional varieties were added to the list after

consulting with quinoa experts to determine if the new names were indeed a different

type or just another name for a previously-listed variety Thus this component of the

study created the comprehensive quinoa variety domain

While this research started with an investigation into quinoa variety diversity it

became apparent that the nomenclature for categories within species at least for

quinoa is an area that needs further refinement and consensus which is evaluated in

Chapter 4 While I started this research using the term ldquovarietyrdquo it became readily

apparent that the use of that term was less than clear In Chapter 4 I discuss the race-

based classification systems that have been proposed by Peruvian researchers which

provides an intermediate level of taxonomic classification between species and variety

sometimes referred to as landrace which is a loosely defined term associated with

varieties developed by farmers rather than commercial organizations

The next component of the study was to interview and survey farmers about their

quinoa farming practices including quinoa variety selection This component of the

research investigated the number of different quinoa varieties grown during the recent

season the variety selection and the reasons for both seed selection and variety

31

selection by the farmers This chapter describes the factors involved in variety selection

such as yield environmental conditions culinary qualities as well as seed availability

and the importance of those reasons The sources for seeds are also analyzed as well

as the maintenance of quinoa agrodiversity on the farms To determine a comparative

and current evaluation of the variety yields during the 2014-2015 growing season I also

describe an experiment conducted by Dr Mujica at UNAP and compare it to the

dominant quinoa varieties that were in production during the time of this study

In addition to the compilation of the list I also researched the reasons for

selection of both the varieties as well as how seeds themselves are selected Since

Andean farmers have had to address a high-risk environment for thousands of years

this study investigated the cultural adaptations in seeking to benefit from the global

demand of a local product while still reducing economic risk under current climatic

conditions Producing a crop that can survive the growing season and producing a crop

that is commercially desired may not necessarily be congruent so the selection factors

were investigated to understand the trade-offs and analysis that could affect

agrodiversity maintenance

External market factors may be the reason for lack of crop agrodiversity

maintenance External consumer-driven preferences can influence the market as well

as agrodiversity which Kawa et al (2013) found in their study of social networks of

Amazonian manioc farmers They found that two crop characteristics were desired for

the manioc market high biomass and yellow color As a result varieties that produced

large manioc tubers of a yellow color were selected by farmers for production to the

external market explaining a lower agrodiversity than found in non-market contexts

32

Thus external market demands such as varieties with preferred colors can affect

agrodiversity through human selection In the Andes due to the higher prices for

quinoa other researchers found that farmers were selling their quinoa crops rather than

using them solely for their familiesrsquo consumption (Hellin and Higman 2005) Thus

quinoa is also being grown for the market and therefore the characteristics of the end

product are subject to market pressures and consumer preferences such as preferred

color as well as yield or biomass The dominance of the white sweet flavored large-

grained Bolivian real variety in the international market exemplifies external market

pressures related to color and biomass as well as flavor Color and biomass are but a

few examples of the diverse characteristics of quinoa and a range of other

characteristics are desired for other traditional Andean uses which are described in

Chapter 2

Seed selection is of great importance in agricultural and survival strategies (Tuxill

et al 2010) Andean farms tend to be highly diversified (Zimmerer 2003) The farm

diversity is implemented by using various ecological zones across the terrain (Jacoby

1992) The reason for such high diversity is due to the extreme climate and high risk of

potential crop failure By planting varieties that thrive under various climatic conditions

a harvest is more likely to succeed since at least some of the seeds will thrive in any

given range of climatic conditions (Tuxill et al 2010 Rivera 1998) Thus farmers often

select seeds based on different criteria including color as well as other factors such as

early ripening and yield (Rosero et al 2010 Tuxill et al 2010) Thus while agrodiversity

maintenance is a traditional risk-averting strategy findings also imply that other market-

based or aesthetic factors such as color influence seed selection This research tested

33

these previous findings regarding agrodiversity conservation practices among small-

scale farmers

Due to globalization the concern is the early market entry established limited

characteristics related to color and perhaps sweet taste that could influence Andean

farmersrsquo conservation practices In the global quinoa market the white colored quinoa

Bolivian real is the dominant variety (Castillo et al 2007) and is widely available in US

supermarkets Due to the consumer and market driven desire for a consistent product

the harvests from multiple farms can be collected and managed in a large scale

benefiting larger organizations and distributors Thus commercialized large scale

distribution practices can have the effect of inhibit biodiversity while at the same time

allowing for market entry and competition If farmers grow sweet white quinoa since it is

in demand by the market and discontinue growing the other varieties then there would

be consequences for in situ agrodiversity maintenance

In the past but not that long after quinoa gained global recognition it was

reported that local Andean peasants preserved their biodiversity practices (Apffel-

Marglin 1998) These varieties were often used for subsistence personal and

community purposes with the certain varieties including commercially produced

varieties grown for the external commercial market (Apffel-Marglin 1998) However

due to the more recent global market pressures the observations of Apffel-Marglin

(1998) need to be tested to see if they continue to hold true Quite recently Skarbo

(2015) documented a loss of quinoa diversity in Ecuador in association with

development projects linked to commercialized quinoa varieties raising an alarm for the

preservation of quinoa diversity during what she calls a ldquoquinoa Renaissancerdquo A goal of

34

this study is to analyze these notions of food security and agrobiodiversity in the context

of quinoa variety selection during a time of dramatic price increase In Chapter 4 I also

analyze to a very limited degree the differing roles of men and women in quinoa

agrodiversity conservation and the importance of local experts

In summary this research investigated the historical and current farming

practices that affect agrodiversity maintenance of quinoa during a time of globalization

in the context of culturally-laden meaning due to the long-term beneficial mutual

relationship between quinoa and Andean farmers The dissertation tells the unique

history of this co-evolving relationship between Andeans and quinoa from

domestication thousands of years ago through Spanish suppression of both humans

and quinoa through lingering post-colonial attitudes against ldquodirty Indiansrdquo and ldquoIndian

foodrdquo through the present worldwide acclaim and attention focused on quinoa but not

necessarily its human partners in survival This story involves the success of Andean

people who have not only survived in a harsh climate but have survived through harsh

aspects of human history The mutually-beneficial relationship between Andeans and

quinoa is a survival story that has not concluded Andean farmers cultivated and

nurtured quinoa through thousands of years of harvests resulting in human selection

playing a substantial role in the evolution of the crop alongside other genetic influences

such as natural selection gene flow mutation and genetic drift The result is a highly

diverse species that survived despite competition with introduced crops and animal

husbandry as well as intentional Spanish suppression In return quinoa provided

Andean farmers with a highly nutritious crop that can both thrive in the harsh

environment and also be stored for many years This research looks at the

35

agrodiversity methods farmers use in selecting the types of quinoa to grow during a time

of global pressure to increase production of the crop which can decrease agrodiversity

maintenance through the use of monoculture-type practices adopted from Western

agricultural practices This research has resulted in a compilation of names of different

quinoa varieties to establish a varietal domain to facilitate further investigation into

agrodiversity of the crop I discuss the agrodiversity practices including reasons for

variety selection as well as seed selection I present a survey of current quinoa variety

selection and discuss it in the context of the larger domain of quinoa types and the

future implications for agrodiversity maintenance Thus while monoculture-type

practices have clearly influenced Andean farming practices as demonstrated by the

dominance of the white Bolivian real variety there are ways to prevent further

agrodiversity loss which would be a loss not only to the species but to their millennial-

