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Making Effective Use of SLA Theory and Research Findings in Language Teaching
Diane SchmittNottingham Trent University
Lead in for today
The joy of teaching English is often accompanied by bouts of frustration. Can you recognize any (or all) of the following students?
• The potentially top scoring student who settles for less.
• The student whose vocabulary skills are excellent for World of Warcraft, but remain stagnant in the classroom.
• The student who excels in simple discussions and colloquial jargon, but never masters precision and depth.
Lead in for today
With an insight in language learning strategies and how to implement them into our daily educational settings, we can help motivate our students to become aware of their academic potential and challenge them to break away from colloquial mediocrity!
Common European Reference Levels -Global Scale
Common European Reference Levels -Global Scale
Common European Reference Levels -Global Scale
Common European Reference Levels - Linguistic Competences
Lead in for today – My arguments
• Teaching approaches for students studying English for Academic or Work Purposes that do not give significant focus to language form do these students a great disservice.
• At higher levels of proficiency, language use is about more than just getting things done. In study and work contexts, it is about getting things done in ways that are appropriate to particular contexts.
• In study and work contexts, fluency, accuracy and complexity play an important role in achieving meaning and establishing the credibility of the language user.
How is SLA research relevant to teachers?
• Second Language Acquisition Research– Aims to develop understanding of a
range of factors that contribute to successful (or unsuccessful) learning of a second language
• One aspiration of SLA research:– Which instructional efforts actually further
acquisition and which do not?
Some background…
The1980’s leading to the 1990’s and up to now• A paradigm shift from structural approaches
to teaching to Communicative Language Teaching
• SLA Theories turned towards the role of input and interaction in facilitating acquisition
“Input is perhaps the single most important concept of second language acquisition. It is trivial to point out that no individual can learn a language without input of some sort.” (Gass 1997: 1)
Krashen’s Comprehension Hypothesis (formerly the Input Hypothesis)
• We acquire language when we understand messages, when we understand what people tell us and when we understand what we read.
Krashen’s Comprehension Hypothesis (formerly the Input Hypothesis)
• We acquire language when we understand messages, when we understand what people tell us and when we understand what we read.
• Applies to literacy: Our reading ability, our ability to write in an acceptable writing style, our spelling ability, vocabulary knowledge, and our ability to handle complex syntax is the result of reading.
Krashen’s Comprehension Hypothesis (formerly the Input Hypothesis)
• We acquire language when we understand messages, when we understand what people tell us and when we understand what we read.
• Applies to literacy: Our reading ability, our ability to write in an acceptable writing style, our spelling ability, vocabulary knowledge, and our ability to handle complex syntax is the result of reading.
• The Comprehension Hypothesis refers to subconscious acquisition, not conscious learning. The result of providing acquirers with comprehensible input is the emergence of grammatical structure in a predictable order. A strong affective filter (e.g. high anxiety) will prevent input from reaching those parts of the brain that do language acquisition. (Krashen, 2004:1-2).
Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1996)
• Environmental contributions to acquisition are mediated by:– Selective attention – The learner's developing L2 processing capacity
• These resources are brought together most usefully, although not exclusively, during negotiation for meaning. – Negative feedback may be facilitative of L2
development, at least for vocabulary, morphology and language specific syntax‑
– Negative feedback is essential for learning certain specifiable L1 L2 contrasts. ‑
(Long, 1996, p. 414)
Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1996)
• Environmental contributions to acquisition are mediated by:– Selective attention – The learner's developing L2 processing capacity,
• These resources are brought together most usefully, although not exclusively, during negotiation for meaning. – Negative feedback may be facilitative of L2
development, at least for vocabulary, morphology and language specific syntax, ‑
– Negative feedback is essential for learning certain specifiable L1 L2 contrasts. ‑
(Long, 1996, p. 414)
Noticing (Schmidt, 1993)
• Noticing registers the simple occurrence of some event
• Understanding implies recognition of a general principle, rule, or pattern– For example, a second language learner might
simply notice that a native (or more proficient) speaker used a particular form of address on a particular occasion, or at a deeper level the learner might understand the significance of such a form, realizing that the form used was appropriate because of the status differences between speaker and hearer.
