KPLI – Education Studies

THEMES

Theme 1

Philosophy of Education, curriculum

and role of teacher

Theme 2

Student development, Process of teaching and learning and its effects

Theme 3

Profesionalisme of Teachers

KPLI – Education Studies

Theme 2

Theories of learning – 6 hrs - Behaviourism - Cognitive - Humanistic - Constructivism Models of teaching – 5 hrs - Expository - Inquiry - Discovery - Discussion Method of Teaching- 7 hrs - Discussion - Demonstration - Problem-solving - Group teaching - Simulation - Project - Team Teaching Lesson Planning – 3 hrs

Theme 3

Reflective teaching – 5 hrs - Meaning of reflective practioner - Process of reflective teaching - Follow- up actions

Teacher in the new millennium – 5 hrs

Relationship with society - Teachers’ Code of Ethnics - Accountability

Educational changes - Smart School education - Globalisation of education - The knowledge worker

INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES

What is learning? What are the learning theory? What are the learning theories? Why educators need to know

learning theories?

INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES What to cover in each theories?

Definition of learning theory? What is learning according to the mentioned learning

theories? What are the assumptions underlying the mentioned

learning theories? What are the principles of the mentioned learning theories? What are the major learning concepts highlighted in

mentioned learning theories? What are some of the instructional application of

behavorist learning theories or implication on classroom teaching learning? ( Focus on major learning concepts in each learning theories

What are your personal comment on applicablity and the limitations of the mentioned learning theories?

Before advent of behaviorism Structuralism – look inside their mind and describe what people think (introspection)More objective approach which focus onobservable phenomena called behaviorist approachBehavoirism investigate the observable behavior of organisms ( humans, animals) resulting fromexposure to different stimuli (reinforcement, punishment, conditioning)

There many ways that learning can take place Learning theories can be grouped into

behavioral, cognitive, humanistic and constructivist.

Behavioral – learning as change in form or frequency of observable behavior.

Cognitive – learning as a mental activity that entails internal acitivity and structuring

Humanistic – Learning is influenced by individual differences – needs and attitude towards learning.

Constructivist – Learning is creating meaning from experience

LEARNING THEORISTS

LEARNING THEORIES

BEHAVOIRISPAVLOVWATSONSKINNER

THORNDIKE

NEOBEHAVOIRIS (SOSIAL)BANDURA

KOGNTIFMAX WERTHEIMERKOFKA & KOHLER

BRUNERGAGNE

AUSUBELPIAGET

HUMANISCARL ROGERS

ABRAHAM MASLOWCOMBS

CONSTRUCTIVISTPIAGET (COGNITIVE)VYGOTSKY (SOCIAL)

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY

Assumption

– equipotentiality between human and animals, termed organism- Blank slate organism not predisposed to behave in particular ways- We are biological machines and do not consciously act rather we react to stimuli- Emphasis on observable and measurable behaviors (behavioral objective, criterion-reference assessment)Study – generalized but naturalistics

Primary Focus – Observable behavior - Stimulus-response connectionsLearning is a result of environmental forces

- learner is stimulated by environment and

passively adapts to the circumstances

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY

Learning

Learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviourLearning is is acquisition of new behaviour without referring to mental processLearning is a result of environmental forcesLearner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to the circumstances

BEHAVIORIST THEORIST

Classical Conditioning (Respondent) Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning (Instrumental) Edward L.Thorndike Burrhus Frederic Skinner John B Watson Social Learning (Observational) Bandura

BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING

Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior

Learning is explained without referring to the mental process but depend on investigations of relationship among stimuli, responses and the consequences of behavior

Knowledge base – declarative knowledge in the form of rules, concepts and discrimination

Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-response, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology

Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and discount mental activities

Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning

Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the environment and response (R) by an organism

BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and

discount mental activities Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our

conditioning Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the

environment and response (R) by an organism Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-

response, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology

The environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines whether the behavior will occur again

BEHAVIORIST THEORY OF LEARNING

Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning Learning is explained without referring to the mental process but depend on investigations of relationship among stimuli, responses and the consequences of behaviorLearning is viewed as adapting to the environment and is seen largely as a passive processAssume learner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to the circumstancesBehaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and discount mental activitiesCriterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the environment and response (R) by an organism Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-response, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychologyThe environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines whether the behavior will occur again

Behavorism – How does learning occur? Learning is change in either the form or frequency of

observable performance or behaviour Learning is demonstrated following the presentation of a

specific environmental stimulus Primary concern is how the association between the stimulus

and response is made, strengthened or maintained Responses followed by reinforcement are more likely to occur

in the future Learner and environmental factors – the arrangement of

stimuli and consequences within the environment Example Flashcard (stimulus) Answer (response)Praise (good

conseqence) Promote overt performance by manipulation of stimulus

material Learner – reactive to conditions in environment rather than

being active Focus on the importance of the consequences of those

performances – response followed by reinforcement more likely to occur in future

Behavorism – Which factors influence learning?