long partners ndash Andean farmers

36

CHAPTER 2 THE HISTORY OF QUINOA AND HOW IT REACHED THE GLOBAL MARKET

Origins of Agriculture Quinoa Domestication and Andean People

This chapter traces the history of agrodiversity and quinoa in Peru to place the

present status of the globalized quinoa market in historical perspective Quinoa has a

long-term connection among Andean people and a review of the history of the human-

plant relationship explains why and how an agricultural product which was once little

known outside of the Andes attained great global acclaim and associated market

expansion This chapter addresses the questions of what is quinoa and how is it

associated with human culture This chapter describes the botanical nature of quinoa

its taxonomic place and the problems with the classification of varieties as well as the

nutritional benefits and uses it provides to people This chapter also describes the

natural biodiversity and plasticity of the species as well as the effects that history has

had on the survival and success of this plant and what this information may indicate

about the present and future conservation practices

In the Andes there is a diversity of geography and ecology as well as cultures

Peru has a large variety of plants amounting to about 10 of the total plants in the

world Perursquos diverse floral regime includes about 25000 species 128 domesticated

plants and 4400 native species with known uses ranging from food to medicinal to

cosmetic (Powell and Chavarro 2008) The presence of a variety of climates and

ecozones in the Andes favors the generation and maintenance of genetic diversity

(Rivera 1998) This fact alone however does not account for the high rate of diversity

The presence of Andean culture that supports the observation and nurturance of plants

is a key factor in the development of a wide variety of domesticated plants (Rivera

37

1998) Thus humans are an important factor in the generation and maintenance of

biodiversity and Andean cosmology has a role in the successful maintenance of plant

diversity

Plant domestication signified by changes that rely upon human intervention for

continued survival is considered a key factor in the understanding of past human

behavior related to the rise of agriculture Domestication can result in the alteration of

plant life cycles such as reduction in dormancy enhancement of seedling vigor or

enhancement of stored food reserves in seeds and loss of dispersal mechanisms

(Gremillion 1993) A notable difference between domestic and wild plants is that the

latter lack seed dormancy (DeWet and Harlan 1975) Selective pressures linked to

reduced seed dormancy can encourage quick sprouting after planting and increase

survival (Smith 1995) The outer epidermis or testa has an important role in seed

development since it controls imbibition of water and hence seed germination (Smith

1995) The testa thus prevents premature germination in nature and a reduced outer

seed coat testa allow early germination (Gremillion 1993) Domesticated quinoa has a

thin seed coat and is one of the key ways that archaeologists can determine if an

archaeological sample is from a wild or domesticated plant The thin seed coat versions

cannot survive without human intervention even in the Andes (Wilson 1981) and thus

seed coat thickness is an important indicator of domestication The thin seed coat in

domesticated chenopods is the key factor in distinguishing wild from domesticated

versions and hence human intervention

The development of agriculture demonstrates the importance and contribution of

traditional ecological knowledge by farmers in Peru Agriculture developed

38

independently in several disparate locations across the globe One of the most

important locations is the Andes The Andes are one of Vavilovrsquos ldquocenters of

domesticationrdquo (Murphy 2007) including the domestication of 45 species of plants

which is more than all of the domesticated plants in Europe at the time of contact with

the Americas (Rivera 1998)

Many agricultural products were first domesticated in the Andes including

potatoes and quinoa There are 3500 different varieties of potatoes grown in the Andes

(Apffel-Marglin 1998) One province in the Peruvian Andes has more potato diversity

than the entire North American continent (Brush 2005) While potatoes are a well-known

agricultural product of the Andes there are other plants that have gained recent

notoriety Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) kaniwa or canihua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule Aellen) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L) also known as amaranth or

love-lies-bleeding were domesticated in Peru thousands of years ago (Langlie et al

2011) More recently however the global community became more informed about the

excellent nutritional value of these products (Repo-Carrasco 2003 Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Massawe et al 2016 Gordillo-Bastidas et al 2016) and demand is at an all-time

high (Jacobsen 2011) Quinoa has become a household word in the US and can be

found at local grocery stores This chapter will review the co-evolving history of humans

and quinoa agrodiversity in Peru along with the cultural significance and scientific

discoveries about this plant

The Fox and the Condor

The Andean people have a unique relationship with quinoa and it is involved in

ritual uses and ceremonies and is a part of Andean cosmology I was told an origin

story by an Aymara participant in this study According to ancient lore in a story called

39

The Fox and the Condor quinoa was responsible for saving the Andean people from

starving recounted below

The fox meets with the condor and wants to go to Pati which is the sky The

condor tells the fox that he must be respectful when he is there and not take or touch

anything The fox agrees and he rides on the condor to Pati When they arrive the fox

sees food and violates the agreement by eating all the food The food was there for a

ceremony but when the others arrive the food was all gone because the fox ate it The

others decide to send the fox back to earth so they prepare a rope to lower the fox back

to earth While the fox was being lowered back to earth about half way down the fox

says some bad things The others then decide to cut the cord and the fox falls to the

earth with his body exploding upon impact Since the foxrsquos stomach was full all of the

food spread across the land including the Andean grains of quinoa kantildeiwa kiwicha

and all the other Andean foods That is why these grains are called the food of the gods

ndash since they fell from the sky If any of these grains are found growing out of fox feces it

is considered good Today traditional Andean people say ldquoquinoa is our liferdquo as

described by a participant since quinoa provides sustenance for their survival

This story which is one of many about quinoa demonstrates the importance of

the native Andean foods in their cosmology as well as survival Andeans understand

the life-sustaining role quinoa and other Andean grains have in their ability to continue

living in the otherwise harsh environment

What is Quinoa

Quinoa or quinua the Spanish spelling of the word (C quinoa Willd) is a

domesticated plant that grows in both the Andes and at lower elevations in South

America and is now being grown in many countries around the world Quinoa is a

40

pseudo-cereal that has been used by South Americans for thousands of years While a

primary use is similar to grains since it is often used to make flour among other things

it is not a grass but rather is a weedy species and inhabits disturbed soil environments

(Wilson 1990) Thus quinoa is an opportunistic species which may account for its wide

variation and adaption to various climates and micro-climates

Depending on growing conditions quinoa plant height can vary from 20 cm to 2

m tall (Simmonds 1965) One gram of grains can have between 250 and 520 fruits

(Simmonds 1965) and thus the yields can be quite different Along with weight quinoa

grains also vary in size with the grain area varying from 256 to 51 mmsup2 (Medina et al

2010) again a factor that can affect yield a factor that is used by farmers for selection

discussed in later chapters Another characteristic of quinoa is that in the domesticated

varieties seed dormancy is absent and germination is rapid (Simmonds 1965) as

previously noted in the context of archaeological samples Thus the quinoa grain

exhibits a wide range of morphology which diversity is not just limited to the grains

Quinoa flowers in a variety of colors and shades of those colors The most widely

known colors are white red and black In 1960 JL Lescano described 42 color tones

and 7 basic colors of quinoa white red purple yellow gray brown and black (Ayala

Olazaacutebal 2015) Additional colors include pink orange and green Thus quinoa has a

wide range of color variation which reflects the diversity of the species at an easily

detectible morphological level Thus for human selection the color of the flower or the

grain can be used to distinguish varieties and to use as a marker for identifying co-

related characteristics beyond color

41

Where does Quinoa fit taxonomically and how is it related to other species

The purpose of taxonomic classification is to facilitate comprehension and

communicate ideas about the relationship of organisms to each other (Stevens 2002)

ldquoHierarchical naming systems pervade our whole language and thought and from this

point of view the Linnaean hierarchy is simply one such systemrdquo (Stevens 200212)