Several factors can influence what learners notice
• Frequency of occurrence• The status of a linguistic property in the L2 in
comparison with its status in the L1• Attentional resources must not be tied up with
information content/meaning-making• Instruction on target forms can enhance their
salience in later input• Topicalisation of language by other students or
through student/teacher discourse can result in more uptake
• Learner uptake in any given lesson is individual and does not always coincide with the planned focus of the lesson
Several factors can influence what learners notice
• Frequency of occurrence• The status of a linguistic property in the L2 in
comparison with its status in the L1• Attentional resources must not be tied up with
information content/meaning-making• Instruction on target forms can enhance their
salience in later input• Topicalisation of language by other students or
through student/teacher discourse can result in more uptake
• Learner uptake in any given lesson is individual and does not always coincide with the planned focus of the lesson
Information Processing
• Humans have a limited capacity for information processing
• Learners cannot pay attention to form without a loss of attention to content. – When confronted with the choice between
attention to content or form, learners prioritize content. (Van Patten, 1990)
• If a task demands a lot of attention to its content, there will be less attention available for a focus on language
Dimensions of language performance
performance dimensions
fluency form
accuracy complexity
(Skehan, 1998)
Incidental and Intentional Learning
• Incidental learning – Learning without intention– May be implicit or explicit
• Explicit learning/teaching– Learners’ attention is directed toward the
specific use of language form
Incidental learning is not enough (Skehan, 1990)
• Strategic use and a focus on meaning often negate the need for analysis of input (Swain, 1985)
• Incidental learning may not supply a sufficient number of repetitions in the short space of time needed for information to be stored in long-term memory (Cobb, 2007)
• Incidental learning is slow.
Incidental learning is not enough (Skehan, 1990)
• Hill and Laufer (2003) estimate that, at the rates of incidental learning reported in many studies, a L2 learner would have to read over 8 million words of text, or about 420 novels to increase their vocabulary size by 2000 words.
• Incidental learning does seem to be very useful in developing and enriching partially known vocabulary [language]. (Schmitt, 2008)
Addressing language form in teaching (Long and Robinson, 1998)
• Option 1 - synthetic -focus on forms– Pre-determined list of grammar items worked
through in turn• Option 2 – analytic - focus on meaning
– Eliminates grammar completely from conscious study
• Option 3 – analytic - focus on form– Primary focus on meaning-focused
communication with occasional breaks to focus on related language forms
Advantages of studying a second language
• Teachers, textbooks and other materials can engage learners in meaningful activities AND draw learners’ attention to particular aspects of language use that learners may otherwise not notice
• Guided-noticing facilitates and speeds up the learning process
Balancing fluency, accuracy and complexity
Academic Writing (and the world of work)
• In order to handle academic study, students need to do the following:▪ Be skillful at taking words and their associated
grammar from their reading to use in their writing. (Coxhead and Byrd, 2007)
▪ Academic writing proceeds to a great extent on the basis of skillful use of other people’s words and the corporate wording that has developed as the signature of academic writing generally and in disciplinary subfields particularly (Macdonald, 1994 in Coxhead and Byrd, 2007).
A common English class activity
• Writing Summaries– Activities based on ideas presented by Jan
Frodesen, UC Santa Barbara and Margi Wald, UC Berkeley at TESOL 2010
Sample Instructions/Guidance
• Read the article.• Re-read the article. Underline important ideas. Circle key
terms. • Divide the article into sections or stages of thought.• Write a sentence that paraphrases the main point of each
section.• Write your rough draft of the summary. Combine the
information from the first four steps into paragraphs using transitions. – Use the author's key words.– Follow the original organization where possible.– Be concise. Eliminate needless words and repetitions
• Compare your version to the original.
Overview
• Focus on using classifier word and representing an author’s stance in summaries.
Original Texts Summary Classifier Words
librarianmuseum curatormanagementadvertising
jobs
salesmanagement advertising
careers
getting aheadmake the break on the career front
change
Stance:
disagrees with
questions
repudiates
Based on Hood, 2008
Developing classifier vocabulary for summary writing
• Using organizing classifier words to summarize main points
• Using classifier words to summarize content-specific details
• Steps for identifying and creating classifier vocabulary for source texts
• Guided tasks for developing skills in creating classifier words/phrases for summary writing.
Using classifier words to summarize main points (1)
– What is the author doing at various points in providing examples or details?
• Do they represent reasons, advantages, problems, solutions, clarifications, objections etc.?
• These classifier words help to organize the larger chunks of a text, including the text as a whole
– Organizing classifier words (typically general academic words) may often be used first as sentence objects to summarize what the author does:
• Storch points out a number of problems with the current textbook purchase system.
Using classifer words to summarize main points (2)
– Organizing classifier words may later be repeated in subject position with a reference word such as these or such, creating cohesion with previous parts of text:
• These problems have led to …
– The classifier word may be modified to summarize what the author discussed:
• Such financial problems have led to…
– Or a synonym for the classifier word can be used for the same purpose:
• These concerns/difficulties/cost inefficiencies have led to…
To summarize content -specific details
– What words or phrases can be used to classify ideas, actions or objects described in examples or details?