Environmental conditions The arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the

enironment Which point to begin instruction and which reinforcers are

most effective

Behavorism – Representations of the learning process

Stimulus –Response Reinforced Behavior ABC - Antecendent Behavior Consequence (The environment

presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines whether the behavior will occur again)

Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical limited steps

BEHAVIORIST- Assumption and principles

Assumption- equipotentiality between human and animals, termed organism

Blank slate – organism not predisposed to behave in particular ways

We are biological machines and do not consciously act rather we react to stimuli

Emphasis on observable and measurable behaviors ( behavioral objective, criterion-reference assessment)

Use cue, shaping and practice to ensure strong stimulus-response association ( simple to complex practice, use of prompts)

Use feedback to modify behavior Knowledge is mind independent and can be mapped onto a

learner Learning happens when a correct response is

deomonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus

- Use discrimination (recalling of facts )- Use generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts)- Use associations (applying explanations)- Use chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)- Emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes in students (behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced assessment)- Mastering early to complex level of performance (sequencing instructional presentation,mastery of learning)- Use of hints or cues that guide students to desired behavior( Use instructional cues to elicit correct response- Use of shaping (build fluency by getting response closer and closer to correct response)- Use of Practice (practice paired with target stimuli practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association (simple to complex sequencing of practice, arrange practice situations,use of prompts)- Use reinforcement for correct response and to impact performance (tangible rewards,informative feedback)- Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice)- Ancedent Behavior Consequence ( Use consequence to reinforce desired behavior – disipline)

Behavoirist theory – Application For Instructional and learning strategies

Russian physiologist who develop the theory of learning called the classical conditioning When a stimulus (meat) is repeatedly presented in association with one or more other stimuli (bell), those other stimuli begin to elicit a similar response (salivation)Classical conditioning is important in the learning of emotional responses

Pavlov - Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning - a natural reflex to a stimulus Also known as respondent conditioning Learning an involuntary response to a particular stimulus eg

fearful reaction to bees can be explained by classical conditioning

Experiment on dog salivation and conditioned reflexes Step 1 NS (bell) (no response) Step 2 NS (bell) UCS ( Meat) UCR (salivate) Step 3 CS (bell) CR ( salivate) Change of dog behavior due to experience A form of signal learning – conditioned stimulus serves as a

signal that the unconditioned stimulus is coming Useful in understanding a variety of involuntary responses Pavlov classical conditioning- a form of learning through

association

Classical conditioning- Higher Order Step 1 NS (bell) UCS (meat) UCR (salivate) Step 2 CS (bell) CR (salivate) Step 3 NS (light) CS (bell) CR (salivate) Step 4 CS (light) CR ( salivate) Example

Failure ---punishment Presentation associated with failure Test another situation . Test develop anxiety, phobias

Basic concepts in Classical conditioning

Extinction

- Disappearance of a conditioned response when a

conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the

unconditoned stimulus is called extinction

Spontaneous recovery

- Reccurence of response after extinction

Stimulus Generalization

- Respond to other stimulus the same way the repond to

conditioned stimuli ( eg fear of rat – all fury stuff)

Stimulus discrimination

-Learn a conditioned response to CS+ ( high pitch+ meat) but

does not generalize to response to CS- (low pitch without meat)

Classical conditioning – application/implication Conditioning – disipline – bell – line up Higher Conditioning eg Pairing – Picture

with words, Diagrams with formulae Generalization – Use various related

examples Discrimination – Article summary Reinforcement – praises Law of Exercise – sufficient excercises and

practice

J Watson – Psychologist, founder of American behavoirismAll learning is a matter of response that are selected and sequencedEmphasized the need for focussing on observable behaviors rather than nonobservable behaviorsInfluenced by work of pavlov- adopted the classically conditioned S-R as basic unit of learningAsserted that past experience accounts for virtually all behaviorExtreme environmentalism, denied any effect on behavior by hereditary factorsExperiment – Rat and 11 year old AlbertRat – Intially Albert no fear, play with itRat pair with noise – Albert develop fearRat and other furry things – Albert fearPrinciples developed- Emotional responses are conditioned to various stimuli as a result of pairings that occur between conditioned stimuli such as distinctive sound, smell, sight or anger- Emotional responses can spread to stimuli to which they have not been conditional, but that resemble conditioned stimuli~ It is possible to condition negative emotional reactions by repeatedly pairing a stimulus oridinarily associated with some negative emotion with another distinctive stimulus