Taxonomies are not just simple descriptions but contain embedded theories about

natural order based on human perceptions of nature (Gould 2000) Thus human beliefs

and perceptions influence taxonomic categorization in attempts to organize and

understand species diversity This concept holds especially true as it relates to the on-

going categorization of varieties in the efforts to understand a diverse species such as

quinoa and its variety of usefulness to humans

Taxonomically quinoa is a member of the Amaranthaceae family The

Amaranthaceae family has dicotyledonous plants that are often halophytic herbs which

are salt-tolerant (Bhargava et al 2009) The chenopods used to be classified in the

Chenopodiaceae family but are now classified in the Amaranthaceae family with

Chenopodiaceae being a sub-family Thus there is a history of confusion and change

regarding the scientific classification of quinoa

Especially in older accounts quinoa and other chenopods have sometimes been

misidentified in the literature as being in the genus Amaranthus (Ford 1981) For

example quinoa has also been mis-identified as Amaranthus caudatus (Simmonds

1965) locally known as kiwicha and indeed this same error occurred during my field

work as further described in Chapter 4 This misidentification makes it difficult to

establish the early history of quinoa based on travelersrsquo accounts and colonial reports

In addition and more recently paleobotanical analysis of pollen often identifies the

42

pollen to the family level as Amaranthaceae rather than to genus thus limiting the

usefulness of such studies to the extent the precise species and variety is needed for

analysis

Finally another reason for the great difficulty in classifying some chenopods is

due to their polyploidy ldquoThe reasons for the taxonomic difficulties are the usual ones

encountered in polyploid complexes involving annual weedy groups viz marked

phenotypic plasticity parallel evolution and putative hybridizationrdquo (Rahiminejad and

Gornal 2004) Thus while polyploidy can lead to great diversity classification systems

attempt to be static and the classification history of quinoa demonstrates the foibles of

attempting to categorize dynamic plants Hartigan (2013) talks about the plasticity of

genomes of which quinoa is a good example The plasticity of quinoa has led to great

agrodiversity of the crop which will be discussed infra yet makes it difficult to classify in

a hierarchical system Considering the problems with classifying quinoa at a genus and

species level attempts to organize quinoa at the variety level for purposes of studying

and evaluating variety diversity are similarly problematic as further discussed in

Chapter 4

Quinoa is a tetraploid (Pickersgill 2007) which means that it is a polyploid plant

that has four times the number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus rather than a single

pair of chromosomes like humans have As a polyploid plant quinoa has genetic

complexity that can contribute to great intra-species diversity

Quinoa is a member of the Chenopodium genus which contains at least 250

species (Rana et al 2010) Other chenopods are present in other parts of the old and

new worlds In Europe lambsquarter or fat hen (C album L) was grown but apparently

43

was not a substantial crop in early history likely due to the availability of other grass

crops that can thrive at the lower elevations (Simmonds 1965) In China C giganticum

is grown for many uses (Maughan et al 2006) and thus the Chenopodium genus is

spread across the globe

Quinoa was assigned to the Chenopodium taxa as its place in the Linnaean

classification system in 1797 and two hundred years later was described as having

ldquoarchaic relictual and rather mysterious elements of the world of ethnoflorardquo (Wilson

199093) Quinoa was initially was thought to be a unique New World domesticated

Chenopodium species but in 1917 it was determined that a second domesticated

Chenopodium species C nuttalliae existed in domesticated form in Mexico (Wilson

and Heiser 1979) and thus quinoa has relatives in other parts of the New World

Alongside quinoa canihua (or kaniwa) (C pallidacuale Aellen) also grows in the Andes

Canihua can grow at higher altitudes and withstands cold better than quinoa (Repo-

Carrasco-Valencia et al 2009)

In Mexico C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae Moq is present in both domesticated and

wild forms This species has three well-known varieties known as huauzontle quelite

and chia roja (Wilson 1981 Glore 2006) In North America goosefoot (C berlandieri

ssp jonesium Moq) was also domesticated but the domesticated variety is now extinct

Wild goosefoot species including C berlandieri ssp zschackei C bushianum C

boscianum and C macrocalycium are present in North America (Maughan et al 2006

Ford 1981) The two most discussed North American species are C berlandieri ssp

zschackei and C bushianum Chenopodium berlandieri ssp zschackei extends across

the US west of the Mississippi as well as the Gulf coast and east of the Mississippi into

44

Wisconsin Illinois Michigan and part of Indiana and is infrequently in Mississippi

Alabama Georgia Florida and the Carolinas (Smith 1992) Chenopodium bushianum

has larger fruits (often called grains) and its geographical range includes much of the

Northeast and Midwest and has been found in Tennessee Alabama and South

Carolina (Smith 1992) The Chenopodium genus has a great number of species that

grow all over the world demonstrating its plasticity

It appears that quinoa was domesticated independently from goosefoot (C

berlandieri) and huauzontle (C berlandieri ssp nuttalliae) (Rana et al 2010 Pickersgill

2007) however it is not yet conclusive whether goosefoot and huauzontle were

domesticated independently (Pickersgill 2007 cf Ford 1981) Past genetic analysis

indicated that another North American species C berlandieri ssp zschackei may be

more closely related to quinoa and may perhaps be an intermediate subspecies

between quinoa and huauzontle (Rana et al 2010) especially since hybrids of quinoa

and C berlandieri ssp zschackei can produce fertile offspring (Maughan et al 2006)

Notably the three New World species discussed above quinoa goosefoot and

huauzontle are all tetraploids (Rahiminejad and Gornall 2009) which can account for

great genetic diversity It has been suggested that quinoa and C berlandieri ssp

zschackei as allotetraploids may share a common ancestor (Rana et al 2010)

Recently the quinoa genome was sequenced and compared to other species

including C berlandieri (goosefoot) C hircinum and C pallidicuale (kaniwa) The

quinoa genome has 44776 genes and the genomic analysis revealed that original

ancestry included the hybridization of two diploids labelled A of likely North American

origin and B of likely Eurasian origin (Jarvis et al 2016) This tetraploidization split

45

occurred 33 to 63 million years ago although Jarvis et al (2016) noted that there has

been some recombination between the A and B sub-genomes across time Now that the

quinoa genome has been sequenced additional genetic analysis can lead to further

hybridization of the species which may lead to more involvement by global agro-

industrial corporations which thus far have had limited success in tapping into the

quinoa market from a production standpoint While there are many smaller companies

involved in quinoa production including growing and marketing quinoa products the

large multi-national corporations that dominate many agricultural systems do not

presently dominate the quinoa market and do not grow significant yields or otherwise

dominate the quinoa market at the sales or distribution level The genetic manipulation

of quinoa can lead to the creation of new varieties that are qualified to receive a patent

and will surely bring significant changes to the global quinoa market in the future

History of Quinoa in the Andes

Humans have had a direct relationship with quinoa for thousands of years

Quinoa is a domesticated species with human selection occurring perhaps as early as

15000 years ago (Wilson 1990) although that date is not confirmed by the

archaeological record While the precise time when human manipulation of quinoa

plants began is unknown archaeological evidence indicates that quinoa was an

important agricultural product by the Formative Period 2000 BC in Peru (Bruno 2008)

Quinoa use pre-dates the Inca and Wari ceremonial vases have figures of quinoa on

them (Tapia et al 201413) Archaeologists continue to investigate Bolivian and

Peruvian archaeological sites with regard to the archaeobotany of the Lake Titicaca

Basin (Langlie et al 2011 Rumold 2010 Whitehead 2007) providing additional depth

of history and knowledge of the inception of agriculture and domestication of quinoa

