Theory and Methods

Learning Theory Define: The more or less permanent

change in behaviour potentiality which occurs as a result of repeated practice.

• The change could be permanent or temporary

• The behaviour does not necessarily have to be observable (fMRI)

Learning Theory Classical (Respondent) Conditioning

(or Pavlovian Conditioning) Pavlov and Watson - conditioned reflex

method Reflex - a biologically determined

behaviour that is always elicited by a particular stimulus

Behaviour is called respondent behaviour

Learning Theory Elements of classical conditioning

US (unconditioned stimulus) UR (unconditioned response) CS (conditioned stimulus)

It can be perceived and attended Does not elicit UR itself

CR (conditioned response) Occurs before UR Smaller in magnitude than UR Form of response may be different than UR

Schematic of Elements

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Learning Theory Elements of classical conditioning

(cont.) CS preceeds US CS overlaps with US in time

Example of Acquisition & Extinction

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CS Alone ExtinctionAcquisition

Learning Theory Operant Conditioning (learning)

Skinner believed in operant behaviours that are not reflexes but are emitted due to their consequences

Response/reinforcer (reward) association Behaviour is an instrument to attain some

end Example: rats in a maze to get food

T-maze

Multiple T-maze: Honzik (1936)

Food Box

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Constant Variable

Learning Theory: Operant Thorndike - Law of

Effect Responses which

produce rewards (or positive consequences) will tend to increase in frequency

Example: infants and footkicking

Learning Theory: Operant Negative reinforcers

A response that has the consequence of removing something unwanted

Punishers Consequences that reduce the expression

of a behaviour

Learning Theory Habituation

Simplest form of learning Most often used with infants Like classical conditioning, starts with a reflex With repeated exposure to the eliciting stimulus,

response declines Dishabituation - the recovery of the reflex

response when a new eliciting stimulus is presented

Learning Theory Habituation (cont.)

most commonly habituated reflexes are the orienting response and the startle response

Kellman & Spelke (1983)

Habituate Unitary Object Test Two Object Test

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura Observational learning Previous learning was active,

whereas in some learning the child is passive and just observes

Imitation - Meltzoff deferred imitation

Ethology Study of development from an

evolutionary perspective Imprinting - interaction between biology

and environment Lorenz and chicks Language Visual deprivation

Research Methods Theory - A set of expressions put forth

as an explanation of facts and empirical findings

A good theory makes predictions as yet unknown facts called a hypothesis need to test hypothesis

Hypothesis Testing

Research Methods Two requirements for testing:

1) objective methods

2) measurable behaviors - morality

Types of Research Descriptive - observing and recording Correlational - describes the relation

between two variables measured on a -1.00 to 1.00 scale

(correlation coefficient) severe limitation - correlation does not

indicate causality

Correlations

Types of Research Experimental - purpose is to draw

cause-and-effect conclusions one variable is manipulated - Independent

variable effect on the other variable is measured -

Dependent variable

Developmental Research Need to take into account time

Longitudinal same subject is studied repeatedly at

different ages can be either correlational or experimental

Developmental Research Longitudinal (cont.)

typically, two types of questions 1) Stability 2) Early Experience Effects Problems -

subject loss repeated testing effects length of the study

Developmental Research Cross-sectional

study children at different ages to examine differences in behavior at different ages

Problem cannot study stability or earlly experience

effects cohort effect - differences are due to different

age populations being members of different generations

Developmental Research Longitudinal/Cross-Sectional Combo

also called cross-sequential design can test for cohort effects & repeated

testing examine stability and age differences

Microgenetic Examining a small group begining at an

age where major development Example: Perception Again, problem of repeated testing

Cross-sequential design

Developmental Research Case Studies

typically used in clinical research study a single individual Problem of generalizing conclusion to

whole population

Developmental Research Cross-Cultural

Comparative compare species to examine evolutionary issues mostly, to do studies not possible in

humans