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Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation
An Overview of Some of the Popular Management Theorists
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton P Alderfer proposed a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:
• Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.
• Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.
• Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.
• Tested by Thematic Apperception TestERG Theory
FrustrationFrustrationof growth needsof growth needs
FrustrationFrustrationof growth needsof growth needs
Frustration ofFrustration ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs
Frustration ofFrustration ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs
FrustrationFrustrationof existence needsof existence needs
FrustrationFrustrationof existence needsof existence needs
ImportanceImportanceof growth needsof growth needs
ImportanceImportanceof growth needsof growth needs
Importance of Importance of relatedness needsrelatedness needs
Importance of Importance of relatedness needsrelatedness needs
ImportanceImportanceof existence needsof existence needs
ImportanceImportanceof existence needsof existence needs
SatisfactionSatisfactionof growth needsof growth needs
Satisfaction ofSatisfaction ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs
Satisfaction ofSatisfaction ofexistence needsexistence needs
ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of NeedsImportance, and Satisfaction of Needs
Chris Argyris (1923 Chris Argyris (1923 -
• Influenced by the humanist approach of Abraham Maslow and the socio-technical process of E. Wight Bakke.
• Indicated his feelings about how organizations neglected human needs.
• If treated like a child one will behave like a child – result is organizational mediocrity
Maturity – Immaturity Continuum
Chris Argyris
Chris Argyris – Personality vs. Organization
• Certain organizational practices, such as the division of labor, interfere with the development of healthy human personalities.
• These practices promote immature, not mature behavior.
• In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run into the obstacles posed by formal organizations.
• The result is defensive behaviors, with management reacting by becoming more autocratic or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.
Chris ArgyrisChris Argyris
Albert BanduraAlbert Bandura Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory
(social learning theory; self-efficacy theory) which refers to an individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a task.
Four ways self efficacy can be increased:
1. Enactive mastery – if you’ve performed task in the past, you can do it again
2. Vicarious modeling – you become more confident because you see someone else do the task
3. Verbal persuasion – you become more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to perform task
4. Arousal – if you get “psyched up” then you perform better
Social LearningSelf-efficacySocial Cognitive
Abraham MaslowAbraham MaslowMaslow defined human needs as:
Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings.Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potential
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
• Maslow’s theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.
• Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order need begins to control a person’s behavior.
• A satisfied need ceases to motivate.
Need HierarchyNeed Hierarchy
David McClellandDavid McClellandProposed Theory of Needs:
Need for Achievement (nAch) – drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standardsNeed for Affiliation (nAff) – the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationshipsNeed for Power (nPow) – need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise (to have power over them)
nAchnPownAff
McClelland’s Learned Needs TheoryMcClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
AchievementAchievement
(n Ach)(n Ach)
AffiliationAffiliation
(n Aff)(n Aff)
PowerPower
(n Pow)(n Pow)
Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)• Taught psychology at MIT.• At Antioch College, McGregor
found that his classroom teaching of human relations did not always work in practice.
• From these experiences, his ideas evolve and lead him to recognize the influence of assumptions we make about people and our managerial style.Douglas McGregor
Theory XTheory X• Management is responsible for organizing the elements of
productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people – in the interest of economic ends.
• With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.
• Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive – even resistant – to organizational needs. They must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled – their activities must be directed. This is management’s task -- in managing subordinate managers or workers. We often sum it up by saying that management consists of getting things done through other people.
Theory X Theory X
• Behind this conventional theory there are several additional beliefs – less explicit, but widespread:
– The average man is by nature indolent – he works as little as possible.
– He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led.
– He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.
– He is by nature resistant to change.– He is gullible, not very bright – the ready dupe of the
charlatan and the demagogue.
Theory YTheory Y
• Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people – in the interest of economic ends.
• People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.
• The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.
• The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.
• Work is inherently distasteful to most people.
• Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.
• Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.
• Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.
• Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives.
• Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are favorable.
• Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.
• The capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.
• Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and self-actualization levels, as well as physiological and security levels.
• People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated.
Theory XTheory X Theory YTheory Y
Frederick Herzberg Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000)(1923-2000)
• His research emphasized job enrichment (depth) rather than job enlargement– Job context (hygiene factors) –
needed to be optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.
– Job content (motivators) – factors that did lead to motivation
– Money (according to Herzberg) could motivate if it was seen as a reward for accomplishment; but if money was given without regard for merit, then it was a hygiene factor.
Frederick Herzberg
Policies and Administration
Supervision
Working Conditions
Interpersonal Relations
Money, Status, Security
Achievement
Recognition for Accomplishment
Challenging Work
Increased Responsibility
Growth and Development
HYGIENE FACTORSENVIRONMENT
MOTIVATORSWHAT THEY DO
Motivation and Hygiene FactorsMotivation and Hygiene Factors
Extrinsic factorsExtrinsic factors Intrinsic factorsIntrinsic factors
Factors within the Factors within the job context:job context:
Factors within the Factors within the job content:job content:
PayPay
StatusStatus
Working conditionsWorking conditions
AchievementAchievement
Increased responsibilityIncreased responsibility
RecognitionRecognition
DissatisfiersDissatisfiersHygiene factorsHygiene factors
DissatisfiersDissatisfiersHygiene factorsHygiene factors
SatisfiersSatisfiersMotivatorsMotivatorsSatisfiersSatisfiers
MotivatorsMotivators
Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
I. TRADITIONALI. TRADITIONALHigh job High job dissatisfactiondissatisfaction
High job High job satisfactionsatisfaction
II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEWII. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEWLow jobLow jobsatisfactionsatisfaction
High jobHigh jobsatisfactionsatisfaction
Low jobLow jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction
High jobHigh jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction
Motivators•Feeling of achievement•Meaningful work•Opportunities for advancement•Increased responsibility•Recognition•Opportunities for growth
Hygienes•Pay•Status•Job security•Working conditions•Fringe benefits•Policies and procedures•Interpersonal relations
Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - DissatisfactionDissatisfaction
Frederick HerzbergFrederick Herzberg
THE JOB ITSELFAND THE
MOTIVATORFACTORS
RESPONSIBILITY ACHIEVEMENT
WORK ITSELF RECOGNITION
GROWTH
ADVANCEMENT
THE JOB SURROUNDINGSAND THE
HYGIENE FACTORS
SUPERVISION
BENEFITS
INTER-PERSONALRELATION-
SHIPS
SECURITY
SALARY
STATUS
COMPANYPOLICY AND
ADMINIS-TRATION
WORKINGCONDITIONS
Motivation and Hygiene FactorsMotivation and Hygiene Factors
A Comparison of the Content TheoriesA Comparison of the Content Theories
MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization
EsteemEsteem
Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love
Safety and securitySafety and security
PhysiologicalPhysiological
MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization
EsteemEsteem
Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love
Safety and securitySafety and security
PhysiologicalPhysiological
HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)
The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth
AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition
Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates
Job securityJob security
Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary
HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)
The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth
AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition
Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates
Job securityJob security
Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary
AlderferAlderfer
GrowthGrowth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
AlderferAlderfer
GrowthGrowth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forachievementachievement
Need forNeed forpowerpower
Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forachievementachievement
Need forNeed forpowerpower
Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation
MotivatorsMotivators
HygieneHygieneconditionsconditions
HigherHigherorderorderneedsneeds
BasicBasicneedsneeds
Work DesignWork Design
• Richard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg Oldham’s work extended Herzberg’s notions by adding a situational (it depends…) dimension– Key job characteristics– Depending on an individual’s
“growth-need strength,” these characteristics could be amplified to make the job more meaningful.