46

Quinoa is often marketed in the US as the food of the Inca gods due to its

current cachet and popularity in Western diets thus associating it with its deep historical

association with a famous civilization Over the past several decades quinoa has

vaulted from a crop threatened with extinction to a popular food product readily

available in grocery stores across the US and elsewhere in the world The reputation of

quinoa has gone from low status ldquoIndian foodrdquo to high status health food The

relationship between humans and quinoa has evolved across time and is a dynamic

fluid relationship As Medin and Atran state ldquoMuch of human history has been spent

(and is being spent) in intimate contact with plants and animals and it is difficult to

imagine that human cognition would not be molded by that factrdquo (Medin and Atran

19991) The human-quinoa interspecies relationship can provide insight into the

concepts of biodiversity through understanding the knowledge of the people who have

been connected in time and space with the plant

Historically the three major agricultural foods in the Andes were maize potatoes

and quinoa (Wilson 1990) However there are limitations on growing food at elevations

over 10000 feet where quinoa is harvested (Simmonds 1965) While quinoa and

potatoes are grown in the altiplano corn is rarely grown with any success due to the

harsh climate Of these three products both corn and potato were adopted into

European diets during the colonial period but not so for quinoa and today corn and

potatoes rank among the most widely grown food products across the world

Quinoa was an important food crop in the Andes at the time of European contact

(Simmonds 1965) Quinoa was sacred to the Incas who called it chisiya mama or

mother grain (NRC 1989149) Quinoa was considered to have significance to the Inca

47

above other crops (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Quinoa was used by the Inca to produce

fermentation of chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of

harvest and sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and

so ensure prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Figure 2-1 is a depiction of Pachamama

holding quinoa based on an undated bronze artifact from an archaeological context in

Argentina

Figure 2-1 Sketch of a bronze amulet depicting Pachamama holding quinoa branches -Image credit Mintzer 193360

Thus quinoa was closely linked to spiritual beliefs and ritual practices at the time of

European contact The production of chicha using quinoa continues today as does the

reverence for Pachamama

48

Perhaps due to its ritual role Europeans did not adopt quinoa into their

agriculture (Maughan et al 2007) Plants can be perceived as having magic (Kawa

2012) In articulating several reasons for the decline in quinoa production Mujica et al

(2013) specifically listed magic

The conquistadores fear the lsquomagic quinoarsquo They believed that consuming quinoa and the religious ceremonies with quinoa were the same and they might attribute extraordinary forces to the Indians and endanger the conquest (Mujica et al 201311) This colonial concern that a plant could have the ability to empower people thus

threatening colonial conquest and domination caused the Spaniards to engage in

discrimination and suppression against quinoa to suppress this perceived powerful

alliance between quinoa and Andeans Ceremonial and ritually significant indigenous

foods such as quinoa were ldquotargeted for extinctionrdquo during the Spanish colonial period

(Wilson 1990108) European colonization dramatically affected quinoa production

relegating it to a low status food associated with the indigenous population with its

production shrinking in range through much of the 20th century (Wilson 1990)

Instead of being adopted into European cuisine quinoa remained an indigenous

local food In a report by the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG Kew) in 1909 it was

noted that quinoa was a food of the ldquoIndians or the laboring classesrdquo (RBG Kew 1909)

providing an example of the discrimination against people eating quinoa and it was

considered ldquoIndian foodrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 201526 Bazile et al 2014) a derogatory

reference based on continuing neocolonial mind-sets that considered Indians to be

inferior to either the white or the mestizo population Based on recent ethnographic

research at least in Puno quinoa sometimes is still perceived as food for poor people

with rich people eating rice noodles and chicken (Aguumlero Garcia 2014) although

49

quinoa is marketed to tourists today and there is a strong native Peruvian food

revitalization movement Thus while the production of quinoa was suppressed by the

Spaniards due to its ritual use along with neo-colonial perceptions of low social status

associated with Indians that lingered until recent globalization and coupled with

competition from other newly introduced crops as well as animals quinoa production

declined except in Andean regions where its cultural significance survived European

contact and neo-colonial discrimination against indigenous Andeans and quinoa

Besides the history of suppression and racism associated with ldquoIndian foodrdquo

another reason postulated for the reduction in quinoa production was the introduction of

sheep and cattle as alternative sources of protein (Mujica et al 2013) The increased

competition with broad beans oats and barley is yet another reason for the past decline

in quinoa production (Wilson 1990) In 1990 Wilson remarked that ldquothis leafy grain

apparently failed in direct global competition with the true cerealsrdquo (Wilson 199096)

although at the time of Wilsonrsquos publication the trend was changing and he was

apparently referring to the earlier decline across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This fact however has changed since then While Europeans failed to recognize the

value of quinoa for hundreds of years South American indigenous communities

continued to cultivate quinoa Thus much of the traditional indigenous knowledge is still

present in these farming communities and can be key to the conservation of the

biodiversity Cultural traditions therefore are very important in the understanding of

Andean agriculture and ecosystems

Perhaps quinoarsquos symbolic representation of Inca or indigenous culture coupled

with the time-consuming processing required to remove the toxic saponins (Safford

50

1968 [1915]) dissuaded Europeans from adopting quinoa into their diets Consuming

quinoa without first removing the saponins which requires vigorous abrasion of the

seeds and washing with water can have unpleasant effects on the digestive tract as

well as having an unpleasant bitter taste Either reason or perhaps both may have

contributed to the European rejection of quinoa starting with colonial times

While Europeans failed to recognize the value of quinoa for hundreds of years

South American indigenous communities managed to maintain quinoa as a

domesticated plant for personal and local consumption Indigenous Andean women are

responsible for approximately 70 of agricultural work (Tapia and De La Torre 1997)

so it is likely that women were the conservators of quinoa knowledge and diversity

through silent resistance to colonial domination Thus despite the rejection of quinoa by

European colonizers quinoa survived in remote indigenous populations that

maintained traditional knowledge and practices

While quinoa was not adopted into European cuisine it has been described

across time in various reports emanating from the Andes by European and American

explorers and scientists In 1551 Spaniard Pedro Valdivia described fields of Chilean

quinoa which he called quingua (Wilson 1990) Other early explorers including

Garcilaso de la Vega also described quinoa and stated that it resembled millet or short-

grained rice (Mujica et al 2013) Such descriptions continued into the 19th and 20th

centuries (eg Ledesma and Bollaert 1856 Jameson 1861 Forbes 1870 Milstead

1928) Ledesman and Bollaert (1856) noted that quinoa was grown on the island of

Lake Titicaca Forbes (1870) noted the different varieties of quinoa that were yellow

red and white and called it Inca rice a hint at the diversity of the crop while

51

acknowledging that it was a Chenopodium species In 1891 Safford observed the time-

consuming processing of quinoa grains in Bolivia and found it to have good flavor

(Safford 1968 [1915]) In 1931 Standley noted that quinoa was a common crop in the

Andes due to its edible seeds Thus across time explorers and researchers took note of

quinoa although it was not adopted into European cuisine and therefore not widely

known

While indigenous Andeans maintained local quinoa production botanists

continued to explore species across the globe including lesser-known plants In the

1800s Alexander von Humboldt observed that quinoa was like ldquolsquowine was to the

Greeks wheat to the Romans cotton to the Arabsrsquordquo (NRC 1989151) Quinoa was a

plant that was observed by scientists known and classified yet was not otherwise well-

known to global consumers maintaining an air of mystery to it What was this plant that

the Spaniards rejected yet that still managed to survive

In 1909 the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens issued a short report on quinoa and

noted an interest by Americans for potential import into the US (RBG Kew 1909) In