– Examples: processes, experiments, observations, natural resources, behavior, disagreements, doubts
Steps for identifying and creating classifier vocabulary for source texts
Step 1
• After identifying the overall purpose of the text (e.g. solution to a problem), guide students in annotating sections– In the margins, write brief phrases with organizer
words to identify purposes of major sections (e.g., problems of x, advantages of y, reasons for z explanations for zz)
– Depending on class level and source text, give several examples of organizer words or provide entire “menu” of choices prior to starting.
(Note: More advanced S’s could do this in groups or the task could be divided with each group doing one or two paragraphs; for others whole class, work led by T might be better)
Step 1 Examples
• Examples for the Storch passage:
l Problem with current system of accessing educational content
l Solution to problem of current situation/Alternative to current system
l Consequences of current situationl Reasons for problem with current systeml Another problem with current system/reason for
probleml Reason for problem not buying bookl Solution to problem/Alternative to current system
Step 2
• Skim the source text to find classifier vocabulary that the author uses– Highlight or underline words and phrases
that track the development of the theme or topic
– Texts with multiple themes/subthemes - color coding works best
• Example: “Needed: A Single Electronic Source for Textbooks” – See handout
Step 3
• Show how classifier nouns can serve as modifiers for other nouns to build cohesive links, either as compound nouns or adjective forms
• Examples: content distribution system, higher education institutions, cost efficiencies (Storch)
Step 4
• Consider synonyms (words or phrases) for source text classifiers– Examples (Storch)
new model: innovation access: use
Step 5
• Consider other classifier words not used by author
– Example from student summary of Storch article:• This tendency creates a lose-lose situation
– Using classifiers for “Generational Myth” details• pundits, professors, pop critics authorities, experts • computers, mobile phones digital devices
Guided tasks for developing skills in creating classifier words/phrases for summary writing
Note: The passage for task examples, from Clyde Kluckhohn’s Mirror for Man, was used for a University of California systemwide writing exam and can be accessed on the UC Entry Level Writing Requirement (ELWR) website: http://www.ucop.edu/elwr/index.html. Examples from student essays are also on this site.
Task 1
• Give students groups of several terms, statements (verbatim or paraphrased) from a source text.
• Ask them to find an appropriate classifier word or phrase for each group. They may borrow one from the source text or come with one of their own.
• Provide a summary sentence to complete by writing their choice in the blank (or, for less guided work, ask them to write summary sentences based on an example) .
• Discuss responses as a class or have students compare their responses in small groups.
Task 1 Examples
1. a. Americans brush their teeth on arising. b. We put on pants – not a loincloth or grass skirt. c. We eat three meals a day – not
– Kluckhohn points out that these patterns/regularities/habits/behaviors are not individually determined.
l a. style of gait b. arm and hand movements c. facial expression
1. Kluckhohn describes a young Anglo-American whose body language was Chinese.
l a. cooking pot b. Beethoven sonata
– Kluckhohn notes that all the things groups of people share can be regarded as cultural products/cultural artifacts, not just those regarded as high culture.
Task 2
• Give students a model summary or summary/ response to a source text.
• Ask them to find and highlight the classifier words or phrases that summarize or, in response, refer to the author’s main ideas, details or examples.
• Discuss which classifiers are taken from the source text, which ones the writer came up with, and which might be a variation of something in the source text (e.g., ways of thinking -> different ways of thinking)
Task 2 Examples
• Examples from high-scoring essays in response to Kluckhohn passage (Essay 3 written by a non-native English speaker). – Essay 1: biological differences, differing views, different
upbringing, this limitation (this last a classifier word summarizing “the facts of nature also limit culture forms”)
– Essay 2: behaviors, superficial differences, fundamental similarities, biological factors, actions, habit(s), phenomena, pattern caused by certain past factors
– Essay 3: two ways of thinking, ways of thinking, different ways of thinking, different behaviors, attitudes, responses
Representing an author’s stance in academic summaries
• Noticing and defining stance• Tracing an author’s stance throughout a
source text• Representing an author’s stance in a
summary– Summarizing a position– Summarizing a counter-position– Summarizing a cautionary conclusion
• Representing the writer’s stance
Noticing Stance
• We should not label today’s young people “the digital generation” because there is no such thing.
• The author does not feel that we should label today’s young people “the digital generation.”
• The author argues against labeling today’s young people “the digital generation.”