Watson ‘Little Albert Experiment’

Law of frequencyThe more frequently a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger that S-R habit will become

Law of recencyThe response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus

Watson’s theory All behaviour can be learned through conditioning – positive

behaviour can be taught by using suitable stimulus To master skills of solving problems, pupil ought to relate the

relationship between all responses systematically Use suitable stimulus - motivation Assert that people’s behavior can be controlled through the

judiciuos and clever arrangement of stimulus and response -Lends itself to rigid prescriptions for child rearing and education as well as for training and control in the military and industry

Law of frequencyThe more frequently a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger that S-R habit will become

Law of recencyThe response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus

TEORI WATSON - APPLIKASI Kemungkinan reaksi emosi seseorang kepada pelbagai situasi mungkin dipelajari melalui pelaziman lazim. Contohnya:

Seseorang merasa gementar apabila melihat guru disiplin. Mungkin sebelum ini dia telah melakukan kesalahan dan telah didenda. Ini menyebabkan ia takut. Pembelajaran tetang emosi, sikap, idea dapat dipelajari disekolah.Kadang-kadang pembelajaran emosi dapat menganggu pembelajaran akademik.

Proposed the principles of operant conditioning Use term reinforcer instead of reward The consequence of behavior determine the probability

that the behavior will occur again Learning is a function of change in overt behavior Humans are trainable with stimulus-response techniques Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s theory A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired

response. Positive reinforcement – verbal praise Negative reinforcement – increased frequency of a

response when it is withdrawn Shaping – reinforcing sucessive approximations to the

desired behavior

Law of extinction A response that is not followed by a reinforcing

stimulus is weaken and therefore less likely to occur again

Acknowledge the existence of thought, reflected in verbal behavior

Contended that the causes of mental events lie in the environment

Application (Behavorial objectives, programmed instruction and behavior modification)

Operant conditioning Learning is equated to a change in overt behavior Operant Operant or behavioral conditioning – a simple feedback system – if a

reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus then the stimulus becomes more probable in the future

Changes in behavoir are the result of an individual responding to events in the environment (stimuli)

Human are trainable with stimulus-response technique When stimulus-Response pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is

conditioned to respond All behavior- academic, social, psychomotor can be learned or modified Operant conditioning - we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior

has had certain consequences in the past Describe associative learning- there is a contingency between response and

the presentation of the reinforcer When stimulus-response pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is

conditioned to respond Reinforcer is anything that strengthen a response Reinforcement .. The act following a response with a reinforcer 3 conditions for operant conditioning - The reinforcer must follow the response, must follow immediately,must be

contigent on the response 2 types of reinforcement – positive and negative Positive reinforcement – verbal praise Negative reinforcement – any stimulus that results in the increasd frequency of

a response when it is withdrawn

Basic processes in Operant conditioning

Operant – a voluntary response that has a particular effect on the environment

Acquisition - Shaping- sucessive approximation to form the desired response

Extinction – gradual weakening and finally dissappearance of a response tendency by removal of positive reinforcement

Stimulus generalization Primary reinforcer – statifies biological needs

Secondary reinforcer – conditioned reinforcer

Positive reinforcement – presentation of a stimulus after the response

Negative reinforcement – increase in response through the removal of a stimulus usually aversive or unpleasant one

Punishment – presentation of aversive stimulus or removal of a stimulus

Operant conditioning- Implications

Skinner’s reinforcement principles are the basis of many drill and practice exercises –students receive praise or a positive image when they get correct answer

Used to reward or punish students Used in treatment of human disorders

such as autism and antisocial behavior Operant behavior requires a goal

Differences between Classical and operant conditioning

Classical Operant

Occurs when 2 stimulis Response ® is (UCS& CS) followed by a are paired reinforcing

stimulusNature of Involuntary VoluntaryResponse elicit by stimulus emitted by organism

Model CS-CR R- S

Objective (Behavorial objectives, programmed instruction)