1928 quinoa was described in a published survey of Peruvian agricultural crops

(Milstead 1928) At that time it was reported to be grown in small patches but spread

out across the landscape of farms Milstead noted that quinoa provides ldquoa palatable and

nutritious article of food for the highland Indiansrdquo (Milstead 1928101) although he does

not otherwise describe how he came to the conclusion that it was a nutritious food In a

Spanish language publication Mintzer (1933) published an extensive article on the

botanical cultural and agronomic characteristics of quinoa including study in the

Peruvian altiplano and included nutritional data Mintzer (1933) also noted the presence

52

of different varieties that could be distinguished by pigmentation and ecological zone

growing conditions a noteworthy acknowledgement of the agrodiversity based on both

color and environment in which he used the terms ldquovarietiesrdquo and ldquoracesrdquo somewhat

interchangeably

While there were prior hints at the nutritional value of quinoa (eg Milstead

1928) over the past fifty years or more there have been ongoing studies of the

nutritional values of quinoa (Eg Repo-Carrasco 1991 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003

Repo de Carrasco 2014 Villa et al 2014) Much of this scholarship is based in South

America often presented at conferences but not often published in scholarly journals

and rarely in English language journals Between 1970 and 1986 there were at least 43

published papers about quinoa over half of which were in Spanish and most of which

were published in gray literature (Rafats 1986) While there was much information about

quinoa in the South American scholarly articles and gray literature not all of it is widely

distributed or easily accessible which may have also delayed its explosion onto the

world market until the scientific analysis was more widely-accessible More widespread

publications of the nutritional benefits of quinoa in English language articles along with

the growing popularity of health foods in the US and Europe led to the rise in global

consumption

The rejection of quinoa continued well past Spanish colonial domination and in

1950 Sauer reported that quinoa has now retreated from the extremities of its earlier

range but is still a characteristic food plant of the Inca-dominated Highlands (Sauer

1950) In the mid-1960s it was also reported that quinoa was in decline in Ecuador

Chile and Argentina and absent in Columbia (Simmonds 1965) In 1965 Simmonds

53

reported that quinoa had excellent protein content especially as compared to other

cereals and noted that ldquothe uses to which this plant are put are intimately bound up with

the lore and customs of the people that grow themrdquo (232) Again the nutritional value of

quinoa was noted in the scientific literature without much acclaim Simmonds (1965)

however acknowledged the meaningful interspecies relationship between quinoa and

Andeans by including the intimate connection between quinoa people and customs

In 1968 an international convention on quinoa and kantildeiwa was held in Puno

Peru organized by prominent South American scientists to demonstrate and

consolidate their efforts to emphasize the importance of Andean grains to modern

science (NRC 1989) Over a decade later some of those same South American

scientists published what the National Research Council has called a ldquomajor

collaborative work on quinoa and kaniwardquo (NRC 198913) referring to Tapia et al

1979 Notwithstanding the scholarship and efforts of Andean researchers who

extensively studied quinoa the National Research Council acknowledged that they

ldquostruggled for decades to promote them in the face of deeply ingrained prejudices in

favor of European foodrdquo (NRC 1989v) Thus not only were quinoa and other Andean

products disparaged as inferior ldquoIndian foodrdquo the efforts by Andean scholars were also

affected by this bias

Events occurred in the 1970s and 1980s that would lead quinoa to the global

market The scientific community continued to study quinoa including its nutritional

value and in 1975 scientists reported that quinoa was ldquoa little known plant hellip with a

high protein contentrdquo that could contribute to food security if problems associated with

processing were resolved (Brown and Pariser 1975) referring to the saponin removal

54

process Scientific interest in quinoa started to increase and in 1980 in Peru the

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria established the Programa de Cultivos

Andinos which included investigations into quinoa (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Across the

border international marketing of Bolivian quinoa began in 1983 when the national

quinoa growers association was established (ANAPQUI) (Jacobsen 2011) The main

producers and exporters of quinoa currently are in Bolivia and Peru Quinoa is also

cultivated in Colombia Ecuador Argentina and Chile (Medina et al 2010) Quinoa is

also grown in lesser amounts in various countries around the world

In 1986 the FAO defined quinoa as a strategic food crop for the Andes and later

acknowledged its high nutritional value Based on this acclaim by a world-renowned

organization quinoa was no longer a ldquosecond-rate productrdquo (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015 26)

The National Research Council collaborated with over 600 scientists to produce a book

in 1989 called ldquoLost Crops of the Incasrdquo led by Dr Hugh Popenoe of the University of

Florida and included quinoa as one of the so-called lost crops These crops including

the ldquoglowing grainsrdquo of quinoa were aptly described in connection with the Andean

people (NRC 19893) The NRCrsquos comparison of the racialized ldquolargely pure-blooded

Indianrdquo citizenry of the Andes and the treatment of the ldquolost cropsrdquo including the

ldquoglowing grainsrdquo (19893) exemplifies the co-relationship between plants and people

through cultural and class affiliation Indian peopleIndian food The NRC commented

that ldquoBecause it is now primarily a food of campesinos and poorer classes increasing

its production is a good way to improve the diets of the most needy sector of societyrdquo

(NRC 1989150) Thus even in 1989 quinoa was still considered food for the poor with

both viewed together through a socio-economic lens

55

The relationship between quinoa and Andeans was also noted by Wilson (1990)

who similarly observed the relationship between the race of people and the status of

quinoa in a paper published in 1990 he noted the importance of ldquointact cropweed

complexesrdquo where the wild parent plants or ldquoweedsrdquo co-exist side-by-side with the

domesticated varieties or ldquocropsrdquo and that they were found in what he called ldquorefugial

areasrdquo associated with indigenous communities with strong cultural traditions including

the Andes (Wilson 1990108) These ldquorefugial areasrdquo (Wilson 1990108) provided a

place for both indigenous Andeans and quinoa to survive the pressures and changes

from the outside world Wilson observed as other scientists before him that there was

a strong association and connection between traditional indigenous presence and

culture and the survival of the quinoa agricultural complex Thus human diversity and

plant diversity thrived side-by-side just as the weeds and domesticates continued to live

side-by-side Andean indigenous culture and the quinoa agricultural complex both

survived colonialism due to the interspecies relationship and dependency Thus while

Wilson could observe as recently as 1990 that quinoa was in a downward spiral from a

production standpoint struggling to survive much as their human Andean counterparts

prior literature regarding the nutritional value hinted at things to come Over time the

world re-discovered what the Andeans already knew quinoa is a high-value nutritional

food source worthy of consumer attention and acclaim as demonstrated by its

noteworthy rise on the world market and place on grocery shelves across the Western

world

Resurgence of Quinoa

Quinoa gained international attention in 1993 from a report by NASA in which it

was identified as suitable for astronauts on long-term space missions (Bubenheim and

56

Schlick 1993) Due to its high protein value and unique combination of amino acids

including lysine NASA concluded that it is a food that can provide life-sustaining

nutrients from one species Interestingly NASA noted the varying colors of quinoa and

speculated that the colors are associated with ldquoeco-typesrdquo hinting at diversity of the

species but not further explaining the significance of these factors or what they mean by

ldquoeco-typerdquo The results of this NASA report had a significant effect on the worldwide

market If quinoa was a premium food for astronauts it was a commodity that health

food stores certainly wanted in stock Gradually the quinoa market in the US

expanded from health food stores to mainstream grocers

Twenty years after the NASA report the United Nations (UN) named 2013 to be

the Year of Quinoa (UN Resolution 66221 22 December 2011) (UN 2011b) This

proclamation elevated quinoa to an exclusive club alongside other UN designated

years including lofty goals such as education human rights peace literacy biodiversity

and sustainable energy to name a few The reason that quinoa achieved such

accolades by the UN was due to its high nutritional status The resolution seeking this

status stated the importance of quinoa and of the indigenous people who grow it (UN