• The author questions the use of the label “the digital generation” for today’s young people.
• The author repudiates the claim that today’s young people truly comprise a “digital generation.”
Defining Stance
Hyland (2005) on Stance: • Authors “express a textual ‘voice’ or
community recognized personality which, following others, I shall call stance. This can be seen as an attitudinal dimension and includes features which refer to the ways writers present themselves and convey their judgements, opinions, and commitments. It is the ways that writers intrude to stamp their personal authority onto their arguments or step back and disguise their involvement”
(p. 176).
Tracing an author’s stance (1)
– See Generational Myth: handout– Together with students (instructor-led) or by
putting students in teams, have students underline or highlight the words or phrases that seem to suggest a stance.
– Suggest the students look at stance markers that run throughout the text and those that are used in particular sections (openings, conclusions, presenting a problem, etc.).
– Discuss the connotations of highlighted words and phrases.
Tracing an author’s stance (2)
1. Consider all the pundits, professors, and pop critics who have wrung their hands over the inadequacies of the so-called digital generation of young people filling our colleges and jobs. Then consider those commentators who celebrate the creative brilliance of digitally adept youth. To them all, I want to ask: Whom are you talking about? There is no such thing as a "digital generation."
4. When I read that, I shuddered. I shook my head. I rolled my eyes. And I sighed. I have been hearing some version of the "kids today" or "this generation believes" argument for more than a dozen years of studying and teaching about digital culture and technology.
Tracing an author’s stance (2)
7. Talk of a "digital generation" or people who are "born digital" willfully ignores the vast range of skills, knowledge, and experience of many segments of society. It ignores the needs and perspectives of those young people who are not socially or financially privileged. It presumes a level playing field and equal access to time, knowledge, skills, and technologies. The ethnic, national, gender, and class biases of any sort of generation talk are troubling. And they could not be more obvious than when discussing assumptions about digital media.
Tracing an author’s stance (3)
– Green = Controlling idea: • myth (title) scare quotes, so-called, pretend, mystical talk,
just not true, presumption, assume, supposed– Reacts:
• Purple = Author’s reaction – Shuddered, shook, rolled my eyes, sighed
• Yellow = Counterclaims – willfully ignores, ignores, presumes, talk is troubling
• Yellow = Setting up counterargument:– Could not be more obvious than
– Conclusion-outcome• Blue = Nouns: one-size-fits-all system• Blue = Verbs: pander, force, rushing to• Dark Green = Lo and behold (sarcasm)
Representing an author’s stance: Templates
• Here are some templates for introducing an outside source:– As Siva Vaidhyanathan claims in his article “Generational
Myth,” [thesis or claim here]
– In the article “Generational Myth,” Siva Vaidhyanathan examines [topic: the problems surrounding the presumption of a digital generation’].
– According to Siva Vaidhyanathan, in his book The Googlization of Everything, [thesis or claim here]
– In Siva Vaidhyanathan’s view, [thesis or claim here]
Arguing a position
Verbs
• Below are several lists of verbs that can help you present a summary of a text. There are many, many more, but these verbs can help you write a summary of the kind of argument presented in “Generational Myth.” Let’s examine which words to use to help capture SV’s stance.
• To argue a positionargueassertbelievesclaimscontendsemphasizesimplies
maintainpoints outpositsstatesstresssuggests
Exercises highlighting stronger/weaker stance
1. Underline the word that creates a stronger stance: – The author argues / suggests that the digital
generation label is misleading.– The author argues / asserts that the digital
generation label is misleading.
2. Ask students to place the verbs along a spectrum from weakest to strongest.
Exercises for checking grammatical environment
1. Which three of the following sentences are OK?– The author emphasizes the variety of digital skills the
younger generation has. – The author emphasizes that members of the younger
generation do not all share the same digital skills.– The author maintains the variety of digital skills the younger
generation has.– The author maintains that members of the younger
generation do not all share the same digital skills.(can be based on whole group in-class concordance / learner dictionary searches or the teacher’s provision ofe the answers depending on the level)
2. Groups of advanced students can be given a set of the words in the list to investigate independently. Students can then share results of what they find.
Exercise for checking collocations
• Using the word ‘strongly’ can transform a more neutral verb into one that expresses a stronger stance. Not all verbs co-locate or go together with this word. Which of the follow verbs can co-locate with ‘strongly’? Which are most common? Put a √+ if common, √ if possible, - if the collocation does not appear. ________ argue
________ assert________ believes________ claims________ contends________ emphasizes________ implies
________ maintain________ points out________ posits________ states________ stress________ suggests
Exercises for sentence practice
• Follow up with practice generating sentences about “Generational Myth”– Strongly + verb:– Strong stance verb + that-clause– Strong stance verb + noun
Summarizing a counter position
Verbs
• The words below can be used to express an author’s counter-position: a disagreement with the argument made by another author or a belief held by others.