Emphasis on behavior – implications - Students should be active respondents in learning process rather than recipient - Should observe student behavioral change as a result of instruction Extinction in behavior modification Emphasis in behavior, drill practice, methods for

breaking habits Rewards(reinforcements) for desired behavior Behavioris define learning as a change due to

experience (discriminate information)

Manusia belajar melalui berbagai-bagai cara. Cara belajar dibahagikan kepada mazhab behavioris, kognitif, sosial dan humanis. Mazhab behavioris menganggap pembelajaran sebagai perubahan dalam

tingkahlaku. Mazhab Kognitif menganggap pembelajaran sebagai satu proses dalaman yang

tidak diperhatikan secara langsung Mazhab Humanis menekankan perbezaan individu dan kehendak sikap dalam

pembelajaran. Mazhab Sosial menganggap pembelajaran meliputi aspek yang lebih daripada

tingkahlaku yang nyata.

PENGENALAN

Teori Pembelajaran Unsur Berkaitan Tokoh Psikologi

Behavioris Tingakahlaku, Pelaziman klasik (emosi) ,(tabiat)Pelaziman Operan, cuba-ralat dan peneguhan

PavlovWatsonGuthrieThorndikeSkinner

Kognitif(Gestalt)

Pemikiran, Celik akal, Penemuan, Kategori pembelajaran, Resepi

Koffka/Kohler,BrunerGagne ,Ausuble

Sosial(neo behavioris)

PrestasiPemodelan

Bandura

Humanis Kemanusiaan ,Sempurna kendiri, Keperluan asas dan meta.

RogersMaslow

BEHAVIORIS

PELAZIMAN KLASIKPembelajaran haiwan dan Manusia yang terhasil

daripada gerak balas automatik terhadap sesuatu rangsangan yang mula-mula tidak memberikan sebarang kesan.

Behaviorisme adalah perhubungan antara rangsangan (R) dengan gerak balas (G)

Tingkahlaku adalah gerakbalas yang nyata dan dapat diramalkan.

TEORI PEMBELAJARAN BEHAVIORAL

Pembelajaran sebagai satu perubahan dalam bentuk atau frekuensi tingkahlaku.

Dalam bentuk pendekatan behavioral, tingkahlaku pelajar dinilai sebelum memulakan pengajaran.

Pembelajaran memerlukan penyususunan (stimuli) rangsangan dalam persekitaran supaya pelajar dapat respons dan diberi pengukuhan.

Pavlov mengenalpasti 3 proses lain, 1.  Generalisasi     Anjing juga akan mengeluarkan air liur sebagai respons pada bunyi dan juga bunyi yang hampir sama.2.  Diskriminasi    Anjing respons pada 1 atau 2 ‘tone’ dengan memastikan makanan diberi selepas 1 ‘tone’.3. Pemunahan   Rangsangan lazim diberi conyohnya bunyi tapi tidak diikutidengan makanan.  Gerak balaslazim (salivating) semakin tiada akhirnya hilang terus.

Jadual: Pelaziman klasik Pavlov

Sebelum pelaziman

Proses pelaziman

Selepas pelaziman

Rangsangan tak terlazim

(Makanan)

Gerak balas tak terlazim

(perembesan)

TETAPIRangsangan

neutral(bunyi loceng)

Tiada gerak balas(tiada

perembesan)

Eksperimen1.Bunyi loceng2.Tunggu sementara3.Diberikan makanan4.Proses berulang-ulang

Rangsangan tak terlazim (makanan)

Gerak balas tak terlazim (perembesan)

DANRangsangan Terlazim

(bunyi loceng)

Gerak balas terlazim (perembesan)

Pavlov – Konsep yang diperkenalkan Penhapusan – Gerak balas terlazim dihentikan Pembelajaran semula– Gerak balas terlazim yang

dihentikan dilakukan semula Pemulihan semerta – Gerak balas terlazim di

lakukan semula serta merta Generalisasi – Samakan rangsangan terlazim

dengan yang lain Diskriminasi – Membezakan rangsangan terlazim

Manusia belajar menggunakan kaedah cuba dan ralat.

Ganjaran dan denda dua faktor penting bantu pembelajaran manusia.

Pembelajaran manusia berlaku mengikut hubungan antara rangsangan dan gerak balas.

Motivasi, ganjaran dan denda amata penting dalam proses pembelajaran.