2011b)

Recognizing that Andean indigenous peoples through their traditional knowledge and practices of living well in harmony with mother earth and nature have maintained controlled protected and preserved quinoa in its natural state including its many varieties and landraces as food for present and future generations Affirming the need to focus world attention on the role that quinoa biodiversity plays owing to the nutritional value of quinoa in providing food security and nutrition the eradication of poverty in support of the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals including the Millennium Development Goals and the outcome document of the High-Level Plenary Meeting on the Millennium Development Goals

57

Recalling the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (13-17 November 1996) the Declaration of the World Food Summit five years later (10-13 June 2002) and the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (16-18 November 2009) Affirming the need to heighten public awareness of the nutritional economic environmental and cultural properties of quinoa The recognition given to this traditional food crop by the UN is linked to important

issues including global food security and eradication of poverty Notably the UN

acknowledged that traditional Andean practices and relationship with nature have

conserved quinoa varieties for future generations This UN declaration acknowledged

the scientific contributions of the traditional Andean farmers and also emphasized the

environmentally-sensitive sustainable traditional farming practices they need Notably

the UN declaration points out that the Andean people preserved the biodiversity of the

quinoa agricultural complex including its ldquonatural state including its many varieties and

landracesrdquo (UN 2011b) This statement harkens to Wilsonrsquos (1990) observation about

the importance of the intact ldquocropweedrdquo complex associated with the indigenous people

who maintained this agricultural strategy Thus the selection of quinoa as the focus of a

UN ldquoyear ofrdquo sends multiple messages about the relationship of quinoa to the Andean

people and their harmonious farming practices and traditions and their joint

contributions to the world including the biodiversity maintenance of varieties drawing

an interesting parallel between plants and humans where diversity maintenance can

lead to worldwide contributions to humanity including global-scale food security and

support of UN Millennium Goals

What is interesting about quinoa is that it is a relative newcomer to the world

market Since 1959 the UN has elevated three crops to the ldquoYear ofrdquo status rice

58

(2004) potato (2008) quinoa (2013) (UN nd) and more recently pulses (legumes

including beans peas lentils and chickpeas) (UN 2016) While both potato and quinoa

originated in the Andes and were domesticated there of the two only the potato was

taken to Europe during early colonization by Spain and adopted into foodways across

the globe While quinoa was part of the Andean diet when the Spaniards arrived it was

not adopted into European diets and was relegated the status of ldquoIndian foodrdquo Thus

for quinoa to achieve UN recognition a mere five years after the potato is a remarkable

shift in status While both have been lauded by the UN a distinction between potatoes

and quinoa is the relative nutritional value of these products with quinoa being highly

nutritional compared to potato as has been revealed by recent scientific investigation

While quinoa is a crop that is endemic to the Andes it is presently being grown in

various countries across the globe (Figure 2-2) According to FAO databases however

the only countries that export quinoa in quantity are Bolivia Peru and Ecuador

although it is grown in all the Andean countries as well as scattered locations across

the world including the US and Canada

Source Bazile et al 2014

Figure 2-2 Quinoa Producers 2013

59

The expansion of quinoa production beyond the Andean countries is fairly recent

although there were some noteworthy earlier efforts including in Kenya and the US

Figure 2-3 shows plots the growth in the number of UN countries that grow quinoa from

1900 to 2014

Source Bazile et al 2016

Figure 2-3 Percentage of UN Countries growing or experimenting with quinoa

The interest in quinoa as a global food product sharply increased in conjunction with

increased scientific and development efforts as well as the recognition due to the UN

Year of Quinoa Thus quinoa now has widespread global acceptance and other

countries are growing or attempting to grown quinoa This chart tracks the history of

quinoa outlined above and shows that an increase in global production was associated

with significant historical events including the formation of the quinoa producers

association in Bolivia in the early 1980s to the expanded scientific investigation from

the 1980s to the present

60

Peru Bolivia and Ecuador are the only significant sources of quinoa for export

more countries are involved in growing quinoa or conducting research on how to grow

quinoa under their climate conditions While the FAO does not list the US as a quinoa

exporter it is being grown in various locations including Colorado Washington

Oregon California and Utah There are different companies in the US that are involved

in quinoa sales including Ancient Harvests Quinoa Corporation Quinoa Foods

Company Keen One Quinoa Inca Organics Eden Foods Alter Eco Foods Quaker

Oats and Trader Joersquos The Ancient Harvests company claims to be the first company

to import quinoa into the US from Bolivia in 1983 Farms in the US that grow quinoa

include White Mountains Farm in Colorado and Lundberg Family Farms in California

Quinoa is also grown in Canada and Northern Quinoa Production Company both grows

and markets quinoa products While the global quinoa market is dominated by Peru and

Bolivia and Ecuador to a lesser extent production has expanded across the globe and

there is no doubt that there will be a larger global presence in the future including large

multi-national industrial agriculture corporations

Scientific Investigation into the Nutritional Benefits of Quinoa

Based on its unique history of being an important ritual food then suppressed by

the Spanish then once again returning to high acclaim by the scientific community

quinoa has left its mark on the global stage This section reviews scientific investigation

into the nutritional qualities and values of quinoa

Quinoa is high in protein especially as compared to other cereal crops (Table 2-

3 Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) While Repo-Carrasco et al (2003) found that quinoa had

144 g100 g of protein the actual protein contents vary 12-17 depending on the

variety (Murphy et al 2016)

61

Table 2-1 Comparative nutritional value of quinoa

PRODUCT PROTEIN CONTENT g100g FAT CONTENT g100g

QUINOA 144 6 COMMON RYE 134 18 BARLEY 118 18 OATS 116 52 CORN 111 49 ENGLISH WHEAT 105 26 RICE 91 22

Source Data compiled from Repo-Carrasco et al 2003181

Quinoa contains amino acids that are similar to casein which is milk protein

(Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) ldquoThe amino acid content of the quinoa grainacutes protein

meets the amino acid requirements recommended for preschool children school

children and adultsrdquo (UN 2011a) Thus quinoa provides an important protein for human

growth and is likened to the importance of milk in a childrsquos modern diet Beyond its

protein content quinoa contains high calcium magnesium iron copper and zinc

content In addition to the grains quinoa leaves also contain protein as well as calcium

phosphorous and iron (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003)

Quinoa contains fatty acids that are about 82 unsaturated (Repo-Carrasco et

al 2003) Since it contains omega 3 and omega 6 it helps reduce LDL (or bad

cholesterol) and helps raise HDL (or good cholesterol) (UN 2011a) Quinoa also

contains tocopherols as Vitamin E which is an antioxidant This protects cell

membranes against free radical attack thus providing additional health benefits (Repo-

Carrasco et al 2003)

The carbohydrates in quinoa seeds contain between 58 and 68 starch and 5

sugar Quinoa is also a good energy source that is slowly released into the body due to

its high fiber content (UN 2011a)

62

In addition to the high nutritional value quinoa also has a high percentage of total

dietary fiber As such quinoa is a food that can be used to detoxify the body (UN

2011a) Quinoa also has the ability to absorb water and remain for a longer period of

time in the stomach (UN 2011a) The dietary fiber in quinoa promotes intestinal transit

and regulates cholesterol (UN 2011a)