___ argues against___ challenges___ condemns___ contests___ counters___ criticizes___ disagrees with___ discredits
___ dismisses___ disputes___ objects to___ opposes___ questions___ refutes___ rejects___ repudiates
Exercise for introducing verbs
• Put a ‘+’ in the blank next to all of the verbs in the list whose meanings you are familiar with and which you use in your own writing.
• Put a ‘√’ next to those words whose meanings you are familiar with but which you may only rarely use.
• Put a ‘-’ in the blank next to words you are less familiar with.
• The words with a’√’ or ‘-’ represent those whose meanings you should look up in a dictionary and those that you should practice using today.
Exercises highlighting stronger/weaker stance
– Multiple choice– Contiuum
Exercises for checking collocations (1)
• Like the verbs that introduce the author’s opinion, these counter-position verbs can also co-locate with adverbs to represent stronger stance, but you have a few more options.
•soundly•strongly•vehemently
• Which will help you represent the strongest stance?
Exercises for checking collocations (2)
• Look each verb up in a concordancer or collocations dictionary. Which verbs can co-locate with ‘soundly,’ which with ‘strongly,’ and which with ‘vehemently’? Match the adverb with all of the verbs it can go together with.
stronglysoundlyvehemently
___ argues against___ challenges___ condemns___ contests___ counters___ criticizes___ disagrees with___ discredits ___ dismisses___ disputes___ objects to___ opposes___ questions___ refutes___ rejects___ repudiates
Exercise for checking grammatical environment
• Interestingly, unlike the words that introduce the author’s position, these verbs are almost always followed by nouns. Here is a list of nouns that commonly come after these verbs.
• Vaidhyanathan questions….
Gomez’s assertion thatthe (author’s)assumption thatthe belief in / thatthe claim thatthe contention thatthe fact thatthe finding that
the idea of / thatthe notion thatthe position thatthe proposal to / for / thatthe theory of / thatthe view of / that
Exercises for sentence practice
• Follow up with practice generating sentences about “Generational Myth”– adverb + verb– strong stance verb + noun x 2 – use verbs
that are less familiar to you.
Setting up cautionary conclusions
• At the very end of “Generational Myth,” the author discusses the negative outcomes associated with plans based on a “so-called digital generation.”
• You can express this idea after a verb like ‘discuss’, but to represent a stronger stance, consider these verbs:– advises against making sweeping changes
based on a “so-called digital generation.” – cautions…– urges…– warns…
• Follow up with sentence practice.
What about the writer’s stance?
What we see
• Here’s what I often read in student summaries:– Amazing argument– Awesome discussion– Fantastic account– Great job / discussion – Spectacular account– Super argument
What we’d prefer
• Accurate• Balanced• Compelling• Comprehensive• Convincing• Critical• Detailed• Extensive
• Fascinating• Gripping• Interesting• Persuasive• Thoughtful• Vivid• Well supported
Practice
1. Ask students to group adjectives: personal feeling created, credibility based on support, etc.
2. Ask students to write a few opening sentences to “Generational Myth” following the patterns below:– The author provides a(n) ______________ account of
_______________________.– The article presents a(n) ______________ discussion of
_______________________.– The author advances a(n) _______________ argument
focusing on ________________.
Up to date reading on SLA
References
• Cobb, T. (2007). Computing the vocabulary demands of L2 Reading. Language Learning and Technology, 11 (3), 38-63.http://llt.msu.edu/vol11num3/cobb/
• Coxhead, A. & Byrd, P. (2007). Preparing writing teachers to teach the vocabulary and grammar of academic prose. Journal of second language writing, 16: 129-147.
• Doughty, C. and Williams, J. (eds.). (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Gass, S. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Krashen, S. (2004). Applying the comprehension hypothesis: Some suggestions. International Journal of Language Teaching, 1, 21-29.
• Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W.C. Ritichie and T.K. Bhatia (eds.). Handbook of second language acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press, 413-468.
References
• Long, M. and Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research and practice. In C. Doughty and J. Williams.
• Schmidt, R. (1993a). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206-226.
• Schmitt, N. (2008). Review Article: Instructed second language vocabulary acquisition. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329-363.
• Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass and C. Madden (eds.).
• Van Patten, B. (1990). Attending to form and content in the input. Studies in second language acquisition, 2, 287-301.