Beliau mengemukakan teori perikatan dikenali sebagai Teori R-G.(Rangsangan dan Gerak balas)

Guru memberi pujian(rangsangan tak terlazim)

Murid gembira(Gerak balas tak terlazim)

Kehadiran guru(rangsangan terlazim)

Murid gembira(gerak balas terlazim)

Pelaziman

Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses

Thorndike laws of learning Law of effect Pleasurable consequences oa response strengthened a

connection and annoying consequences weaken a connection

Law of exercise Law of use – the strength of a connection increases when

the connection is used Law of disuse – the strength of a connection diminishes

when the connection is not used Law of readiness When an organism is not ready to act, forcing it to act will

be annoying.

HUKUM KESEDIAAN

THORNDIKE MENGATAKAN BAHAWA HUKUM KESEDIAAN MERUJUK KEPADA PERSIAPAN YANG PERLU ADA PADA ORGANISMA SEBELUM IA BERTINDAK

UNTUK MELAKUKAN SESUATU AKTIVITI YANG DIPERLUKAN, SESEORANG PERLU BERADA DALAM KEADAAN FIZIKAL YANG BAIK DAN MEMPUNYAI ARAS MOTIVASI YANG TINGGI

APABILA PELAJAR BERADA DALAM KEADAAN BERSEDIA, DIA AKAN BERASA PUAS APABILA DIA BERTINDAK

JIKA PELAJAR BELUM BERSEDIA UNTUK BERTINDAK, DAN GURU MENYURUH PELAJAR BERTINDAK, DIA AKAN BERASA KECEWA

OLEH ITU, GURU PERLU MELIHAT TAHAP KESEDIAAN PELAJAR

HUKUM LATIHAN

PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS AKAN BERTAMBAH KUKUH JIKA LATIHAN DIADAKAN

CONTOH - JIKA PELAJAR SELALU MENGULANG KAJI RUMUSAN SIFIRNYA, DIA DAPAT MENGINGATINYA DENGAN LEBIH SENANG

HUKUM LATIHAN MENYATAKAN BAHAWA SATU TINGKAH LAKU AKAN DITEGUHKAN MELALUI APLIKASI DAN AKAN DILEMAHKAN TANPA PENGUKUHAN

HUKUM LATIHAN SANGAT SESUAI DIGUNAKAN BAGI HAFALAN ATAU LATIHAN OTOT

HUKUM KESAN

SELEPAS GERAK BALAS TERHASIL, PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS AKAN BERTAMBAH KUKUH JIKA TERDAPAT KESAN YANG MENYERONOKKAN

KESAN YANG MENYAKITKAN AKAN MELEMAHKAN PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS

RUMUSAN THORNDIKE IALAH JIKA TINGKAH LAKU DIIKUTI DENGAN KEPUASAN IA AKAN DIULANG TETAPI JIKA DIIKUTI DENGAN KESAKITAN IA AKAN LENYAP

Teori Thorndike - Applikasi 

~   For learning readiness, suitable motivation must be used. ~   To strengthen relationship between stimulus and response – increase exercise, revision~   Reward and reinforcement for right response.~   Give student to experience

Menurut Skinner (1953) kajiannya menunjukkan pelaziman operan organisma bertindakbalas terhadap persekitaran dalam proses pembelajaran

Pelaziman operan meningkatkan kebarangkalian pengulangan sesuatu gerak balas.

Peneguhan biasanya dapat menambahkan kebarangkalian gerak balas yang akan berlaku.

Berbagai-bagai gerak balas (pelajar)

Membaca bukuKomikMembaca kerja lain

Berbual-bual dengan kawanBermain dengan sesuatu

Berinteraksi dengan guru

Terdapat pelbagai gerakbalas yang ditunjukkan oleh pelaajr terhadap pengajaran guru

Gerak balas Ganjaran

Berinteraksi dgn guru Guru senyum, puji dan beri /tunjuk kasih sayang

SEBELUM PELAZIMAN : Keadaan dalam bilik darjah

PROSES PELAZIMAN

- Use discrimination (recalling of facts )- Use generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts)- Use associations (applying explanations)- Use chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)- Emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes in students (behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced assessment)- Mastering early to complex level of performance (sequencing instructional presentation,mastery of learning)- Use of instructional cues, shaping and practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association (simple to complex sequencing of practice, arrange practice situations,use of prompts)- Use reinforcement to impact performance (tangible rewards, informative feedback)

Application of behavoirist theory in learning

Albert Bandura – Social Learning

Trial and error – hands on exploration to taste reality Perception of object – Modelling – copying by watching someone