Interestingly quinoa has two phytoestrogens deaidzein and cenisteina These

two phytoestrogens help prevent osteoporosis In addition they may alleviate disorders

caused by the lack of estrogen during menopause (UN 2011a) Due to these various

properties of quinoa it certainly deserves the title ldquosuperfoodrdquo

Quinoa is also gluten free and provides an excellent alternative to grains such as

wheat (Repo-Carrasco et al 2003) Some studies indicate that the consumption of

quinoa by people with celiac disease improves their condition (UN 2011) Thus quinoa

is an alternative food source for populations with food sensitivities Quinoa is now being

touted as an alternative for a gluten-free diet has anti-oxidant characteristics linked to

cancer preventions (Villa et al 2014) and has anti-inflammatory effects (Yao et al

2014) all of which are prevalent health concerns today

Fueled by studies of quinoarsquos nutritional value which is now well-known the

global market has expanded and consumer choices across the world can affect the

farming practices of Andeans The next section discusses the Andean uses of quinoa

which is also a part of the deep history of this human-plant relationship

How do Andeans Utilize Quinoa

Prior to the globalization of quinoa the crop was primarily used for personal

consumption and was not historically a cash crop (Jacobsen 2011) While globalization

has changed quinoa into a cash crop Andeans still use quinoa and this section

63

describes the current uses of quinoa by Andeans Many commercial quinoa products

are currently available on the Peruvian consumer food market (Figure 2-4) All parts of

the plants can be used for various products and uses While Andean people primarily

consumed quinoa as food it also has a variety of other uses including medicinal ritual

cultural artistic industrial and for animal forage In acknowledging the link between

traditional culture and biodiversity Skarbo (2014) found that those who eat more

traditional foods maintain higher levels of farm diversity both between and within

species Thus having a strong tradition of quinoa use has a positive correlation with

agrodiversity and the variety of Andean uses for quinoa demonstrates this link

Various parts of the plant have different uses Quinoa grains are the primary

focus of production although other parts of the plant including the flower stems and

leaves also have economic value The leaves are similar to spinach and are also

consumed either as a salad or potherb (Simmonds 1965) Thus while quinoa is

commonly associated today as a nutritious grain the quinoa plant is very productive

and plays a diverse role in Andean culture and economy

Figure 2-4 Quinoa kantildeihua and kiwicha products Image Credit Deborah Andrews

2012

64

Food

As previously noted quinoa is an important Andean food product Quinoa is

consumed as a part of any meal of the day including snacks Quinoa varieties can have

different flavors which can sometimes be distinguished based on the color although

there are also flavor distinctions within the same color but based on different varieties

In addition the texture varies based on variety with some varieties preferred for certain

recipes and uses Different quinoa varieties have culinary qualities that are used for

different cooking purposes For example chullpi is used for soups pasankalla is used

for toasting altiplano is used for flour and real is used for pissara or grains (Mujica et

al 2001) Black quinoa is harder to cook and harder to grind for flour Thus Andeans

have distinct culinary uses for the different types or varieties of quinoa which

underscores the relevance of agrodiversity The selection of quinoa varieties based on

culinary uses is further explored in Chapter 4 which focuses on agrodiversity and

farmer variety selection

Grain Products

The grain is the primary focus of quinoa production Andeans frequently

consume quinoa in the form of grain which is boiled with two parts water and one part

quinoa similar to rice The grains can be used in many recipes in the place of rice

although in the Andes rice appears to be more frequently consumed than quinoa The

grains are often used to make porridge and soups A common Andean dish is peske

which is boiled quinoa served with milk as depicted in Figure 2-5 The variety used for

the peske that I was served was kancolla which has a large grain so it can be prepared

like rice In addition to boiling the grain can be toasted or puffed

65

Figure 2-5 Peske Image Credit Deborah Andrews 2014

Since the time of the Inca quinoa has been used to produce fermentation of

chicha which was used in religious rituals for the Andean seasons of harvest and

sowing and to thank Pachamama or Earth Mother for her generosity and so ensure

prosperity (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) In Quechua culture Isbell (1978) observed that

quinoa was added to corn-based chicha to make a special ritual drink called machka

celebrating the first planting of the season Andeans also presently prepare a juice from

quinoa usually made with orange juice Indeed chicha is widely available in Peru

beyond the Andes and is a symbol of national pride and patrimony

A more trendy use of quinoa is the manufacture of protein bars containing

combinations of quinoa and other products such as peanuts kiwicha or cantildeihua which

are sold in modern grocery stores in Peru These bars are similar in style and

convenience to granola bars and appear to be a more recent modern consumer

product since I did not see these bars being either sold or consumed in small stores in

villages or by farmers

66

Processed Quinoa

While raw quinoa grain is the primary form of the product that is sold

commercially and for export there is also a market for products that are further

processed and used in forms other than as raw grain Processed quinoa products can

be found in Peruvian grocery stores and include items such as quinoa flour as well as

products made using quinoa flour such as pasta There are a variety of modern recipes

for quinoa using either the grains or milled flour The grains are milled into flour for

baking purposes for bread and other products Based on my use of quinoa flour it

makes a stiffer product than wheat flour so it is not necessarily an acceptable substitute

for bread wheat flour unless a firmer product is desired such as in crisp cookies

Quinoa is also milled to make flakes which can be used as a breakfast food or added

to yogurt smoothies purees soups and drinks (Montoya Restrepo et al 2005) Quinoa

smoothies can be purchased from roadside vendors in Puno as a quick portable

breakfast Other Peruvian retail products include a breakfast porridge that combines

quinoa flakes with oatmeal A limited variety of quinoa products are sold in retail stores

in the United States including pasta and baby food

In the Andes one of the local complaints about consuming quinoa relates to the

length of time it takes to prepare If the quinoa grain has not been processed past the

winnowing stage the grain needs to be further prepared before cooking This important

step is the removal of the saponins Due to the mild toxicity of the saponins they need

to be removed prior to cooking This is done by abrading the grain to remove the outer

layer as well as washing the grains and disposing of the waste-water For quinoa that is

exported on the global market the saponin removal process can occur at different

stages of the distribution chain including by the end-use consumer However most

67

quinoa on the US market today already has the saponin removed with no additional

rinsing needed by the consumer although this was not always the case

Another time-consuming tedious process is the grinding of quinoa into flour The

traditional method of milling quinoa is to actually grind the grains on a mill stone using

an oblong stone tool as depicted in Figure 2-6 One informant said that when he was a

child when he came home from school he would have to grind quinoa using the grind

stone before he could go out to play He said that he resents quinoa due to this

childhood chore While modern electric mills are now available the female informants

agreed that stone ground quinoa tastes better than the modern processing and that they

can tell the difference in flavor between the two milling practices A problem of

modernization however is that at least in the Juli region south of Puno the man who

makes the stone grinding tools is getting old and no one else in the area is known to

make the stone grinding tools COOPAIN has an industrial mill at their processing plant

in Cabana for the members to mill their quinoa into flour for personal consumption

Figure 2-6 Aymara woman grinding quinoa using the traditional stone tools Image

credit Deborah Andrews 2014

68

Masamora is a dish made with quinoa flour with added calcium obtained from

rocks Figure 2-7 depicts masamora along with other quinoa food products Masamora

is cooked into a paste-like dish usually eaten for breakfast Krsquoispina is steamed quinoa

dough Many families have their own special krsquoispina recipe for lunch as well as for trips

