Theories of Thinking

8/3/2019 Theories of Thinking

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n.s.rajendran,upsi,jan2011

The Evolution of Psycho-Pedagogy

Behaviourism Cognitivism ConstructivismNeuro-Science

Informed Pedagogy

Constructivism

Social-

Up to 1960s From1900s

1950s- 1960s- 1990s




Learning Theories




Behaviourism is primarily associated with Pavlov (classicalconditioning) in Russia and with Thorndike, Watson and particularlySkinner in the United States (operant conditioning).Behaviourism is dominated by the constraints of its (naïve)attempts to emulate the physical sciences, which entails a refusalto speculate about what happens inside the organism. Anythingwhich relaxes this requirement slips into the cognitive realm.Much behaviourist experimentation is undertaken with animals andgeneralised.

Behaviourism

http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm










In educational settings, behaviourism impliesthe dominance of the teacher, as in behaviourmodification programmes. It can, however, beapplied to an understanding of unintended learning.

Behaviourism is relevant mainly to:Skill development, and The "substrate"(or "conditions", as Gagné puts it) of learning




Classical conditioning:

Is the process of reflex learning —

investigated by Pavlov —

throughwhich an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food) which produces anunconditioned response (salivation) is presented together with aconditioned stimulus (a bell), such that the salivation is eventuallyproduced on the presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, thusbecoming a conditioned response.

This is a disciplined account of our common-sense experience of learning by association (or "contiguity", in the jargon), although that isoften much more complex than a reflex process, and is much exploitedin advertising. Note that it does not depend on us doing anything.Such associations can be chained and generalised (for better of forworse): thus "smell of baking" associates with "kitchen at home in

childhood" associates with "love and care". (Smell creates potentconditioning because of the way it is perceived by the brain.) But"sitting at a desk" associates with "classroom at school" and henceperhaps with "humiliation and failure"...







Operant Conditioning

If, when an organism emits a behaviour (does something),the consequences of that behaviour are reinforcing, it ismore likely to emit (do) it again. What counts asreinforcement, of course, is based on the evidence of therepeated behaviour, which makes the whole argumentrather circular.Learning is really about the increased probability of abehaviour based on reinforcement which has taken place in

the past, so that the antecedents of the new behaviourinclude the consequences of previous behaviour.






Cognitivism focuses on an unobservablechange in mental knowledge.

Cognitivism came about as a rejection of thebehaviorist views. Psychologists believed thatmental events, or cognitivism, could no longerbe ignored.

Cognitive Theory

http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/behavior.htm

http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/behavior.htm




General Assumptions of Cognitive Theories

• Some learning processes may be unique tohuman beings.

• Cognitive processes are the focus of study.• Objective, systematic observations of people's

behavior should be the focus of scientific inquiry,however, inferences about unobservable mentalprocesses can often be drawn from suchbehavior.

• Individuals are actively involved in the learningprocess.

• Learning involves the formation of mentalassociations that are not necessarily reflected inovert behavior changes.

• Knowledge is organized.• Learning is a process of relating new information

to previously learned information.




General EducationalImplications of Cognitive

Theories:

• Cognitive processes influence learning.•

As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought.• People organize the things they learn.• New information is most easily acquired

when people can associate it with things

they have already learned.• People control their own learning.




Constructivism's central idea is that humanlearning is constructed , that learners build

new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This view of learningsharply contrasts with one in which learningis the passive transmission of information

from one individual to another, a view inwhich reception, not construction, is key.

Constructive Theory




Two important notions orbit around thesimple idea of constructed knowledge.

The first is that learners construct newunderstandings using what they already

know. There is no tabula rasa on which newknowledge is etched. Rather, learners cometo learning situations with knowledgegained from previous experience, and thatprior knowledge influences what new ormodified knowledge they will constructfrom new learning experiences.




The second notion is that learning is activerather than passive. Learners confront theirunderstanding in light of what they encounter

in the new learning situation. If what learnersencounter is inconsistent with their currentunderstanding, their understanding canchange to accommodate new experience.Learners remain active throughout this

process: they apply current understandings,note relevant elements in new learningexperiences, judge the consistency of priorand emerging knowledge, and based on that

judgment, they can modify knowledge.




Conceptual Model

Social Cognitive Theory




Concepts of the Social Cognitive Theory

•Environment: Factors physically external to theperson; Provides opportunities and social support •Situation: Perception of the environment; correctmisperceptions and promote healthful forms •Behavioral capability: Knowledge and skill to perform

a given behavior; promote mastery learning throughskills training •Expectations: Anticipatory outcomes of a behavior;Model positive outcomes of healthful behavior •Expectancies: The values that the person places on a

given outcome, incentives; Present outcomes of change that have functional meaning •Self-control: Personal regulation of goal-directedbehavior or performance; Provide opportunities forself-monitoring, goal setting, problem solving, andself-reward




•Observational learning: Behavioral acquisition thatoccurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’behavior; Include credible role models of the targeted

behavior •Reinforcements: Responses to a person’s behavior thatincrease or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence;Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives •Self-efficacy: The person’s confidence in performing a

particular behavior; Approach behavioral change insmall steps to ensure success •Emotional coping responses: Strategies or tactics thatare used by a person to deal with emotional stimuli;provide training in problem solving and stressmanagement •Reciprocal determinism: The dynamic interaction of the person, the behavior, and the environment in whichthe behavior is performed; consider multiple avenues tobehavioral change, including environmental, skill, andpersonal change.




Other Related Theories

1.Standard IQ Theory

2.Multiple Intelligences Theory

3.Split-Brain Theory

4.Successful Intelligences Theory

5.Emotional Intelligence Thoery

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Theories of Thinking