Outcomes(Personal and Work)
Knowledge of Results of Work
Responsibility for Outcomes
Meaningfulness of Work
Critical Psychological
State
Core Job Characteristics
Skill VarietyTask Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback About Job
High Internal Work Motivation
High Quality Work Performance
High Satisfaction with Work
Low Absenteeism and Turnover
Employee Growth Need
Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model
Motivation: Expectancy Theory Motivation: Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom Victor Vroom
• The expectancy theory of Victor Vroom helps explain the choosing process among individuals in terms of the value (valence) of the reward and the expectancy of receiving the reward.
Victor Vroom
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
• Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler extended Vroom’s work with their model of expectancy.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory(Lyman W. Porter – Edward E. Lawler III)(Lyman W. Porter – Edward E. Lawler III)
Performance(Accomplishments)
6
Value of Reward
1
Effort
3
RolePerceptions
5
AbilitiesAnd
Traits
4
IntrinsicRewards
7A
ExtrinsicRewards
7B
Satisfaction
9
PerceivedEquitableRewards
8
Revised Diagram of the Theoretical Model
SOURCE: Managerial Attitudes and Performance, 1968, Richard D. Irwin Inc.
PerceivedEffect-Reward
Probability
2
Principles of Expectancy TheoryPrinciples of Expectancy Theory
• V1 = S(V2 x I)– The valence associated with various first-level outcomes is a
sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I)
• M = f(V1 x E)– Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each
first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcome
• P = f(M x A)– Performance is considered to be a multiplicative function of
motivation (the force) and ability
Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory (continued)(continued)
Management practices:• Managers need to focus on employee
expectations for success.• Managers must actively determine which
second-level outcomes are important to employees.
• Managers should link desired second-level outcomes to the organization’s performance goals.
Expectancy Theory Example
Valences of second-level outcomes(in parentheses)
Day off (6)
Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)
Mention of performancein personnel record (1)
Day off (6)
Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)
Mention of performancein personnel record (1)
Day off (6)
Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)
Mention of performancein personnel record (1)
0.6
1.0
0.3
0.2
0.7
-0.1
0.0
0.2
-0.4
Finishing budgeton time (6.9)
Finishing budgeton required daybut after deadline(3.2)
Finishing budgeton day afterdeadline (.20)
0.4
0.7
1.0
2.76
2.24
.20
Motivation
Instrumentalities (howmuch performanceoutcome and second-leveloutcome are associated
Performanceoutcome(valences xinstrumentalities)
Expectancy(probability ofperformance giveneffort)
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
• Equity theory is not a new one but focuses on how individuals perceive their reward or pay compared to what others are receiving.
• Issues of social justice and distributive justice are involved in the theories of Stacy Adams and Elliot Jaques. Elliot Jacques
Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Equity TheoryEquity Theory
• Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations.
• Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards from the organization, are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.
• Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar employees.
• Inequity exists when these ratios are not equivalent.
Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)
and perceivesand perceivesOP ORP IP
IRP
equity=
OP ORP IP
IRP
inequity<
OP ORP IP
IRP
inequity >
or
or
IP: Inputs of the personIP: Inputs of the person
OP: Outcomes of the personOP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference IRP: Inputs of reference personperson
ORP: Outcomes of reference ORP: Outcomes of reference personperson
A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)
The Equity Theory of Motivation
Managing Across CulturesManaging Across Cultures
• Geert Hofstede (1928 - ) describes cultural differences in different countries.– Individualism vs. collectivism
(group orientation);– Power Distance: The level of
preference for equality or inequality within groups:
– Uncertainty avoidance: The preference for risk vs. structure.
– Masculinity (assertiveness) vs. femininity (tender values).
– Long term vs. Short term orientation.
Geert Hofstede
Courtesy of Prof. Hofstede
Last Thoughts ……Last Thoughts ……from Peter Druckerfrom Peter Drucker
“I would hope that American managers—indeed, managers worldwide—continue to appreciate what I
have been saying almost since day one: that management is so much more than exercising rank and privilege; it’s so much more than ‘making deals.’ Management affects people and their lives, both in business and in many other aspects as well. The
practice of management deservers our utmost attention; it deserves to be studied”