Traditional Andeans also use krsquoispina formed into special shapes for ritual ceremonial

purposes

Figure 2-7 Display of traditional quinoa products Image credit Deborah Andrews

2014

Medicine

While scientists are studying medicinal values of quinoa (Vega-Gaacutelvez et al

2010 Yao et al 2014 Navruz-Varley and Sanlier 2016) various parts of the quinoa

plant are used in traditional Aymara medicine (UN 2011) as well as Quechua medicine

The seeds leaves and stems are used to cure many diseases (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015)

Traditional healing uses include as an antiseptic gargle heartburn relief constipation

relief nausea relief as a poultice as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory (UN

2011a) In addition quinoa is traditionally used to treat liver problems tonsillitis fever

69

urinary problems contusions hemorrhages bowel disorders wounds insect bites loss

of blood irritation loss of appetite loss of strength insomnia headache dizziness

anemia loss of focus and to prevent osteoporosis (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Thus in

addition to having an important role as a food product in Andean diets quinoa also is

traditionally used for a variety of medical ailments

Ajara or wild quinoa which is black colored is normally used for traditional

medicine usually by community members who specialize in healing Traditional

medicine can be purchased at the open-air farmersrsquo markets in Puno Ajara is not

normally used for consumption because it does not taste good since it is bitter

however it is used for medicinal purposes such as paste placed on the body next to

broken bones The black quinoa has more saponin than the other varieties and is used

for medicine against cancer and diabetes based on folk knowledge Recent research

on saponins in quinoa have linked it to anti-inflammatory properties (Yao et al 2014)

providing scientific support for traditional Andean medicine Based on this recent

scientific confirmation of medicinal values black quinoa is now fetching a higher price

since it is considered to have medicinal value which is being more widely-reported and

studied In other parts of the world C album has been used for medicinal purposes

(Bharagava et al 2009) Scientific analysis has revealed that Chenopodium has

antibacterial antifungal anti-parasitic anthelmintic antispasmodic antipruritic and

antinociceptive properties (Bharagava et al 2009) Thus properties of quinoa have

medicinal value and research into the variety distinctions from a medicinal or

therapeutic perspective can potentially contribute to efforts to conserve agrodiversity

70

Another medicinal use of quinoa is in relation to the practice of chewing coca In

the Andes coca is often used to alleviate symptoms of hypoxia related to the high

altitude and is also used as a stimulant which can also suppress hunger Alkaline from

the ash of burned quinoa stems (lliptu) is used for coca chewing (Simmonds 1965) The

stems of the quinoa plant are still considered to be the best for this purpose as

compared to other kinds of plants Thus quinoa has a variety of traditional and

scientifically confirmed medical benefits and the correlation of the beneficial properties

with certain varieties can provide impetus to conserve agrodiversity

Ritual Uses

Andean farmers have a close relationship with nature Many believe in

Pachamama or Earth Mother as well as the presence of spirits in the rivers springs

and tombs This cosmology also extends to sharing quinoa with other species such as

birds as exemplified by the lack of vigor to some degree in keeping birds away from

their crop because they do not want the birds to ldquocryrdquo This spiritual religion is a close

relationship between life and the actions of the farmer in the fields (Ayala Olazaacutebal

2015)

As noted above Andeans ferment quinoa to make chicha (Simmonds 1965)

Chicha is fermented with quinoa and is involved in religious and magical ancestral

ceremonies in giving to the Earth (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) This is likely one of the most

well-known ritual and culturally-laden uses of quinoa linked to Andean cosmology

Traditional Andeans make different shapes by hand from a quinoa flour

preparation called krsquoispina as noted above which are used for different festivals and

celebrations including the Carnival celebration and All Saints Day During the San Juan

Festival which is in June some people make animal shapes with this form of quinoa

71

The San Juan Festival is the day of the farmer Families have specific shapes that they

use for this product and community members recognize who made the product due to

their trademark-like shape Among the Aymara quinoa dough was used to make

figurines and shapes such as babies llamas and wreaths for use at funerals (Buechler

and Buechler 1971) Thus quinoa is not only symbolic it is used to make other

symbols

One quinoa variety has alternating white and red panicles on the same plant

Andeans usually do not eat this variety which is called miste misti misa quinua misa

jiura or mistiza but it is used in Pachamama rituals There is a ceremonycelebration

for Pachamama in which there are offerings of quinoa corn habas and guinea pig

blood The reason they use guinea pig blood is because guinea pigs reproduce quickly

and the farmers are asking Pachamama for a high yield agricultural production

Consumer Products

Quinoa can also be processed for products such as oils starch saponin and

coloring (UN 2011a) These extractions are used to produce a variety of consumer

products such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (UN 2011a) Saponins are a mixture

of triterpene glycosides and over 100 different saponins have been identified in quinoa

(Jarvis et al 2017) Saponins are mildly toxic so they are extracted before

consumption and can then be used for other items making it an efficient use of the

plant Quinoa is also used to make industrial alcohol cartons paper starch flour oil

shampoo creams detergent and industrial colorants (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Red

quinoa is used to redden lips as well as for dye

72

Animal Forage

The quinoa plant is also used for livestock forage Waste leaves and stems are

used for livestock feed for their high protein content (Ayala Olazaacutebal 2015) Animals

however cannot consume the dried stalks One study suggests that quinoa be grown in

Colombia as sustainable forage for livestock (Rosero et al 2010) Thus quinoa can be

marketed as livestock forage which may be appealing in locations where grass does

not grow well

During this study a local professor suggested that there should be development

projects introducing more chickens to Andean farms since there is a lot of quinoa grain

waste during harvesting The chickens could feed upon the quinoa that falls to the

ground during the harvest thereby providing a nutritious animal feed Indeed chickens

were ready to eat quinoa during threshing and provided a source of humor for me while

I observed farming demonstrations

One problem with introducing more chickens to the Andes is that they need to

become acclimated to the lower-oxygen environment much like humans so the

introduction of chickens from lower elevations can be problematic The alternative would

be to breed the chickens acclimated to the highlands Chickens can thrive at the high

elevations but while I observed chickens on many farms there often were less than 10

chickens and therefore appeared to be for household egg production rather than

commercial production Large scale egg production occurs in Bolivia with eggs shipped

into Peru and the Bolivian chickens have apparently adapted to the environmental

conditions

73

Fuel

The dried stalks left over from quinoa processing can be used for fuel When it is

available it is used for fuel in earthen ovens that are constructed to bake potatoes and

oca The quinoa stalks are used to start the fire and get the embers going The root

foods are poured in the oven then the oven is then collapsed during cooking (Figures 2-

8)

A B

C D Figure 2-8 Series of Steps in Using an Earthen Oven A) Lighting fire with quinoa

stems B) Pouring potatoes and oca into oven C) View of potatoes and oca in oven and D) Collapsing of earthen oven for baking process Image credit Deborah Andrews 2015

74

There are a variety of uses for the different parts of the quinoa plants In addition

to the traditional and ongoing Andean uses of quinoa as well as expanded use by other

consumers there are also industrial applications of quinoa Figure 2-9 displays an array

of quinoa uses including applications that were not observed as part of this study but

which shows the production potential of quinoa for a variety of uses both traditional and

non-traditional

Source httpwwwfaoorgquinoa-2013faqsen Accessed March 13 2017

Figure 2-9 Industrial Uses of Quinoa

Negative Local Health Effects

One of the issues that has arisen in relation to the popularity of quinoa is the

indirect effects it may have on the health of the local communities The reason for the

concern is due to the increase in the price for quinoa and the effect the price increase